Introduction

About 5,000 years ago, the civilization of ancient Egypt began in the Nile River valley of
northeastern Africa. Ancient Egypt was one of the world’s first civilizations. It is also
one of the most famous civilizations in history. The ancient Egyptians built huge
pyramids, temples, palaces, and tombs. Their paintings and carvings are among the
most splendid ever created. They also produced art with simple scenes of everyday life,
work, and play that shows many details of their lives.

Egypt’s dry climate has helped to preserve many of the things that the ancient
Egyptians made. Archaeologists first started to uncover the remains of ancient Egypt
in the late 1700s. Through those remains historians have been able to learn a great
deal about the world of the ancient Egyptians.
Life in Ancient Egypt

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The remains from ancient Egypt, including clothing, leather, wood, and food, provide an
excellent idea of how the ancient Egyptians lived. Much information has also come from
tombs, including the paintings of scenes of everyday life on the walls of the tombs.
Because the Egyptians thought that life continued after death, everything they might
need in the next world was placed in their tombs. One queen, Herneith, was buried with
her dog. In a nobleman’s tomb at Saqqarah researchers found a whole meal, consisting
of barley porridge, quail, kidneys, pigeon stew, fish, bread, and small circular cakes. In
the early tombs there were models of anything the dead might require, such as houses,
granaries, boats, cattle, and servants making bread and beer. Later these scenes were
painted on the tomb walls to serve the same purpose. The tombs of the wealthy
contained jewelery and other precious objects.

The Egyptians preserved the dead as mummies by removing the internal organs and
preserving the body with salt or other chemicals. In addition to those of people,
thousands of mummies of sacred animals such as cats, ibises, and crocodiles have
been found. Mummies of important people were placed in elaborate coffins called
sarcophagi, often bearing a portrait of the deceased. The coffin of Tutankhamen was
made of solid gold.

Medicine
In order to preserve the dead, the Egyptians needed to know a great deal about the
human body. Their study of the body produced skillful doctors. Some of the earliest
medical and surgical records have been found in Egypt. One of the earliest is the Ebers
Papyrus, written about 1550 BCE, which lists 700 cures for common sicknesses and
problems.

Writing
The creation of a written language was one of the Egyptians’ finest achievements. The
first Egyptian writing was in a picture form called hieroglyphics. The pictures, which
stood for sounds of words, were cut or painted on the walls of tombs and temples, and
were delicately colored in red, yellow, green, black, and blue. Hieroglyphics were in use
by 3100 BCE.

They remained in use even after a form of cursive writing developed in about 2900 BCE.

It was written in ink with a pen made of reeds. This script was mainly written on
papyrus, a form of paper made from papyrus plants. Another script began to appear in
about 700 BCE. The new form, called demotic, was used for ordinary writing. The earlier
form, called hieratic, was then used mostly for sacred writings.

The key to understanding Egyptian writing was the Rosetta Stone, a stone tablet dating
from about 200 BCE that was found in Egypt in 1799. The stone shows words in Greek
with translations in hieroglyphics and demotic script. By comparing the Egyptian text
with the Greek text, a scholar who knew Greek was able to uncover the meaning of the
hieroglyphics and the demotic words.

Everyday Life
Villages and towns were situated near the Nile River because it was the chief highway
as well as the only source of water. The houses were made of mud brick. Windows
were small, high openings covered with loosely woven matting to keep out the heat and
glare of the sun. The walls were decorated with bright frescoes. Straw matting and rugs
covered the floors.

Wall paintings are an especially rich source of information about how the common
people lived with their children, hunted and farmed, raised animals, and performed daily
tasks. The clothing, jewelery, and hair styles of all classes of people can be clearly
seen. Egyptians were fond of perfumes and cosmetics. Both men and women wore a
kind of green eyeshadow and outlined their eyes with a black substance called kohl.
Women also applied color to their lips and nails. Vessels to hold cosmetics and the tools
needed to grind them were included in tombs for use in the afterlife.

Clothing was simple because of the hot climate of Egypt. Small children, servants, and
laborers often wore little clothing. White linen was the most commonly used fabric, with
wool for cloaks when warmth was needed. In early garments the cloth was simply
draped and tied around the body or held in place with pins and belts. Men typically wore
a skirt of linen and sometimes a vest, while women wore a straight, simple ankle-length
dress with shoulder straps. Necklaces and wide collars decorated with gems were often
worn. Clothing became more elaborate over time. Many people wore wigs. Men often
wore beards, and a false beard made of metal was worn by the ruler—even a female
ruler.

Religion
The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods. The main god of the sun was Re (or Ra).
Each city had its own special gods. When the city of Thebes grew in importance, its
special god Amon did also. Eventually, the Egyptians combined Amon with Re. Amon-
Re was considered the king of the gods.
Because the ancient Egyptians believed in life after death, Osiris, one of the gods of
the dead, was also important. His wife Isis and his son Horus were worshiped alongside
Osiris.

Inventions
The ancient Egyptians were a very practical people. They learned the principles of
engineering that enabled them to build vast structures such as the pyramids. They did
not have pulleys to aid in lifting heavy weights, but they were able to move large stone
blocks by means of sledges, rollers, and ramps. The Egyptians observed the stars and
worked out calendars based on the phases of the Moon and on the solar year
(see astronomy). They also developed a complicated system of irrigation, which was
based on the flooding times of the Nile.
History

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Earliest Egypt
People have lived along the banks of the Nile River for at least 10,000 years. The
narrow valley of the Nile was once swampy and overgrown with trees, rushes, and
papyrus (a tall, reedlike plant). Over the centuries, the landscape changed as the river
brought down fertile silt to form a broad delta at the river’s mouth. The people gradually
cleared the swamps and built villages. They learned to plant and grow crops.
Eventually, they organized two kingdoms. Upper Egypt was in the narrow river valley in
the south. Lower Egypt was in the north, in the broad delta (triangular piece of land)
where the river flows into the sea.

In about 2900 BCE a king named Menes united the two parts of Egypt. Menes built the
capital city of Memphis. The site of Memphis is near Cairo, the capital of modern Egypt.

Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms

After Menes, many kings, called pharaohs, ruled ancient Egypt. During the long history
there were more than 30 dynasties, or ruling families, of pharaohs. Historians have
grouped several of these dynasties into three important periods: the Old Kingdom, the
Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom lasted from 2575 to 2130 BCE. It was during this period that the
Egyptians built their great pyramids. The best-known remains in Egypt are the three
pyramids of Giza, built by Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaure beginning in about 2550 BCE,

during the 4th dynasty. It is still not completely understood how the Egyptians were able
to build such huge stone structures with the simple means of their time. Near the
second pyramid, partly cut in the rock and partly built of masonry, is the Great Sphinx.
The Sphinx has the facial features of a man but the body of a lion; it is approximately
240 feet (73 meters) long and 66 feet (20 meters) high. The pyramids were part of an
architectural complex, or collection of buildings that included temples and other
monuments.

After 2130 BCE Egypt suffered civil wars. The country was split up until about 1938 BCE.

Then the rulers of Thebes, a city far up the Nile in Upper Egypt, defeated their enemies
and reunited Egypt. This began the Middle Kingdom, which lasted until 1630 BCE.

During the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian rule was extended into the neighboring country of
Nubia (modern Sudan) and into Syria and Palestine. The capital was moved south to
Thebes, far up the Nile in Upper Egypt. This was a period of great art and architecture,
but few buildings from this period survive today.

A second period of weakness followed the Middle Kingdom. An Asian people known as
the Hyksos invaded Egypt. The Egyptians finally forced out the Hyksos by 1539 BCE.

This began the New Kingdom, which lasted until 1075 BCE.

A mighty pharaoh of the New Kingdom was Thutmose III, who ruled from 1479 to
1426 BCE. Thutmose’s reign was the time of ancient Egypt’s greatest power and wealth.
Thutmose conquered Syria. He also ordered the building of many tombs and temples.
These include the great tombs hollowed out in the rock of the Valley of the Kings, west
of Thebes.
During the 19th dynasty strong kings protected Egypt. Ramses II, who ruled from 1279
to 1213 BCE, carried out a vast building program. The kingdom fell apart because the
kings who followed Ramses had to use the army to defend Egypt against invaders. The
country split in two parts, riots and strikes were common, and disorder spread
throughout the land.

Alexander and the Ptolemies

Peoples from Asia, first Assyrians and then Persians, later took over Egypt. Then in
332 BCE Alexander the Great of Macedonia (a country near Greece) conquered Egypt.
He founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile.

After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy, one of his generals, seized the throne. In
323 BCE Ptolemy founded a new dynasty of Egyptian kings, called the Ptolemies. The
Ptolemies were Macedonians who spoke Greek, and many Egyptians disliked having
foreign rulers.

Nevertheless, under the Ptolemies Egypt grew rich and powerful. They built the Pharos,
a huge lighthouse, at Alexandria. Like the great pyramids, the Pharos was one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world. The Ptolemies also built a famous library at
Alexandria. Scholars came from all over the Greek-speaking world to study there.

Roman and Muslim Conquests

The last of the Ptolemies was Queen Cleopatra. Roman forces defeated her navy at
the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. In 30 BCE Egypt lost its independence to Rome. After
the Roman Empire split in half in the 300s CE, Egypt became a part of the eastern half,
called the Byzantine Empire.

Finally, in the 600s CE Muslim Arabs took over Egypt. Egypt is still a Muslim country
today.