Types of Retaining Structures

Gravity Walls
The active earth pressures on the wall are estimated according to the discussion presented above.
It has been found that the outward horizontal displacement of the wall of about 0.005 H (where
H=wall height) is the cause for the active earth pressure case. The passive earth pressures that act
on the base of the wall resist the horizontal displacement and are estimated according to the
discussion presented above. Nonetheless, because the horizontal displacement 0.005 H isn't
sufficient to result in a complete passive earth pressure case, the passive resistance force Ρp is
considered with a factor of safety equal to 2; that is, we take the mean value (it has been shown
that the displacement 0.005H is enough for the development of about 50% of passive resistance).

Typically, we apply the following stability controls:

 Sliding:

 Overturning:
  Bearing Capacity:

where:

 qref = limit bearing capacity

 q = applied stress

Cantilever Walls
The aforementioned principles regarding gravity walls apply. The special feature of cantilever
walls is that the part of the earth fill which is under the base is considered as a part of the wall,
and thus the active earth pressures are considered to be applied on virtual plane BB’. Also, it is
not given that this type of walls will undergo sufficient deformations so that the active earth
pressure state is achieved. 

Diaphragm - Cantilever Walls

The stability of this type of walls is entirely a result of the passive resistance of the soil in front
of the wall. It is assumed that the wall tends to rotate around a point C near its base. Below this
point, it is assumed that passive earth pressures are developed. It is considered that their
resultant, R, acts on point C. The passive resistance, which acts in front of the wall, is typically
divided by a safety factor, F’ and usually we take F’=2. The embedment depth, d, is calculated
by taking the moment equilibrium with respect to point C. Thereafter, the embedment depth is
increased by 20% to allow for the development of the resultant, R. This type of walls are
typically used for temporary structures.

Anchored Diaphragm Walls

The stability of this type of wall is a result of the passive resistance of the soil, in front of the
wall, as well as the traction force of the anchoring system, T.
The behavior of this type of walls is complex and for their analysis, simplification assumptions
need to be made. There are two main methods of analysis:

 Hinged-base method:

In this method, the assumption is made that the embedment depth isn't large enough and thus the
lower end of the wall is free to rotate. Passive earth pressures are developed only in front of the
wall, and considered in calculations divided by a safety factor F’=2. The embedment depth is
calculated by taking the moment equilibrium with respect to the point of anchorage. Following
the calculation of d, the anchoring force, T, per meter of the wall, is calculated by considering
the horizontal force equilibrium. Finally, the moment diagram can be generated, and the
maximum moment defines the design of the dimensions and reinforcement of the cross section of
the pile-wall. Similarly to the previous case, it is recommended that d is increased by 20% as a
precaution to account for the risk of a potential increase of the wall height H, which can result
from weathering and/or erosion of the soil material. 

 Fixed-base method:

In this method, the assumption is made that the embedment depth is sufficiently large that
prohibits the rotation of the base of the wall. In this case, the passive resistance in front of the
wall is considered without a factor of safety. Moreover, a resisting resultant force is also
considered as acting at the base of the wall. This method requires more elaborate calculations
and typically results in smaller values of bending moments. 

Values for (φ,δ) for Flexible Walls

Table 1 presents values for unit weight and earth pressure coefficients for various types of soils.
For diaphragm cantilever walls it is unlikely that friction between the soil and the wall will be
developed because the wall is expected to settle along with the earth fill (small bearing capacity).
Therefore, it is preferable to assume δ=0 and use Rankine’s theory. For anchored diaphragm
walls, the values illustrated in Table 1 can be used. Table 2 provides some useful information for
various types of diaphragm wall, typically used in the USA. The unit conversions between
British and SI are: 1 in=2.54 cm, 1 in2 = 6.45 cm2 , 1 in3 = 16.39 cm3, 1 in4 = 41.62 cm4, 1 lbs
= 0.454 kg, 1 psi = 0.07 kg/cm2.

Table 1. Proposed values of unit weights coefficients of lateral earth pressures for different soils,
for use in anchored diaphragm retaining walls (Terzaghi, 1953)

Temporary Earth Retaining Structures

The distribution of earth pressures can be calculated only empirically and it depends on the
construction method. Terzaghi and Peck (1967, 1964)  can be calculated only empirically and
contingent on the construction. Terzaghi and Peck (1967, 1964) provide the following
recommendations.
7. Example Problems
Problem 7.1: Gravity Wall Rankine and Coulomb Methods
For the retaining wall shown in the figure below, calculate the active earth pressures and their
application point and define the direction of the sliding surface. If the wall is characterized by a
soil-wall friction angle of δ=30°, how much will the active and passive earth pressures be
decreased (in %)? 
Solution

For a smooth wall (δ=0°) the factor of the active impulse will be given by the equation:

(Rankine)

For φ=30° we find that KA=0.33.

The distribution of the active earth pressures on the wall is illustrated below.
For z=0:

For z=6.0m:

Therefore, we get:

The distance between the application point of Pα and the top surface of the wall will be: 

The sibling surface will form an angle with respect to the horizontal surface:  

If the angle of friction between the wall and the soil was 30°, the value of KΑ is calculated using
Coulomb’s general relationship:
Because i=0°, β=90°, and for φ=30°, δ=30°, the equation above becomes:

consequently:

with an angle of 30° with respect to the horizontal.

Therefore, the active earth pressure is decreased by:

The horizontal component of the active earth pressure is:

and we have a decrease of:

Based on the above, it is concluded that that ignoring the friction between the wall - soil, is a
conservative option.

Problem 7.2: Gravity wall - Culmann and Coulomb Methods

For the retaining wall below, calculate the active earth pressures of the soil:

1. using Culmann’s graphical method

2. using Coulomb’s general relationship

Solution

1) Culmann’s graphical method is shown in the figure below:

5 trial surfaces were considered BC₁, BC₂,...,BC₅. The surfaces were selected so that they cross
the earthfill surface at points C₁, C₂,..., C₅ considering a horizontal distance between them of
2.0 m. In this way, the triangles ABC₁, C₁BC₂,...,C₄BC₅ are characterized by the same area.
The weight of the triangle ABC₁ is equal to 2.0 x 6.0 x 0.5 x 1.8 = 10.8T, the weight of ABC₂ is
twice the weight of ABC₁, (ABC₂) = 2 (ABC₁), etc.

The angle ψ is equal to: ψ = 180°-β-δ = 180°- 90°-20° = 70°.

The weights of the trial triangles were estimated assuming a scale on the line BF (points 10.8,
21.6, 32.4, 43.2, 54.0). From each point we draw a parallel line with regard to the BG and we
define the crosspoints with the corresponding sides of the triangles. We draw the curve that
passes through these points and find the point of the curve farther from line BF in the direction of
BG. Thus, we define the direction of the slip surface (BC) and the value of the active earth
pressure which is Pα = 8.8 T/m². 

2) Coulomb’s relationship for φ=38°, δ=20°, i=20°, β=90°: 

and the value of the active earth pressure will be:

The values of Pα that are estimated based on the graphical method, are less than 2% different
than those resulting from the analytical solution. 

Problem 7.3: Anchored Wall

The vertical retaining wall of the figure below has a height of 2.7m, and it is pulled towards the
sandy embankment through an anchor. For the embankment material, we have γt=1.9T/m² and
φ=30°. The friction angle between the wall and the soil is δ= φ/2. Calculate the passive
resistance exerted on the wall, as well as its horizontal component.

Solution

Since we have a vertical wall and a horizontal embankment the diagrams in Section 7.2 can be
used. For φ=30° and δ=30°/2=15° we find KP=4.83. Therefore, the passive resistance is: 

and it will form an angle 15° with respect to the vertical. As a result, the horizontal component of
the passive resistance will be: PPH=32.3 T/m².

Also, we could apply Coulomb’s general relationship for the passive earth pressure coefficient
by using i= 0° and β = 90° (because δ):
We observe that Coulomb’s relationship, even though it is using a horizontal sliding surface,
gives a value of Kₚ only 0.6% smaller than the value estimated by using fig. 7-2, in which curved
sliding surfaces are considered.

Problem 7.4: Diaphragm Wall

For the diaphragm wall of the following figure, calculate the depth d so that the factor of safety
against overturning is F=1.50. (The passive resistance is considered with a factor of safety
F’=2). 

Solution

We assume that the wall will rotate around a point O near its bottom end. From point O and
below, passive earth pressures are developed and their resultant is R, acting on point O. We 
consider the moments of forces with regard to point O. The moment of the active earth pressures,
Pα, is the overturning moment, MA, while the moment corresponding to the passive resistance
PP/F' is the resisting moment, ME. Accordingly, it must be ME=1.5MA.

The active earth pressure coefficient is: 

(assuming δ=0).

The active earth pressure is: 

and the overturning moment: 

The passive earth pressure coefficient is:

The passive resistance is:

And the resisting moment:

For F’=2 the above equation becomes: 

So, since ME=1.5MA we get:

Following common practice, the embedment depth is increased by about 20% so that the passive
resistance is fully developed. In this way, the final value of d is d’=1.2xd=6.52 m.

Problem 7.6: Cantilever Wall

Check the stability of the cantilever wall of the figure below.

Given:

 unit weight of soil: γt=1.70 T/m3,

 angle of internal friction: φ=40°,
 angle of friction between wall base and soil: φB=30°
 unit weight of concrete: γ=2.35 Τ/m3

Solution

For this type of retaining wall, we assume that the soil between the wall and line AB is part of
the retaining wall system. In this way, the active earth pressures are calculated over the
imaginary surface ΑΒ by using Rankine’s relationship. The factor KA is:

Active earth pressures

 From surcharge: 
  From the earthfill:

 Thus, in total:

Vertical forces

 wall weight, Wb1: 5.0 x 0.3 x 2.35 = 3.53 T

 foundation weight, Wb2: 5.0 x 0.4 x 2.35 = 2.82 T
 soil weight, Wb: 5.0 x 1.75 x 1.70 = 14.88 T
 surcharge, W: 1.75 x 4.0 = 7.00 T
 sum, N = 28.23 T

Check against slip

 Factor of Safety: 
Check against overturning

 Driving moment (with respect to point O):

 Resisting moment:

 Factor of Safety:

Problem 7.7: Gravity Wall - Surcharge Load

For the retaining wall of the figure below:

1. Calculate the active earth pressure of the soil acting on the wall
2. If a uniform surcharge of qs = 10 T/m² is applied on the surface of the backfill, what will
be the new active earth pressure?
3. What is the minimum value of qs so that tensile stresses are not developed on the wall.

The soil and wall characteristics are shown in the figure.

Solution

1) As the wall is smooth (δ=0), we can use Rankine’s relationship. The distribution of the active
stresses on the wall is given by the equation: 

Thus:

the depth in which σh=0 is:

The area of the triangle of the compressive stresses is:

This is the value of the active earth pressure on the wall. The point at which PA is applied, is at:

above the base of the wall.

2) When the uniform load qs is applied, we will have:

Thus:

The active earth pressure, now, is computed as:

The point of application of PA is at distance z from the base: 

3) In this case, it is evident that if the value of σh is equal to zero at the top of the wall, then
tensile stresses are not developed on the wall. The value of qs is calculated by the relationship:

for z = 0: 

For this value of qs, the horizontal stress at the base of the wall is:

The value of the active earth pressure in this case is PA = 11.39 T/m² and its application point is
located at distance from the base of the wall:

Problem 7.8: Gravity Wall - Active Earth Pressure

For the retaining wall of the following figure: calculate the active earth pressure acting on the
wall. The characteristics of the soil and the wall are shown on the figure.

Solution

In this case, the active earth pressures acting on the wall are estimated considering first the
effective stresses (for depth > 2.5 m) and then adding the pore water pressures. The active earth
pressure coefficient, KA, will be the same above and below the groundwater table, because φ and
δ retain their values. Using the diagrams of Section 7.2, we get:
  φ = 30°
 δ =30°
 KA = 0.29.

So the active earth pressure distribution on the wall will have the following form:

The active earth pressures are:

and will act at an angle of 30° with respect to the horizontal. The point of application of PA is
located at distance from the base of the wall:

The horizontal component of PA is: 

The resultant of the hydrostatic pressures is: 

and it is applied at a distance from the base of the wall:

Therefore, we note that the presence of the groundwater table results in large pressures and thus
water accumulation behind the wall should be avoided.