UNIT: PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

MODULE : Work, Energy, and Power

INTRODUCTION:
In the first three units of The Physics Classroom, we utilized Newton's laws to analyze the
motion of objects. Force and mass information were used to determine the acceleration of an
object. Acceleration information was subsequently used to determine information about the
velocity or displacement of an object after a given period of time. In this manner, Newton's
laws serve as a useful model for analyzing motion and making predictions about the final state
of an object's motion. In this unit, an entirely different model will be used to analyze the
motion of objects. Motion will be approached from the perspective of work and energy. The
effect that work has upon the energy of an object (or system of objects) will be investigated;
the resulting velocity and/or height of the object can then be predicted from energy
information. In order to understand this work-energy approach to the analysis of motion, it is
important to first have a solid understanding of a few basic terms. Thus, Lesson 1 of this unit
will focus on the definitions and meanings of such terms as work, mechanical energy, potential
energy, kinetic energy, and power.

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Calculate the kinetic energy of a particle given its mass and its velocity or momentum
 Evaluate the kinetic energy of a body, relative to different frames of reference
 Apply the work-energy theorem to find information about the motion of a particle,
given the forces acting on it
 Use the work-energy theorem to find information about the forces acting on a particle,
given information about its motion
 Relate the work done during a time interval to the power delivered
 Find the power expended by a force acting on a moving body

DISCUSSION PROPER:
a. Definition and Mathematics of Work
b. Calculating the Amount of Work Done by Forces
c. Potential Energy
d. Kinetic Energy
e. Mechanical Energy
f. Power

Definition and Mathematics of Work

When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said that work was
done upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause.
In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement
and the force must cause the displacement. There are several good examples of work that can
be observed in everyday life - a horse pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a
grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon
her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-
put, etc. In each case described here there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that
object to be displaced.
Work Equation
Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation.
W = F • d • cos Θ

where F is the force, d is the displacement, and the angle (theta) is defined as the angle
between the force and the displacement vector. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of the above
equation is the angle "theta." The angle is not just any 'ole angle, but rather a very specific
angle. The angle measure is defined as the angle between the force and the displacement. To
gather an idea of it's meaning, consider the following three scenarios.
 Scenario A: A force acts rightward upon an object as it is displaced
rightward. In such an instance, the force vector and the displacement
vector are in the same direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is 0
degrees.

 Scenario B: A force acts leftward upon an object that is displaced

rightward. In such an instance, the force vector and the displacement
vector are in the opposite direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is
180 degrees.

 Scenario C: A force acts upward on an object as it is displaced rightward.

In such an instance, the force vector and the displacement vector are at
right angles to each other. Thus, the angle between F and d is 90 degrees.

The Meaning of Theta

When determining the measure of the angle in the work equation, it is important to
recognize that the angle has a precise definition - it is the angle between the force and
the displacement vector. Be sure to avoid mindlessly using any 'ole angle in the
equation. A common physics lab involves applying a force to displace a cart up a ramp
to the top of a chair or box. A force is applied to a cart to displace it up the incline at
constant speed. Several incline angles are typically used; yet, the force is always
applied parallel to the incline. The displacement of the cart is also parallel to the
incline. Since F and d are in the same direction, the angle theta in the work equation is
0 degrees. Nevertheless, most students experienced the strong temptation to measure the
angle of incline and use it in the equation. Don't forget: the angle in the equation is not just any
'ole angle. It is defined as the angle between the force and the displacement vector.

Units of Work
Whenever a new quantity is introduced in physics, the standard metric units associated with
that quantity are discussed. In the case of work (and also energy), the standard metric unit is
the Joule (abbreviated J). One Joule is equivalent to one Newton of force causing a
displacement of one meter. In other words,
The Joule is the unit of work.

1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter

1J=1N*m

In fact, any unit of force times any unit of displacement is equivalent to a unit of work. Some
nonstandard units for work are shown below. Notice that when analyzed, each set of units is
equivalent to a force unit times a displacement unit.

Non-standard Units of Work:

foot•pound kg•(m/s2)•m kg•(m2/s2)

In summary, work is done when a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement. Three
quantities must be known in order to calculate the amount of work. Those three quantities are
force, displacement and the angle between the force and the displacement.

Calculating the Amount of Work Done by Forces

In a previous part of Lesson 1, work was described as taking place when a force acts upon an
object to cause a displacement. When a force acts to cause an object to be displaced, three
quantities must be known in order to calculate the work. Those three quantities are force,
displacement and the angle between the force and the displacement. The work is subsequently
calculated as force•displacement•cosine(theta) where theta is the angle between the force and
the displacement vectors. In this part of Lesson 1, the concepts and mathematics of work will
be applied in order to analyze a variety of physical situations.
EXAMPLE:
1. Apply the work equation to determine the amount of work done by the applied force in each
of the three situations described below.

Diagram A Answer:
W = (100 N) * (5 m)* cos(0 degrees) = 500 J
The force and the displacement are given in the problem statement. It is said (or shown or
implied) that the force and the displacement are both rightward. Since F and d are in the same
direction,the angle is 0 degrees.

Diagram B Answer:
W = (100 N) * (5 m) * cos(30 degrees) = 433 J
The force and the displacement are given in theproblem statement. It is said that the
displacement is rightward. It is shown that the force is 30 degrees above the horizontal. Thus,
the angle between F and d is 30 degrees.

Diagram C Answer:
W = (147 N) * (5 m) * cos(0 degrees) = 735 J
The displacement is given in the problem statement. The applied force must be 147 N since the
15-kg mass (Fgrav=147 N) is lifted at constant speed. Since F and d are in the same direction, the
angle is 0 degrees.

2. A 10-N force is applied to push a block across a friction free surface for a displacement of 5.0
m to the right.
SOLUTION:

Only Fapp does work. Fgrav and Fnorm do not do work since a vertical force cannot cause a
horizontal displacement.

Wapp= (10 N) * (5 m) *cos (0 degrees) = +50 Joule

3. A force of 50 N acts on the block at the angle shown in the diagram. The block moves a
horizontal distance of 3.0 m. How much work is done by the applied force?

SOLUTION:

W = F * d * cos(Theta)

W = (50 N) * (3 m) * cos (30 degrees) = 129.9 Joules

Potential Energy

An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a
demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored energy
of position is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as
the result of its position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no
energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its usual equilibrium position,
the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position. This stored energy of position is
referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored energy of position possessed by
an object.
Gravitational Potential Energy
The two examples above illustrate the two forms of potential energy to be discussed in this
course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Gravitational potential
energy is the energy stored in an object as the result of its vertical position or height. The
energy is stored as the result of the gravitational attraction of the Earth for the object. The
gravitational potential energy of the massive ball of a demolition machine is dependent on two
variables - the mass of the ball and the height to which it is raised. There is a direct relation
between gravitational potential energy and the mass of an object. More massive objects have
greater gravitational potential energy. There is also a direct relation between gravitational
potential energy and the height of an object. The higher that an object is elevated, the greater
the gravitational potential energy. These relationships are expressed by the following equation:
PEgrav = mass • g • height

PEgrav = m *• g • h
In the above equation, m represents the mass of the
object, h represents the height of the object and g represents the
gravitational field strength (9.81 N/kg on Earth) - sometimes
referred to as the acceleration of gravity.

To determine the gravitational potential energy of an object, a zero height position must first be
arbitrarily assigned. Typically, the ground is considered to be a position of zero height. But this
is merely an arbitrarily assigned position that most people agree upon. Since many of our labs
are done on tabletops, it is often customary to assign the tabletop to be the zero height
position. Again this is merely arbitrary. If the tabletop is the zero position, then the potential
energy of an object is based upon its height relative to the tabletop. For example, a pendulum
bob swinging to and from above the tabletop has a potential energy that can be measured
based on its height above the tabletop. By measuring the mass of the bob and the height of the
bob above the tabletop, the potential energy of the bob can be determined.
Since the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly proportional to its height above
the zero position, a doubling of the height will result in a doubling of the gravitational potential
energy. A tripling of the height will result in a tripling of the gravitational potential energy.

Use this principle to determine the blanks in the following diagram. Knowing that the potential
energy at the top of the tall platform is 50 J, what is the potential energy at the other positions
shown on the stair steps and the incline?

Elastic Potential Energy

The second form of potential energy that we will discuss is elastic potential energy. Elastic
potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or
compressing. Elastic potential energy can be stored in rubber bands, bungee chords,
trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn into a bow, etc. The amount of elastic potential energy
stored in such a device is related to the amount of stretch of the device - the more stretch, the
more stored energy.
Springs are a special instance of a device that can store elastic potential energy due to either
compression or stretching. A force is required to compress a spring; the more compression
there is, the more force that is required to compress it further. For certain springs, the amount
of force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression (x); the constant of
proportionality is known as the spring constant (k).
Fspring = k • x

Such springs are said to follow Hooke's Law. If a spring is not stretched or compressed, then
there is no elastic potential energy stored in it. The spring is said to be at its equilibrium
position. The equilibrium position is the position that the spring naturally assumes when there
is no force applied to it. In terms of potential energy, the equilibrium position could be called
the zero-potential energy position. There is a special equation for springs that relates the
amount of elastic potential energy to the amount of stretch (or compression) and the spring
constant. The equation is

PEspring = 0.5 • k • x2

where k = spring constant

x = amount of compression
(relative to equilibrium position)

To summarize, potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position
relative to some zero position. An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is
positioned at a height above (or below) the zero height. An object possesses elastic potential
energy if it is at a position on an elastic medium other than the equilibrium position.
EXAMPLE:
1. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant speed
along an inclined plane to the height of a seat-top. If the
mass of the loaded cart is 3.0 kg and the height of the seat
top is 0.45 meters, then what is the potential energy of the
loaded cart at the height of the seat-top?
PE = m*g*h

PE = (3 kg ) * (9.81 m/s/s) * (0.45 m)

PE = 13.24 J

2. If a force of 14.7 N is used to drag the loaded cart (from previous question) along the incline
for a distance of 0.90 meters, then how much work is done on the loaded cart?
W = F * d * cos Theta
W = 14.7 N * 0.9 m * cos (0 degrees)
W = 13.23 J

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or
horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. There are many forms of kinetic energy - vibrational (the
energy due to vibrational motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and
translational (the energy due to motion from one location to another). To keep matters simple,
we will focus upon translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational kinetic energy
(from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will refer to translational kinetic energy) that an object
has depends upon two variables: the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the object. The
following equation is used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.
KE = 0.5 • m • v2

where m = mass of object

v = speed of object
This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to the square
of its speed. That means that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by
a factor of four. For a threefold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of
nine. And for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of sixteen.
The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the speed. As it is often said, an equation is
not merely a recipe for algebraic problem solving, but also a guide to thinking about the
relationship between quantities.
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a direction.
Unlike velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is
completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy, the standard metric
unit of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule. As might be implied by the above equation,
1 Joule is equivalent to 1 kg*(m/s)^2.

1 Joule = 1 kg • m2/s2

EXAMPLE :
1. Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster car that is moving with a speed of
18.3 m/s.
KE = 0.5*m*v2

KE = (0.5) * (625 kg) * (18.3 m/s)2

KE = 1.05 x105 Joules

2. If the roller coaster car in the above problem were moving with twice the speed, then what
would be its new kinetic energy?
If the speed is doubled, then the KE is quadrupled. Thus, KE = 4 * (1.04653 x 105 J) = 4.19 x
105 Joules.
or
KE = 0.5*m*v2
KE = 0.5*625 kg*(36.6 m/s)2
KE = 4.19 x 105 Joules

Mechanical Energy
In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that work is done upon an object whenever a force
acts upon it to cause it to be displaced. Work involves a force acting upon an object to cause a
displacement. In all instances in which work is done, there is an object that supplies the force in
order to do the work. If a World Civilization book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker,
then the student supplies the force to do the work on the book. If a plow is displaced across a
field, then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor or a horse) supplies the force to do
the work on the plow. If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards home plate,
then the pitcher supplies the force to do the work on the baseball. If a roller coaster car is
displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller coaster ride, then a chain
driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the car. If a barbell is displaced from
ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then the weightlifter is supplying a force to
do work on the barbell. In all instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies
the force to do the work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a
student, a tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food or
fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is doing the
work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the work is done
upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon which work
is done is known as mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its
position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential
energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or
if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick
held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses
mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical
energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground
(gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker
possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground
(gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightlifter's head possesses
mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy).
A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position (elastic potential

energy).
Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work
An object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work. In fact, mechanical energy is
often defined as the ability to do work. Any object that possesses mechanical energy - whether
it is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do work. That is, its mechanical
energy enables that object to apply a force to another object in order to cause it to be
displaced.
The total Mechanical Energy
TME= PE + KE

POWER

The quantity work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has nothing to do with
the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement. Sometimes, the work is done
very quickly and other times the work is done rather slowly. For example, a rock climber takes
an abnormally long time to elevate her body up a few meters along the side of a cliff. On the
other hand, a trail hiker (who selects the easier path up the mountain) might elevate her body a
few meters in a short amount of time. The two people might do the same amount of work, yet
the hiker does the work in considerably less time than the rock climber. The quantity that has
to do with the rate at which a certain amount of work is done is known as the power. The hiker
has a greater power rating than the rock climber.

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is
computed using the following equation.
Power = Work / time
or
P=W/t
The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for power, a unit
of power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is equivalent to a
Joule/second. For historical reasons, the horsepower is occasionally used to describe the power
delivered by a machine. One horsepower is equivalent to approximately 750 Watts.
Another formula for power

Example :
1. Suppose that Ben elevates his 80kg body up the 2.0m stairwell in 1.8 secs. If this were
the case, then we could calculate Bens power rating.

2. An escalator is used to move 20passesngers every minutes from the first floor of the a
SM Cauayan department store to the second. The second floor is located 5.20m above
the first floor. The average passengers mass is 54.9kg. Determine the power
requirements of the escalator in order to move this number of passengers in this
amount of time.
A good strategy would involve determining the work required to elevate one average
passenger. Then multiply this value by 20 to determine the total work for elevating 20
passengers. Finally, the power can be determined by dividing this total work value by the time
required to do the work. The solution goes as follows:
W1 passenger = F • d • cos(0 deg)
W1 passenger = (54.9 kg • 9.81 m/s2) • 5.20 m = 2800.56 J
W20 passengers = 56011.18 J
P = W20 passengers / time = (56011.18J) / (60 s)
P = 933.52W
SAQ

1. A tired dog (mass of approximate 1kg) does push-up by applying a force to elevate its
center of mass by 6cm in order to do a mere 0.6 Joule of work. If the tired dog does all
this work in 3secs.. then determine the power.

2. A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has approximately 320 000 Joules of kinetic
energy. Estimate its new kinetic energy if it is moving at 30 mi/hr. (HINT: use the kinetic
energy equation as a "guide to thinking.")
3. A student with a mass of 80.0 kg runs up three flights of stairs in 12.0 sec. The student
has gone a vertical distance of 8.0 m. Determine the amount of work done by the
student to elevate his body to this height. Assume that his speed is constant.

SUMMARY

Work

 The infinitesimal increment of work done by a force, acting over an infinitesimal

displacement, is the dot product of the force and the displacement.
 The work done by a force, acting over a finite path, is the integral of the infinitesimal
increments of work done along the path.
 The work done against a force is the negative of the work done by the force.
 The work done by a normal or frictional contact force must be determined in each
particular case.
 The work done by the force of gravity, on an object near the surface of Earth, depends
only on the weight of the object and the difference in height through which it moved.
 The work done by a spring force, acting from an initial position to a final position,
depends only on the spring constant and the squares of those positions.

Kinetic Energy

 The kinetic energy of a particle is the product of one-half its mass and the square of its
speed, for non-relativistic speeds.
 The kinetic energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the particles in the
system.
 Kinetic energy is relative to a frame of reference, is always positive, and is sometimes
given special names for different types of motion.
Work-Energy Theorem

 Because the net force on a particle is equal to its mass times the derivative of its
velocity, the integral for the net work done on the particle is equal to the change in the
particle’s kinetic energy. This is the work-energy theorem.
 You can use the work-energy theorem to find certain properties of a system, without
having to solve the differential equation for Newton’s second law.

Power

 Power is the rate of doing work; that is, the derivative of work with respect to time.
 Alternatively, the work done, during a time interval, is the integral of the power supplied
over the time interval.
 The power delivered by a force, acting on a moving particle, is the dot product of the
force and the particle’s velocity.

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