TOPIC 2: Cellular Level Organization

CELL PHYSIOLOGY 1

Madam Marlina Mohd Mydin

Faculty of Health Sciences
UiTM Pulau Pinang Kampus Bertam 1
LESSON CONTENTS OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this lecture, students
should be able to:
• Describe the basic concepts of cellular
structure and function.
• Explain materials travel in and out the
cells.
• Describe the function of organelles.
 Principle of the Cell Theory

▪ The cell is smallest structural and functional unit

capable of carrying out life processes.
▪ The functional activities of each cell depends on the
specific structural properties of the cell.
▪ Cells are the living building blocks of all multicellular
organisms.
▪ Complex, highly organized and compartmentalized
structure
▪ Contains DNA and enclosed by a plasma membrane.
▪ The cytoplasm contains many organelles also
enclosed by a plasma membrane
 Cell Shape
• Squamous = thin and flat
Discoid = disc-shaped
• Polygonal = irregularly angular with
4 or more sides Stellate = starlike
• Cuboidal = squarish Fusiform = Thick in middle,
• Columnar = taller and wide tapered at ends
• Spheroid = round Fibrous = threadlike
 Cell Size
• Human cell size
– most from 10 - 15 µm in diameter
• egg cells (very large)100 µm diameter
• nerve cell (very long) at 1 meter long
 General Cell Structure
• Light microscope reveals plasma membrane, nucleus
and cytoplasm
• Resolution of electron microscopes allows greater
magnifications and reveals internal/ultrastructure
– organelles, cytoskeleton and cytosol
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(3D IMAGE- surface structure)

7
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(Internal ultrastructure)

8
 An Overview of Cell Structure
• 3 Major cell subdivisions
– Plasma membrane: bounds the cell
– Nucleus: contains DNA
• Important concepts: human genome
– Cytoplasm: consists of various organelles, the cytoskeleton, and
the cytosol
• Cytoplasm is the portion of the cell interior not occupied by the
nucleus.
• Cytosol is a gel-liquid within which the organelle and
cytoskeleton are suspended.
• Organelle are discrete, well-organized structures that carry out
specialized functions.
• Cytoskeleton is protein that extends throughout the cell and
serves as the cell’s bones and muscle.
Major Constituents of Cell
 CELL

• Cell surrounded by a cell membrane/plasma

membrane that contains many organelles
 Plasma
Membrane

➢ Plasma membrane: extremely thin layer that forms the outer

boundary of every cell
▪ Encloses the intracellular contents
▪ Acts as a mechanical barrier/ cell boundaries
▪ Controls entry of nutrients and molecules and exit of
waste products
▪ Selective semipermeable membrane
Plasma Membrane (Fluid Mosaic Model)

▪ Plasma membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins

▪ Consists mostly of lipids and proteins plus small amounts of
carbohydrate
▪ Phospholipids are the most abundant membrane lipids
▪ All lipids and many proteins are able to move about freely
 Plasma Membrane

Component of plasma membrane

➢ Phospholipid bilayer
➢ Cholesterol
➢ Glycoprotein
➢ Membrane protein
 Membrane Lipids
• Plasma membrane = 98% lipids
• Phospholipid bilayer
– 75% of the lipids
– hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
– molecular motion creates membrane fluidity
• Cholesterol (20% of the lipids)
– Molecules are tucked between the phospholipid molecules
• Prevent fatty acid chains from packing together and crystallizing
– affects membrane fluidity (low concentration more rigid, high
concentration more fluid)
• Glycolipids (5% of the lipids)
– contribute to glycocalyx (carbohydrate coating on cell surface)

• Serve as “self” recognition markers

Membrane Carbohydrates
• Involved in tissue growth
• Polar head - (phosphate and glycerol)
• Non polar tails - (fatty acids)
• Form a stable bilayer in water

Hydrophilic Water
heads

Amphipathic

Hydrophobic
tails
Water
 Membrane Carbohydrate
◼ They are components of complex molecules such as proteoglycans,
glycolipids and glycoproteins.
◼ Forming a layer known as glycocalyx.
◼ Important functions of glycocalyx:
i) Lubrication and protection
-form a viscous layer that
lubricates and protects
the CM.
ii) Anchoring and locomotion
-can help anchor the cell in place because the components are sticky.
-it also participates in the locomotion of specialized cells.
iii) Specificity binding
-GP and GL can function as receptors, binding specific extracellular
compounds, such binding can alter the properties of the cell surface
and indirectly affect the cell’s behavior.
iv) Recognition
-GP and GL are recognize as normal and abnormal by cells involved
with the immune response.
 Membrane Proteins
▪ A membrane is a mosaic of different protein embedded and
dispersed in the phospholipid bilayer.
▪ These protein vary in both structure and function and occur in two
spatial arrangements
❖ Membrane proteins
– 2% of the molecules in plasma membrane
– Membrane proteins are inserted within or
attached to the lipid bilayer
❖ Transmembrane proteins (integral)
– pass completely through membrane
– most are glycoproteins
❖ Peripheral proteins
- adhere to membrane surface anchored to
cytoskeleton
Membrane Protein Function
Transport, Enzymatic activity, Signal
transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular
joining, attachment to the cyctoskeleton and
extracellular matrix (ECM)
 Signaling molecule

Receptor
Enzymes

Membrane
Protein ATP
Signal transduction
Functions (a) Transport (b) Enzymatic activity (c) Signal transduction

Glyco-
protein

(d) Cell-cell recognition (e) Intercellular joining (f) Attachment to

the cytoskeleton
and extracellular
matrix (ECM)
(a) Transport
▪ some constantly open
▪ gated-channels open and close in response to
stimuli
• ligand (chemically)-regulated gates
• voltage-regulated gates
• mechanically regulated gates

(b) Enzymatic activity (Membrane enzyme)

• Break down chemical messengers to stop their
signaling effects.
• Final stages of starch and protein digestion in
small intestine.

(c) Signal Transduction (Membrane receptor)

▪ Cell communication via chemical signals
▪ receptors bind these chemicals (hormones,
neurotransmitters)
▪ receptor specificity
▪ Receptor activation produces a second
messenger (chemical) inside of the cell
(d) Cell- cell Recognition
▪ Glycoprotein serves as identification tags that are
specifically recognized by other cells.

(e) Intercellular Joining

▪ Some cells are directly linked by specialized cell
junctions
• Desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions

(f) Attachment to the Cytoskeleton and ECM

▪ The cytoskeleton maybe bonded to membrane
proteins.
▪ Helps maintain shape and stabilizes the location of
certain membrane protein
▪ Extracellular matrix binds cells together
▪ Consists of collagen, elastin, and fibronectin
▪ Protein that adhere to the ECM can coordinate
extracellular and intracellular changes
 Cytoplasm Vs Cytosol
• Cytosol – the fluid (suspended molecules of
salts, sugar, amino acid, enzymes etc) around
the organelle.
• Cytoplasm –the cytosol and the organelles
suspended within it (everything except the
nucleus)

Cell =plasma membrane + cytoplasm + nucleus

Cytosol + organelles
 Cytosol (ICF) vs Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

Differences Cytosol @ ICF Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

1) Concentration of potassium High Low
ions
2) Concentration of Low High
sodium ions
3) Suspended proteins Higher concentration Lower concentration
4) Carbohydrates Small quantities Medium quantities
5) Amino acids and lipids Small reserves No reserves
6) Masses of insolubles Same (e.g. pigment granules, glycogen granules)
materials
EXTRACELLULAR
MATRIX

▪ Three types of fibers are embedded in the extracellular matrix

between the cells: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular
fibers.
▪ Ground substance contains water and an assortment of large
organic molecules, many of which are complex combinations of
polysaccharides and proteins.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear
Rough Smooth envelope
Flagellum ER ER NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes

Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Lysosome ANIMAL CELL-

eukaryotic cell27
Anatomy of a typical eukaryotic Cell
 The Organelles
◼ Organelles are structures that each perform specific functions for
the cell.
◼ Perform the tasks that keep a cell alive and functioning normally.
◼Specific functions related to cell structure, growth, maintenance &
metabolism.
➢ Organelles = specialized metabolic tasks
▪ Bordered by membrane
▪ Isolated from the cytosol by phospholipid membranes.
▪ Nucleus, mitochondria, lysosome, perioxisome, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi complex.
▪ Not bordered by membrane
▪ Not completely enclosed by membranes.
▪ The components are in direct contact with the cytosol.
▪ Ribosome, centrosome, centriole
 The Organelles
Bordered by membrane

Not bordered by membrane

 Cytoskeleton

▪Microfilament,
▪Microtubules
▪Intermediate
filament

▪ Collection of filaments and tubules

▪ Function as the cell skeleton
▪ Provide support, organization and movement
▪ Give the cytoplasm strength and stability
▪ Hold organelles in place; maintain cell shape; guide organelles inside
cell.
 Cytoskeleton: Cell “Bone and Muscle”
• Cytoskeleton: complex protein network that acts as “bone and muscle” of
cell.
• Microtubules:
• Help maintain asymmetric cell shapes.
• Asymmetric such as nerves cell, whose elongated axon may extend
up to 1m length, from where cell body in spinal cord to where the
axon ends in muscle.
• Play a role in complex cell movements
• Transport of secretory versicles, specialized cell projections such as
cilia and flagella, distribution of chromosome to opposite pole during
cell division (via mitotic spindle).
• Position many of the cytoplasmic organelles such the ER, Golgi
complex, lysosomes and mitochondria.
• Microfilaments: important to cellular contractile systems and as mechanical
stiffeners (for cellular extensions, microvilli)
• Intermediate filaments: important in cell regions subject to mechanical
stress.
Cytoskeleton
 10 m 10 m 5 m

Column of tubulin dimers

Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 8−12 nm

  Tubulin dimer
 Microtubule

Internal structure of a cilium or flagellum

Centrioles
 Microtubule -Cilia
➢Hairlike processes 7-10m long
▪ Nonmotile cilium found on nearly every cell
▪ Sensory in inner ear, retina and nasal cavity
▪ Motile cilia
▪ Respiratory tract
▪ Uterine tube
▪ 50-200 cilia on the surface/cell
olfactory receptor cell are
several nonmotile olfactory
cilia.

Cilia in the respiratory tract

 Microtubule - Flagella
• Whiplike structure with axoneme identical to cilium
– much longer than cilium
• Tail of the sperm = only functional flagellum
 Microtubule – Cilia & Flagella
◼ Projections of the cell surface that create movement

Flagellum is a whip-like structure that

Cilia – small hair like projection allows a cell to move

◼ Cilia move fluid along the cell surface ◼ Flagella move cells through the
medium
-relatively stiff during the effective power
stroke & flexible during recovery stroke. ◼ Sperm cells have flagella to swim
▪ Cilia are essential to the movement of the toward the egg for fertilization
egg through the fallopian tube. process.
Microtubule
Microfilament
◼ Responsible for protein synthesis
Ribosome
◼ Ribosomes have two major subunits, that are
normally separate, distinct and made of both
RNA and proteins (both contain special
proteins and ribosomal RNA).
-Small ribosomal subunit
-Large ribosomal subunit
◼ Before protein synthesis can begin, a small
and large subunit must join together to form
complete functional ribosome.
◼ 2 types of functional ribosomes:
i) Free ribosomes make proteins used in the
cytosol
ii) Attached/fixed ribosomes make proteins
used in membranes and for export
(attached to ER).
Nucleus

▪ Largest organelle
▪ The nucleus is the largest organelle contains most of the
cell’s genes. control the activities of cell.
▪ Nuclear envelope : two unit membrane held together at
nuclear pores
▪ Nucleoplasm
▪ Chromatin (thread like structure of DNA)
▪ Nucleolus: place ribosome produced
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER,SER)
◼ ER is a network of intracellular
membranes connected to the nuclear
envelope (surrounds the nucleus).
(Endo=within, plasm=cytoplasm,
reticulum=network).
◼ The ER has 4 major functions:
i) Synthesis – proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids.
ii) Storage – storage synthesize
materials without affecting
cellular operations.
iii) Transport – materials can travel in
the ER.
iv) Detoxification – drugs or toxins
can be absorbed
and then neutralized by the
enzymes within it.
 Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(RER)

▪ Functions as a combination workshop and shipping depot.

▪ Many newly synthesized proteins are chemically modified and packaged for
export to their next destination.
▪ Types of ribosomes fixed ribosomes (rough appearance, grainy).
▪ mRNA provides instructions to ribosomes to synthesize proteins.
▪ Inside the RER, each protein assumes its secondary and tertiary structures.
▪ Other proteins are chemically modified by the attachment of carbohydrates.
▪ Proteins were then packaged into small membranous sacs (transport vesicles)
before deliver their contents to the Golgi apparatus.
 Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(SER)

➢ Smooth refer to the fact that no ribosomes are associated with the ER.
➢ Associated with the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates
➢ The SER functions:
➢ Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol needed for maintenance and
growth of the cell membrane, nuclear membrane, and Golgi apparatus in cells.
➢ Synthesis of steroid hormone such as androgens and estrogens.
➢ Synthesis and storage of glycerides especially triacylglycerides, in liver and
fat cells.
➢ Synthesis and storage of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
➢ Responsible for the detoxification and inactivation of drugs especially in liver
and kidneys cells.
 Golgi Apparatus
▪ The Golgi apparatus consists of cis face
(“receiving” side of
flattened membranous sacs called Golgi apparatus)
cisternae. Cisternae
▪ Synthesizes carbohydrate,
modification and packaging of protein
and lipids.
▪ Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles. 3 types of vesicles
▪ some become lysosomes
(packages special enzymes within
vesicles for use in the cytosol)
▪ some become secretory vesicles
(such as hormones and enzymes,
trans face
for release through exocytosis) (“shipping” side of
▪ some fuse with plasma membrane Golgi apparatus)
(renews or modifies the cell
membrane)
 The GA-Processing and Packaging of Proteins

1) RER synthesized the proteins and packaged it in the vesicles.

2) Transport vesicles will deliver the protein to the entry face of cysternae in GA.
3) Transport vesicles will fuse with GA membrane and emptying their contents.
4) Inside the GA, enzymes will modify the arriving proteins and glycoproteins.
5) Transport vesicles moves the modified materials to the medial and exit cysternae.
6) 3 types of vesicles waiting to transport the exit materials from the GA to PM.
7) Materials exported from cell by exocytosis, some other materials will merge with
the PM.
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Plasma
membrane

49
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

50
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

51
 Lysosomes
▪ A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can
digest macromolecules (proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids)
▪ Lysosomal enzymes function
1. Digest food (food enter to cell by phagocytosis)
2. Destroy bacteria
3. Autophagy (digest unwanted organelle)
4. Breakdown stored glycogen in liver to release glucose
3. Programmed cell
destruction (autolysis)
• Destruction of cells by
their own lysosomes is
important during
metamorphosis and
development.
➢ Degradation of tadpole
tail of frog and the
tissues webbed
between the human
embryo’s finger .

53
 Peroxisomes
▪ Resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes
▪ In all cells but abundant in liver and kidney
▪ contain oxidative enzymes important in
metabolism.
▪ Functions
▪ Detoxificationof alcohol, other drugs and toxins.
▪ Neutralize free radicals - Protect the cell from the
potentially damaging effects of free radicals
produced during catabolism.
▪ Breakdown of fats into smaller molecules (acetyl
coA). The product carried to the mitochondria as
fuel for cellular respiration.
LYSOSOME & PEROXISOMES
 Mitochondria

▪ Double unit membrane

▪ inner membrane folds called cristae
▪ ATP synthesized by enzymes on cristae from energy
extracted from glucose molecules.
Cellular Respiration – Energy production
❖ ATP is manufactured from ADP and P primarily by
using the energy supplied by breakdown of glucose
(cellular respiration)
❖ Glucose is oxidized/breakdown into CO2 and
H2O.
❖ Process is also Catabolic because larger Glucose
breaks into smaller molecules
❖ Exergonic reaction
- Breakdown of one molecule glucose result in
34 or 36 ATP
57
 The Stages of Cellular Respiration
• Harvesting of energy from glucose has three
stages
1. Glycolysis
➢ Breaks down glucose (6C) into two molecules of
pyruvate(3C)
➢ Occurs in the cytoplasm
2. Kreb Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle
➢ Completes the breakdown of glucose (6C)
➢ Happen inside matrix of mitochondria
3. Oxidative phosporylation (Electron Transport System)
➢ Accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
58
ATP Yield per molecule of glucose at each stage of cellular respiration

59
 Transport Material Across Cell Membrane
Plasma membrane - Selective Semipermeable Membrane

▪ Permeable means allowing something to pass through.

▪ The plasma membrane is selective permeable or semi-permeable as
it allows only certain substances to pass through it but not others.
▪ The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to:
▪ Small non-polar (hydrophobic) molecules that are lipid-soluble, such
as fatty acids, glycerol, steroid, vitamin A, D, E and K.
▪ Small unchanged molecules, such as water, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. These molecules are small enough to squeeze through
between the phospholipid gaps by simple diffusion or osmosis down
their respective concentration gradients.
▪ The phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to:
▪ Large polar molecule, that are not soluble in lipid, such as glucose,
amino acids, nucleic acids and polysaccharides.
▪ Ions (charged), regardless of size, such as: H+, Na+, HCO3-, K+, Ca²+,
and Mg²+
Membrane Transport
 Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane selectively permeable
▪ Controls what enters or leaves cell
▪ All transport of molecules or ions across membranes can be
classified as being either passive or active:
– Passive transport requires no ATP (does not require energy used by the cell)
• Movement down concentration gradient
• Movement is from higher to lower concentrations (“downhill”)
• filtration and simple diffusion
– Active transport requires ATP (need energy)
• Movement against concentration gradient
• Movement is from lower to higher concentrations (“uphill”)
• Carrier mediated (facilitated diffusion and active transport)
• Vesicular transport
 Passive Transport
1. Passive transport
A. Diffusion – the net movement of substances down
concentration gradient.
➢ Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
B. Osmosis
➢ The movement of water according to concentration
gradient across semi – permeable membrane.
C. Filtration
➢ The solutes & water move from an area of higher pressure
to an area of lower pressure to maintain homeostasis.
D. Facilitated diffusion
➢ Diffusion of solute across a membrane, with the help of
transport protein.
 Passive Mechanism:
A. Diffusion
• Net movement of particles
from area of high
concentration to area of low
concentration.
➢ as a result of their kinetic
energy of random motion.
• Molecules of gases, liquids,
or solid particles spread
themselves evenly through a
medium.
• Movement down the
concentration gradient.
 Passive Mechanism:
A. Diffusion - Diffusion Rates

• Factors affecting diffusion rate through a membrane

– temperature -  temp.,  motion of particles
– molecular weight - larger molecules move slower
– concentrated gradient - difference,  rate
– membrane surface area -  area,  rate
– membrane permeability -  permeability,  rate
Molecules of dye
Membrane (cross section)

WATER

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(a) Diffusion of one solute

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(b) Diffusion of two solutes
 Passive Mechanism:
B. Osmosis
▪ Diffusion of water or any other
solvent molecule through a
selective permeable
membrane.
(e.g. cell membrane)
▪ from area of more water to
area of less water
▪ Osmotic pressure-the pressure
exerted by the water
molecules within the casing at
equilibrium.
 B. Osmosis

• Amount of hydrostatic pressure required to stop

osmosis
• Osmosis slows due to filtration of water back across
membrane due to  hydrostatic pressure
 Lower Higher Same concentration
concentration concentration of solute
of solute (sugar) of solute

Sugar
molecule

H2O

Selectively
permeable
membrane

B. Osmosis

Osmosis
 Passive Mechanism:
C. Filtration
• Movement of particles
through a selectively
permeable membrane
by hydrostatic pressure
• Examples
– filtration of nutrients
from blood capillaries
into tissue fluids
– filtration of wastes from
the blood in the kidneys
 Passive Mechanism:
D. Facilitated Diffusion
• Transport of solute across membrane down its
concentration gradient
• No ATP used
• Solute binds to carrier, it changes shape then releases
solute on other side of membrane
 Diffusion in plasma membrane
◼ Non-polar molecules move via simple diffusion
◼ Many ions cross membranes through ion channels
◼ Polar molecules are transported by carrier-mediated
facilitated diffusion
 Active mechanism: Active Transport
▪ Transport of solute across membrane up (against) its
concentration gradient.
◼ Energy is required to drive all active processes

◼ The three types of active processes are:

❑ Primary active transport - ATP is the source of energy
❑ Secondary active transport - ion gradients are the source of
energy
❑ Transport in vesicles - some large molecules can enter
(endocytosis) and leave (exocytosis) cells without being
broken down
• Examples:
– sodium-potassium pump
– bring amino acids into cell
– pump Ca2+ out of cell
 Primary Active Transport
(Sodium-Potassium Pump)
• Needed because Na+ and K+ constantly leak through
membrane
– half of daily calories utilized for pump
• One ATP utilized to exchange three Na+ pushed out for two
K+ brought in to cell
EXTRACELLULAR [Na+] high Na+
FLUID [K+] low Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+

[Na+] low ATP

CYTOPLASM Na+ P
[K+] high P
1 2 ADP 3

SODIUM POTASIUM PUMP

K+

K+
K+
K+
K+

P
6 K+ 5 4 Pi
 Secondary Active Transport
◼ Secondary active transport also moves ions or molecules “uphill”
(against their concentration gradients)
◼ Energy from an existing ion gradient powers this process
◼ Symporters and antiporters are two types of secondary active
transport - many specific examples of each type exist in cells
 Transport in Vesicles

• Transport large particle or fluid droplets through

membrane in vesicles.
• Endocytosis – transport into cell
➢phagocytosis – engulfing large particle
➢pinocytosis – taking in fluid droplets
➢receptor mediated endocytosis – taking
specific molecules bound to receptor
• Exocytosis – transport out of cell
 Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Solutes

Pseudopodium Receptor
Plasma Ligand
membrane
Coat proteins

Coated
“Food” or pit
other particle
Coated
vesicle

Vesicle
Food
vacuole

CYTOPLASM

ENDOCYTOSIS
 Phagocytosis or “Cell-Eating”

Keeps tissues free of debris and infectious microorganisms.

 Pinocytosis(cell drinking)

• Cell membrane surrounds fluid droplets

• Fluid taken into membrane-bound vesicle
• Known as cell drinking
• ingest nutrient for its own use.
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
 Exocytosis
• Secreting material or replacement of plasma
membrane
TOPIC 2: Cellular Level Organization
CELL PHYSIOLOGY III
Chemistry of Life

Madam Marlina Mohd Mydin

Faculty of Health Sciences
UiTM Pulau Pinang Kampus Bertam
84
 LESSON CONTENTS
OUTCOMES

By the end of the topic, student should

be able to:
➢ Define element, atoms, ions and molecules
➢ Explain chemical bonds and chemical
reaction
➢ Describe biological molecule structure and
functions
 Organizing matters
❖ All living and nonliving things consist of matter.
❖ Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass.
❖ Matter exists in three stages: solid, liquid, gas.
❖ Made up of a limited number of building units:
chemical elements.

86
 Essential Elements of life
➢ Elements: substances cannot be
broken down into simpler
substances. (simplest form of
matter to have unique chemical
properties).

➢ Essential elements
➢ Include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen
➢ Make up 96% of human mass
➢ A few other elements
➢ Calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, sodium, chlorine,
magnesium
➢ Make up the remaining 3.8% of
living matter
87
Essential Elements of life
➢ Trace element
❖ Are required by an organism in only minute
quantities. 14 trace elements; 1%
❖ Some trace elements, like iron (Fe), are required
by all organisms.
❖ Other trace elements are required only by some
species.
❖ For example, a daily intake
of 0.15 milligrams of iodine
is required for normal
activity of the human
thyroid gland.

89
 ATOM
• Units of chemical elements are
called atoms.
• Atom
➢Consists of a nucleus (protons
and neutrons) and electrons CARBON ATOM

that move about the nucleus

in electron shells.

Electron in a shell distant

from the nucleus have a
greater energy
90
 SUBATOMIC PARTICLE
• Atoms of each element
➢ are composed of even smaller parts called subatomic
particles.
• Relevant subatomic particles include
– Neutrons (no electrical charge)
– Protons (positive charge)
– Electrons (negative charge)
• Proton and neutrons
➢ Are found in the atomic nucleus
• Electrons
➢Surround the nucleus in a cloud
➢The attractions between the positive charges in the
nucleus and the negative charges of the electrons
keep the electrons in the surrounding the nucleus.
 ATOMIC NUMBER & ATOMIC MASS
Atomic Number
• The atomic number of an element
➢ Is the number of protons
➢ The atomic number is written
as a subscript before the symbol for the element
(for example, 6C).
Atomic Mass
• The mass number of an element
➢ Is the sum of proton and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
The mass of an electron is too small and light that of a
neutron or proton. Therefore, we typically ignore the
contribution of electrons when determining the total mass
of an atom.
➢ For example, 12C has a mass number of 12 and an estimated
92
atomic weight/mass of 12 daltons
 Electrolytes

• Salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of

conducting an electric current.
• Electrolyte importance
– chemical reactivity
– osmotic effects (influence water movement)
– electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue (Ca2+)

• Imbalances have ranging effects from muscle cramps,

brittle bones, cardiac arrest
 Molecules and Compound
➢ Molecule
▪ Consist of two or more atoms
➢ Compound
▪ Is a molecule containing different kinds of atoms
▪ Has characteristic different from those of its
elements

Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride

95
 Chemical Bonds
• Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form
molecules.
• Atoms with incomplete valence shells interact
by either sharing or transferring valence
electrons.
• These interactions typically result in the atoms
remaining close together, held by an
attractions called chemical bonds.
– The strongest chemical bonds are covalent bonds

96
 Chemical Bonds
• Chemical bonds – forces that hold molecules together,
or attract one molecule to another

• Types of Chemical Bonds

– Ionic bonds
– Covalent bonds
– Hydrogen bonds
Electron Configuration – the arrangement and how
electrons are distributed in the atom
• The 1st shell or the innermost energy level – hold 2
electrons
• The rest of the shell – can hold maximum of 8
electrons
First shell
Neon, with two filled
Shells (10 electrons)

Second shell

(a) Electron distribution diagram

98
 Covalent Bonds
• A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of
valence electrons by two atoms.
– If two atoms come close enough that their
unshared orbitals overlap, each atom can count
both electrons toward its goal of filling the valence
shell.
– For example, if two hydrogen atoms come close
enough that their 1s orbitals overlap, then they can
share the single electrons that each contributes.

99
• Share pair of electrons and form hydrogen molecules,
each contributing one electron to the shared pair.
• Both hydrogen atoms acquire completely filled outer
shell 2 (electron) and become stable.
• Oxygen needs to add 2 electrons to the 6
already present to complete its valence shell.
– Two oxygen atoms can form a molecule by
sharing two pairs of valence electrons.
– These atoms have formed a double covalent
bond.

101
 Single Covalent Bond
- sharing of one pair of valence electrons

Double Covalent Bond

- sharing of two pair of valence electrons
 Covalent Bonding in Compound
• Covalent bonds can form between atoms of
the same element or atoms of different
elements.
– Water, H2O, is a compound in which two
hydrogen atoms form single covalent bonds with
an oxygen atom.
• This satisfies the valences of both elements.

103
 Covalent Bonding in Compound
Name and Electron Lewis Dot Space-
Molecular Distribution Structure and Filling
Formula Diagram Structural Model
Formula

(c) Water (H2O)

Name and Electron Lewis Dot Space-

Molecular Distribution Structure and Filling
Formula Diagram Structural Model
Formula

(d) Methane (CH4)

104
 Ionic Bonds
• In some cases, atom strip electrons away from
their bonding partners.
• Electron transfer between two atoms creates
ions.
• Ions
➢ Are atom with more or fewer electrons than usual
➢ Are charged atom
• An anion is negatively charged ions.
• A cation is positively charged.
• An ionic bond is an attraction between anions and
cations . 105
• An example is the transfer of an electron from
sodium to chlorine
– sodium with one valence electron in its third shell
transfers this electron to chlorine with 7 valence
electrons in its third shell.
– Now, sodium has a full valence shell (the second)
and chlorine has a full valence shell (the third).

106
• After the transfer, both atoms are no longer
neutral, but have charges and are called ions.
• Sodium has one more proton than electrons
and has a net positive charge.
– Atoms with positive charges are cations.
• Chlorine has one more electron than protons
and has a net negative charge.
– Atoms with negative charges are anions.

Ionic bond
attraction
between anions
and cations .
107
 Hydrogen Bonds
• Hydrogen bond – a weak attraction
between a slightly positive hydrogen atom
in one molecule and a slightly negative
oxygen or nitrogen atom in another.
➢ Example molecules of water are
weakly attracted to each other by
hydrogen bonds
❖ Play a critical role in the structure and
function of proteins and nucleic acids

Water molecule: hydrogen bonding between DNA

two water molecules

Protein

108
 Chemical Reaction
▪ Chemical reaction – a process in which a
covalent or ionic bond is formed or
broken.
▪ Classes of chemical reactions
➢ decomposition reactions
➢ synthesis reactions
➢ exchange reactions
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Decomposition
Reactions

• Large molecule breaks Starch molecule

down into two or
more smaller ones

• AB → A + B

Glucose molecules
(a) Decomposition reaction
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Synthesis Reactions

• Two or more small

Amino acids
molecules combine to
form a larger one

• A + B → AB

Protein molecule

(b) Synthesis reaction

 Exchange Reactions
• Two molecules exchange atoms or group of
atoms
• AB+CD → ABCD → AC + BD
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Stomach acid (HCl) AB + CD

C
D
A
B

and sodium
bicarbonate C A
(NaHCO3) from the D B

pancreas combine
to form NaCl and AC C A

H2CO3. +

BD D B

(c) Exchange reaction

 Chemical Compounds
• Most of chemicals in your body exist in form of
compound.
• Compound can be divide into:
➢ Inorganic compound:
▪ Lack carbon and structurally simple.
▪ Water, acid, bases and salts
▪ Contain ionic bonds.
➢ Organic compound
▪ Contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen.
▪ Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
▪ Contain covalent bonds.
 Inorganic compound: Acids, Bases and pH
• An acid is proton donor (releases H+ ions in
water)
• A base is proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions)
– releases OH- ions in water
• pH – a measure derived from the molarity
of H+
– a pH of 7.0 is neutral pH
(H+ = OH-)
– a pH of less than 7 is acidic solution
(H+ > OH-)
– a pH of greater than 7 is basic solution
(OH- > H+ )
• Our body uses buffers to resist changes in pH
• slight pH disturbances can disrupt physiological functions and alter
drug actions
• pH of blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
• deviations from this range cause tremors, paralysis or even death
Organic compound: Carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids
• Study of compounds containing
carbon
• 4 categories of carbon compounds
–carbohydrates
–lipids
–proteins
–nucleic acids
 Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates
• hydrophilic organic molecules
• general formula
– C6H12O6
• names of carbohydrates often built from:
– word root ‘sacchar-’
– the suffix ’-ose’
– both mean ‘sugar’ or ‘sweet’
• monosaccharide or glucose
 Monosaccharides
• Simplest carbohydrates Glucose CH2OH

–simple sugars
O
H H
H

OH H OH
HO

H OH

• 3 important monosaccharides Galactose CH2OH

–glucose, galactose and

HO H
H

OH H
H OH

fructose H OH

Fructose

–produced by digestion of HOCH2

O
OH

complex carbohydrates H
H HO
CH2OH

OH H
 Disaccharides
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Sugar molecule composed Sucrose

CH2OH
O CH2OH O
of 2 monosaccharides H
H
H H

OH H H HO
O
HO CH2OH

H OH OH H

• 3 important disaccharides Lactose

CH2OH H OH

– sucrose - table sugar HO

H
O
O
OH H
OH

• glucose + fructose
OH H H
H H H H
O

– lactose - sugar in milk

H OH CH2OH

Maltose

• glucose + galactose CH2OH

O H
CH2OH
O OH
H H

– maltose - grain products HO

H
OH H
O
H
OH H
H

• glucose + glucose H OH H OH
 1–4
glycosidic
1 linkage 4

Glucose Glucose Maltose

(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose

1–2
glycosidic
1 linkage 2

Glucose Fructose Sucrose

(b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose

119
 Polysaccharides
• Long chains of glucose
• 3 polysaccharides of interest in humans
– Glycogen: energy storage polysaccharide in animals
• made by cells of liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina
• liver makes glycogen after a meal when glucose level is high, then
breaks it down later to maintain blood glucose levels

– Starch: energy storage polysaccharide in plants

• only significant digestible polysaccharide in the human diet

– Cellulose: structural molecule of plant cell walls

• fiber in our diet
Chloroplast Starch granules
Amylopectin

Amylose
(a) Starch: 1 m
a plant polysaccharide

Mitochondria Glycogen granules

Glycogen
(b) Glycogen: 0.5 m
an animal polysaccharide 121
 Organic Molecules: Lipids
• Hydrophobic organic molecule
–composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
• Five primary types in humans
–fatty acids
–triglycerides
–phospholipids
–eicosanoids
–steroids
 Fatty Acids
• Types
– saturated - carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen
– unsaturated - contains C=C bonds without hydrogen
– polyunsaturated – contains many C=C bonds
– essential fatty acids – obtained from diet, body can
not synthesize
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
HO
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Palmitic acid (saturated)
CH3(CH2)14COOH
 Triglycerides (Neutral Fats)
• 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to glycerol molecule

• Triglycerides at room temperature

– when liquid called oils
• often polyunsaturated fats from plants
– when solid called fat
• saturated fats from animals

• Primary Function - energy storage, insulation and shock

absorption (adipose tissue)
FORMATION OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL

Fatty acid
(in this case, palmitic acid)

(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of a fat

Ester linkage

Triacylglycerol
(FAT)
- 3 molecule of
fatty acid and 1
molecule of
glycerol

(b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol) 125

 Triglycerides at Room Temperature
(b) Unsaturated fat
(a) Saturated fat

Structural
formula of a
saturated fat
molecule
Structural
formula of an
unsaturated fat
molecule
Space-filling
model of stearic
acid, a saturated
fatty acid Space-filling model
of oleic acid, an
unsaturated fatty
acid
Cis double bond
causes bending.
 Phospholipids
• similar to neutral fat CH3

except that one fatty acid CH3 N+ CH3

Nitrogen-
containing
replaced by a phosphate CH2

CH2
group
(choline)
group O

–O P O
Phosphate Hydrophilic
group region (head)
• structural foundation O

Glycerol
CH2 CH CH2

of cell membrane O O

O C C O

• Amphiphilic (CH2)5 (CH2)12

Fatty acid
tails
CH CH3

– fatty acid “tails” are CH Hydrophobic

hydrophobic (CH2)5 region (tails)

– phosphate “head” is (a)

CH3

hydrophilic
(b)
 Choline Amphiphatic
molecule:
Hydrophilic head

Phosphate 1. Hydrophilic
(water-soluble) part
Glycerol
-Called Head
2. Hydrophobic
(water repelling)
- Called Tail
Hydrophobic tails

Fatty acids

Hydrophilic
head

Hydrophobic
tails

(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model (c) Phospholipid symbol

 Organic Molecules: Protein
Primary structure

Amino
• protein - a polymer of acids

amino acids
– most useful Amino end

molecules in the body

Carboxyl end
 Protein Structure and Shape
Primary structure
Amino
acids

Primary structure Amino end

sequence of amino acids

Carboxyl end

Primary structure
 Protein Structure and Shape
Secondary structure Secondary structure
coiled or folded
shape held together
by hydrogen bonds  helix

Hydrogen bond
 pleated sheet
 strand, shown as a flat
arrow pointing toward
the carboxyl end

Hydrogen bond

Secondary structure
 Protein Structure and Shape
Tertiary structure
– further bending and folding of proteins into globular and
fibrous shapes
• globular proteins –compact structure good for
proteins embedded in cell membrane or that move
about in fluid
• fibrous proteins – slender filaments better suited for
roles as in muscle contraction and strengthening skin

Tertiary structure
 Protein Structure and Shape
Quaternary structure Heme
• associations of two or more
Iron
separate polypeptide
chains  subunit
• Functional protein
 subunit

 subunit

 subunit
(Four polypeptides)
Hemoglobin
Quaternary structure
 Protein Conformation and Denaturation
Conformation – unique three dimensional shape of protein
crucial to function
– some proteins can reversibly change their conformation
(renaturation)
• enzyme function
• muscle contraction
• opening and closing of cell membrane pores

Denaturation
• extreme conformational
change that destroys
function
• extreme heat or pH
 Protein Functions
Enzymatic proteins Defensive proteins
Function: Selective acceleration of chemical reactions Function: Protection against disease
Example: Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy
of bonds in food molecules. viruses and bacteria.
Enzyme
Antibodies

Virus Bacterium

Storage proteins Transport proteins

Function: Storage of amino acids Function: Transport of substances
Examples: Casein, the protein of milk, is the major Examples: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of
source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to
storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the other parts of the body. Other proteins transport
protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source molecules across cell membranes.
for the developing embryo.
Transport
protein

Ovalbumin Amino acids

for embryo Cell membrane
 Protein Functions
Hormonal proteins Receptor proteins
Function: Coordination of an organism’s activities Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a
pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose, nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by
thus regulating blood sugar concentration other nerve cells.

Receptor
Signaling protein
Insulin
High secreted Normal molecules
blood sugar blood sugar

Contractile and motor proteins Structural proteins

Function: Movement Function: Support
Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the
undulations of cilia and flagella. Actin and myosin Examples: Keratin is gives strength to hair, nails
proteins are responsible for the contraction of and skin surface
muscles. Collagen – strong protein contained in
deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth.

Actin Myosin
Collagen

Muscle tissue Connective

100 m tissue 60 m
 Organic Molecules: Nucleic Acid
• Nucleic acids are information-rich polymer
of nucleotides
• Genes
➢ Are the unit of inheritance
RNA
• There are two types of nucleic
acids
➢ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
➢ Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Both
➢ Stores information for the DNA
synthesis of specific protein
DNA Double Helix
 Nucleotide
• ATP – best known nucleotide
– adenine (nitrogenous base)
– ribose (sugar)
– phosphate groups (3)
– body’s most important energy-transfer molecule
– produce by mitochondria
High energy bond
TOPIC 2: Cellular Level Organization
CELL PHYSIOLOGY III
Protein Synthesis

Madam Marlina Mohd Mydin

Faculty of Health Sciences
UiTM Pulau Pinang Kampus Bertam 140
LESSON CONTENTS
OUTCOMES

By the end of the topic, student should be able

to:
➢ Describe the structure of DNA and relate this to its
function.
➢ Explain how DNA and proteins are organized to
form the chromosomes.
➢ Describe the types of RNA, their structural and
functional differences, and compare with DNA.
 The structure was discovered in 1953 by
James Watson and Francis Crick

❖ In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick introduced an elegant double-helical model
for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
❖ Hereditary information is encoded in DNA and reproduced in all cells of the body.
142
 DNA Double Helix
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—a long, threadlike molecule with
uniform diameter, but varied length.
G
5 end
C
C G Hydrogen bond
3 end
G C
G C T A

3.4 nm
T A

G C G C
C G

A T

1 nm C G
T A
C G
G C
C G A T

A T 3 end
A T
0.34 nm
T A 5 end

Key features of Partial chemical structure Space-filling model

DNA structure
 DNA is the genetic material
Sugar-phosphate backbone
5 end
Pyrimidines
5C

3C

Nucleoside

Nitrogenous
base Cytosine (C) Thymine (T, in DNA) Uracil (U, in RNA)

5C Purines

1C
Phosphate 3C
group Sugar
5C
(pentose)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
3C (b) Nucleotide

Sugars
3 end
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid

Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)

(c) Nucleoside components

144
 DNA Structure

• DNA is polymers of nucleotides

• Each nucleotide consists of:
1. Sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous base

145
 1. Sugar
In DNA, the sugar
is Deoxyribose;
in RNA, the sugar
is Ribose.

2. Phosphate

146
 3. Nitrogenous base
• Pyrimidines
- single carbon-nitrogen ring
– uracil - RNA only
– thymine - DNA only

• Purines
- double carbon-nitrogen ring

▪ DNA bases—ATCG
▪ RNA - AUCG
147
• DNA is made up of:
– Four nucleotides: Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine and
Cytosine
– These follow the rules of
base-pairing:
• Adenine bonds with Thymine
( 2-hydrogen bond)
• Guanine bonds with Cytosine
(3-hydrogen bond)
– A sugar-phosphate backbone
• DNA is arranged in an
double-helix
148
 DNA VS RNA
• There are two types of nucleic acids
(polynucletiode)
– DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid).
• RNA much smaller cousin of DNA (fewer
bases)
– Messenger RNA (mRNA) over 10,000 bases
– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– Transfer RNA (tRNA) 70 to 90 bases
• DNA averages 100 million base pairs
 DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded

Nitrogenous base Nitrogenous base

- Thymine, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine - Uracil, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine

Pentose sugar - Deoxyribose Pentose sugar – Ribose

3 forms RNA
1 forms DNA 1. rRNA
2. mRNA
3. tRNA
DNA can only be found in cell ‘s nucleus RNA could be found in nucleus and
cytoplasm.
3 type of RNA (1 strand polynucleotide)
1. mRNA – Messenger RNA
- Linear single polynucleotide
- Carries the genetic code transcripted from DNA in the nucleus to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis
2. rRNA – Ribosomal RNA
- Synthesize in nucleolus. Contain RNA + Protein
- Contain large (50s) and small subunit (30s) – combines form ribosomes
- Organelle involve in translate mRNA to polypeptide.
3. tRNA – Transfer RNA
- Single stranded polynucleotide folded into clover – leaf shape
- Bring amino acid to ribosome during translation.
- Have 2 sides
➢ 1 side of tRNA molecule attaches to amino acids
➢Other has anticodon that complementary to codon on mRNA 151
mRNA – linear
polynucleotide

152
rRNA - ribosome

E P A
tRNA

154
 What Is a Gene?

• Gene—a segment of DNA

that carries the code for a
particular protein
• Amino acid sequence of a
protein is determined by
the nucleotide sequence in
the DNA
 Protein Synthesis

DNA mRNA Protein

Transcription Translation
Overview of Protein Synthesis

157
 Protein Synthesis
Process of protein synthesis
DNA mRNA Protein

▪ Transcription—step from DNA to mRNA

– Occurs in the nucleus where DNA is located
▪ Translation—step from mRNA to protein
 Nuclear
Overview of Protein
envelope Synthesis

DNA Transcription
TRANSCRIPTION ▪ DNA too large to leave nucleus and
participate
Pre-mRNA ▪ Transcription—copying genetic
RNA PROCESSING instructions from DNA to mRNA

mRNA
Translation
▪ Process that converts the language of
nucleotides into the language of
TRANSLATION amino acids
Ribosome ▪ Ribosomes—translate sequence of
nucleotides into the sequence of
Polypeptide amino acids
▪ Occur mainly in cytosol, on surface of
rough ER and nuclear envelope
Protein synthesis
Protein Processing and Secretion

160
161
TOPIC 2: Cellular Level Organization
CELL PHYSIOLOGY III
Cell Division & Cell Cycle

Madam Marlina Mohd Mydin

Faculty of Health Sciences
UiTM Pulau Pinang Kampus Bertam 162
LESSON CONTENTS
OUTCOMES

By the end of the topic, student should be able

to:
➢ Able to define cell cycle

➢ Able to differentiate mitosis and meiosis

 Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
– Interphase (cell growth and copying of
chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
– Mitotic (M) phase (Mitosis & Cytokinesis) (1 hour)
• Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be
divided into subphases
– G1 phase (“first gap”) [~ 6 to 5 hours]
– S phase (“synthesis”) [10 to 12 hours]
– G2 phase (“second gap”) [~ 6 to 5 hours]
• The cell grows during all three phases, but
chromosomes are duplicated only during the S
phase 164
 INTERPHASE
G1 S
Many protein been (DNA synthesis)
synthesize Each of the 46 chromosomes is
(cell double the original duplicated by the cells
size), more organelle been
produced
G2
Cell resume its growth, cell
‘double check’ the duplicated
chromosomes for error,
making any needed repairs.

165
166
 There are two type of cell division
1. MITOSIS
- Division of cells that produce 2 daughter
cell which genetically identical to the
mother cell

2. MEIOSIS
- Division of cells that produce 4 daughter
cell and the genetic content is different
than mother cell

167
 MITOSIS
- Division cell produce 2 daughter cell
- Daughter cell genetically identical to the mother cell
- Chromosome number daughter cell same with
mother cell
- Important of mitosis
➢ Increase the number of cell for growth
➢ Repair and replace the damage or dead cell
➢ Produce daughter cell which genetically identical
to mother cell
➢ The basis of asexual reproduction of unicellular
organisms.
168
 Chromosomal
OVERVIEW OF MITOSIS Chromosomes DNA molecules

A eukaryotic cell has multiple 1 Centromere

chromosome, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication , each chromosome Chromosome
has a single DNA molecule arm
Chromosome duplication
(including DNA replication)
and condensation

Once duplicated, a chromosome 2

consists of two sister chromatids
connected at the centromere.
Each chromatid contains a copy
of the DNA molecule Sister
chromatids
Separation of sister
chromatids into
two chromosomes
Mechanical processes separate 3
the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells

169
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis reduces the number of parental
chromosome sets from diploid (2n) to haploid (n)
• Meiosis occurs in the reproductive cells
➢ Plant (pollen and eggs)
➢ Animal (sperm and ovum)
• Meiosis produce
➢ 4 daughter cell which contain haploid (n)
number of chromosome of mother cell
diploid (2n)
➢ Genetic content is different than mother cell
172
 5 µm

Pair of homologous
replicated chromosomes

Centromere

Sister
chromatids
Metaphase
chromosome
Homologous chromosomes – the two
chromosomes composing a pair have the same
length, centromere position and both carry
genes controlling the same inherited
characters.
Key
Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids of

one replicated
chromosome Centromere

Two nonsister Pair of homologous

chromatids in a chromosomes (one
homologous pair from each set)
 STAGES IN MEIOSIS
▪ Meiosis takes place in two stage of cell
divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II
• After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions
follow
– Meiosis I (reductional division):
homologus pair up and separate,
resulting in two haploid daughter cells
with replicated chromosomes
– Meiosis II (equational division) sister
chromatids separate
175
 STAGES OF MEIOSIS
Division in meiosis I Division in meiosis II
(separation of homologous (separation of sister chromatid)
chromosomes)
▪ Prophase I ▪ Prophase II

▪ Metaphase I ▪ Metaphase II

▪ Anaphase I ▪ Anaphase II

▪ Telophase I & Cytokinesis ▪ Telophase II & Cytokinesis

176
Meiosis reduces
chromosome number by
copying the chromosomes
once, but dividing twice.

The first division, meiosis I,

separates homologous
chromosomes.

The second, meiosis II,

separates sister
chromatids.
 MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes MEIOSIS I: Separates sister chromatids

Telophase I and Telophase II and

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II
Cytokinesis Cytokinesis

Centrosome Sister chromatids

(with centriole pair) remain attached
Sister Chiasmata Centromere
chromatids (with kinetochore)
Spindle
Metaphase
plate

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
Cleavage four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.
furrow
Homologous Sister chromatids Haploid daughter
Homologous Fragments chromosomes separate cells forming
chromosomes of nuclear separate
envelope
Microtubule Each pair of homologous Two haploid cells
attached to chromosomes separates. form; each chromosome
kinetochore still consists of two
Chromosomes line up sister chromatids.
Duplicated homologous
chromosomes (red and blue) by homologous pairs.
pair and exchange segments;
2n = 6 in this example.

178
 THE FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and

Prophase I
Cytokinesis
Centrosome
(with centriole pair) Sister chromatids
remain attached
Sister Chiasmata Centromere
chromatids (with kinetochore)
Spindle
Metaphase
plate

Cleavage
furrow
Homologous
Homologous Fragments chromosomes
chromosomes of nuclear separate
envelope
Microtubule Each pair of homologous Two haploid
attached to chromosomes separates. cells form; each
kinetochore chromosome
Duplicated homologous Chromosomes line up still consists
chromosomes (red and blue) by homologous pairs. of two sister
pair and exchange segments; chromatids.
2n = 6 in this example.

179
 THE SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

Telophase II and
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II
Cytokinesis

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.
Sister chromatids Haploid daughter
separate cells forming

180