Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents

have moved over geologic time relative to each other, thus

appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed. The
speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put
forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596.

Continental drift was a theory that explained how continents

shift position on Earth's surface. Set forth in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener, a geophysicist and meteorologist, continental drift
also explained why look-alike animal and plant fossils, and
similar rock formations, are found on different continents.

A mantle plume is an upwelling of abnormally hot rock within

the Earth's mantle. As the heads of mantle plumes can partly
melt when they reach shallow depths, they are thought to be
the cause of volcanic centers known as hotspots and probably
also to have caused flood basalts.

Orogenesis ia a process in which a section of the earth's

crust is folded and deformed by lateral compression to
form a mountain range.

Earthquake
-occur somewhere in the crust and lithosphere, also in
active faults.
-sudden shaking of the ground caused by the burst of
energy released from fracturing of interlocking rocks in the
crust.
 Hypocenter
-"focus"
-point where an eartquake rupture starts.

Epicenter
-the point directly above at the surface of the earth.

Fault plane
-is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault.
-area where the fault occurs.

Fault trace or Fault line

-is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the
surface.
-is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to
represent a fault.

Fault
-intersection of a fault.
-a surface or narrow zone along which one side has moved
relative to the other.
-classified based upon their direction of movement.

Hanging Wall Block

-block above the fault(cliff).

Footwall Block
-block below the fault(slide).
Normal Faults
-hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
-younger to older rocks
-form in lateral EXTENSIONS

Thrust/Reverse Faults
-hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall.
-older rocks to younger.
-form in lateral COMPRESSION
Lithosphere
-"elastic solid"
-carries the entire crust
-solid outer part of the Earth.

MOHO (Mohorovicic Discontinuity)

-the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle.
-defined by the distinct change in velocity of seismological
waves as they pass through changing densities of rock.
-marks the lower limit of Earth's crust.
-was able to use his discovery to study thickness variations of
the crust.
Subduction
-geological process in which oceanic lithosphere is recycled into
the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries.
-phenomenon causes high-intensity underwater earthquakes
that move colossal volume of water that generates a destructive
and deadly tsunami.
-one plate eventually slides beneath the other.
-it can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur,
called the Wadati–Benioff zone.
Convection Current
-the transfer of heat due to the bulk movement of molecules
within fluids, including molten rock.
-are flowing fluid that is moving because there is a
temperature or density difference within the material.
-are seen only in gases and liquids.
- is a heat transfer process.

Mantle (upper & lower)

-largest and massive
-made of rock or ices, and are generally the largest and most
massive layer of the planetary body.
-characteristic of planetary bodies that have undergone
differentiation by density.

Upper Mantle
-"asthenosphere"
-"plastic solid"
-cold materials.
-mostly solid, but its more malleable regions contribute to
tectonic activity.

Lower Mantle
-liquid inner layer of the Earth

Core
-central or innermost portion of the Earth, lying below the
mantle and probably consisting of iron and nickel.
Inner Core
-innermost geologic layer of the planet Earth. It is primarily a
solid ball.

Outer Core
-liquid layer, and is mainly made up of the metals iron and
nickel, as well as small amounts of other substances.
- it is responsible for Earth's magnetic field.

Iron & Nickel

-settled at the innermost layer; they are the densest among the
materials that compose Earth's interior.

Crust
-outer most layered shell.
-solid portion of Earth that houses all living things.
-(volcanoes, islands, continents, mountains)

Dynamo Effect
-proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth
or a star generates a magnetic field.
-describes the process through which a rotating, convecting,
and electrically conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic field
over astronomical time scales.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
-are locations where plates are moving away from one another.
-this occurs above rising convection currents, it pushes up on
the bottom of the lithosphere, lifting it and flowing laterally
beneath it.

The earthquakes that occur along these zones, called

spreading centers, relatively small.

Convergent Boundary (also known as a destructive boundary)

-is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates
collide.

Right "Dextral" Lateral Faults

-block moves to the right.

Left "Sinistral" Lateral Faults

-block moves to the left

San Andreas Fault

-example of a Right Lateral Fault.
-(North American Plate & Pacific Plate)

Hayward Fault Zone

is a geologic fault zone capable of generating destructive
earthquakes.
-this fault is about 74 mi long, situated mainly along the western
base of the hills on the east side of San Francisco Bay.
Magma
-molten rocks that is underground.

Lava
-molten rock that breaks through the Earth's surface.

Atmosphere
-protective layer of gases that acts like an envelope that shields
every creature on Earth from the harmful effects of sunlight,
particularly the ultraviolet radiation (UV rays).

Troposphere
-lowest layer
-exposed to natural phenomena and ground activities.
-area where weather phenomena occur.

Typhoon
-type of a powerful large storm, "Tai Fung" great wind

Hurricane
-tropical cyclone
-usually accompanied by rain, thunder, and lightning.

Super Typhoon
-typhoon with maximum sustained surface winds greater than
or equal to 130 knots approximately category 5.

Tropical Cyclone
-mass of swirling towering clouds that carries surging winds
and rain falls.
"tropical"
-geographical starting point, usually hot & humid region.

"cyclone"
-meteorological term that refers to its cyclonic circulation where
the strong winds in the Northern Hemisphere circulate
counterclockwise and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
-lack of access to warm water and increased surface friction on
land deteriorates.

Severe Tropical Cyclone

-Southern Indian
-Southwest Pacific Ocean

Severe Cyclonic Storm

-North Indian Ocean

Formative Stage
-tropical cyclone begins to develop when the conditions
needed for its formation are met.

Mature Stage
-tropical cyclone is already packed with raging winds
and swirling towering clouds.

PAGASA
Philippine Atmnosperic, Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration
Philippine Atmnosperic, Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration
-national service institution that studies weather, climatological
and astronomical phenomena in the Philippines.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

-is a belt of low pressure which circles the Earth generally
near the equator.
-area where tropical cyclones form.

Weather Forecast
-predict the condition of the atmosphere.

Sky Cover
-indicates cloud formation.
-the surface weather of the sky.

Synoptic Weather
-symbols which specifies each meaning in the map

Coriolis Effect
-internal force that acts on objects that are in motion within a
frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame.
-clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of
the object.

Storm surge
-floods caused by tsunami.
Plate Tectonics Theory
-focuses on the forces that drive the
movement of Earth's plates.

Plates
-are colossal broken segments or pieces of
Earth that carry the crust.

Plate Boundaries
-multitudes of earthquakes that are related to
the constant movement of the plates.

Convection Movements
-plates are moving in different directions.
Faulting
-occurs when there is movement or displacement of rock
masses along a fault; it is the result of tectonic forces.

Tectonic Forces
-enable lithosphere plates to collide.

Compressional Force
-pushes the rock.

Tensional Force
-pull crustal rocks.

Shearing Force
-enable to slide the rocks.
Seismograph (1980)
-instrument/visual rercord the motion of the bottom during
earthquake.

Earliest seismograph was invented by the chinese philosopher

Zhang Heng during 132 A.D

Seismogram
-writings produced by seismographs.

Earthquake Belts
-where earthquakes are felt more often and more destructive.
Pacific Ring of Fire
-known for its very active tectonic plate activities which can
consequently result in active earthquake activities.
-75% of the worlds dormat and active volcanoes are found here.

Active Faults
-faults in which all shallow earthquakes occur.

Inactive Faults
-areas which have not displayed any seismic activity for more than
thousands of years.

Magnitude
-strength;energy
-"size" of an earthquake
-measured by the used of Richter scale by Charles Richter.
Intensity
-"effect"
Richter scale
-no upper and lower limits.
-little earthquakes-negative numbers
-stronger earthquakes-higher numbers

Charles Richter
-American seismologist in 1935.

Seismologist
-Earth scientists who study the genesis nd the propagation of
seismic waves in geological materials.

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale

-classifies earthquake effects into twelve grades.

Guiseppe Mercalli
-Italian seismologist who compiled the original scale in 1902.

Foreshocks
-earlier/small earthquakes.

Main shock
-largest fault
-if there's a swarm earthquakes on the same faults.

Aftershocks
-later earthquakes

Tectonic Earthquakes
-more earthquakes are tectonic due to movement
on the faults, also had many volcanic earthquakes.
Explosion Earthquakes
-related to msking stream under volcanoes

Richter Magnitude
-1st magnitude scale, relates to a soecific seismograph.

Body-wave Magnitude
-used for small local earthquakes.

Surface-wave Magnitude
-used for distant earthquakes.

Moment Magnitude
-related to the amount of the energy released by the fault.

Duration Magnitude
-amount of time the earthquake is recorded.

Isoseismals
-cvurved lines joining the localities of some intonation.

Tsunami
-series of huge waves cuased by an earthquake that
occurs underneath or near the ocean.

harbor waves
-JAPANESE term of "tsunami".

Tidal waves
-caused by the moon's gravity and regular water waves
are caused by the wind.
Run-up
-waves that hit the shore push a huge amount of water on the
beach floor.

Seismic Waves
-energy that travels through the world and recorded on
seismographs.
-waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking up from within
the earth or an explosion.

Body Waves
-travel more quickly through Earth layers.

P-Waves/Primary Waves
-fastest;longitudinal
-1st to recognize/record.
-pass through mantle and core
-small displacement of the ground.
-passes all medium

S-Waves/Secondary
-slower than P-Waves, faster than surface waves.
-travel side to side
-travel only in solids.
-most damage to buildings.

Surface Waves
-travel slowly among Earth's surface.
-travel only through crust.
-most destructive.
-arrive after the body wave.
L-Waves/Love Waves
-long wavelengths
-travel horizontally on the ground.
-cause the worst damage.

R-Waves/Rayleigh Waves
-exist at any free seismic waves.
-generated by large earthquakes.

Epicenter of the earthquake is the point where the

three circles intersect. This process is called
traingulation. It determines the epicenter of an
earthquake.

Direct Observations
-directly examine using some instruments and perform
mathematical calculations.

Xenoliths
-came from the lava extruded on the surface during a
volcanic eruption.

Ophiolites
-bought to the surface by some tectonic processes.

Indirect Observations
-involve the formulation of inferences based on reliable
sources of information using scientific models and
applying scientific methods.
Meteorites
-remnants of the materials in the solar system that did not form
into a planet.

Shadow zone
-area whre seismographs cannot detect the seismic waves.

Mindanao
-"outside the typhoon belt".

Precipitation
-rain,snow,fleet, or hail
-any kind of weather condition where something's falling from
the sky.
The fuel for a tropical cyclone is provided by a transfer of
water vapour and heat from the warm ocean to the overlying
air, primarily by evaporation from the sea surface. As the
warm, moist air rises, it expands and cools, quickly becoming
saturated and releasing latent heat through the condensation
of water vapour.