1.

DEFINITION OF MATRIX
A system of m × n numbers arranged in the form of an ordered set of m rows and n columns is
called an m × n matrix. It can be read as m by n matrix. It is represents as A = [aij]m × n and can be

 a11 a12 . . . a1n 

 a a . . . a 2n 
written in expanded form as A   21 22
    
 a m1 a m2 . . . a mn 

 2 1 0 
 1 1 3 
e.g.,   is a 3by 3 matrix.
 6 5 1

2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATRICES

(i) Horizontal Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of columns is more than the number
of rows is called a horizontal matrix.

2 3 4 5

e.g. 8 9 7  2 is a horizontal matrix.
 2  2  3 4 

Since here number of columns > number of rows.

(ii) Row Matrix: A matrix which has only one row and n columns is called a row
matrix of length n
e.g., [2 –1 3 0]1×4 is a row matrix of length 4.

(iii) Vertical Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of rows is more than the number
of columns is called column matrix.

2 3
4 5

e.g. 6 7 is a column matrix.
 
8 9

Since here number of rows > number of columns.

(iv) Column Matrix: A matrix which has only one column and m rows is called a column
matrix of length m.

1
3
e.g. x    is a column matrix of length 4.
 2 
 
 1
 (v) Null or Zero Matrix : The matrix whose all elements are zero is called null matrix or zero
matrix. It is usually denoted by O.

0 0 0
e.g. O 33  0 0 0
0 0 0

(vi) Square Matrix: A matrix for which the number of rows is equal to the number of
columns (each equal to n) is called a square matrix of order n.

 1 0 2 3 
 2 1 4 5 
e.g. A =   is a square matrix of order 4.
 3 2 4 1
 
1 0 0 2 

(vii) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix of any order with zero elements every where,
except on the main diagonal, is called a diagonal matrix.

3 0 0 
0 5 0 
e.g.   is a diagonal matrix of order 3.
 0 0 1

(viii) Scalar matrix : A matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal and other entries
k 0 0 
are zero, is called a scalar matrix e.g. A   0 k 0 
0 0 k 
 
(ix) Identity or Unit Matrix : A square matrix in which all the elements along the
main diagonal (elements of the from aii) are unity is called
an identity matrix or a unit matrix. An identity matrix of
order n is denoted by In.

1 0 0
 
e.g. I3 =  0 1 0 
 0 0 1 

(x) Triangular Matrix: A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal or below
the main diagonal are all zero is called a triangular matrix.

Note: (i) [aij]n × n is said to be upper triangular matrix if i > j  aij = 0,

(ii) [aij]n × n is said to be lower triangular matrix if i < j  aij = 0.
 1 2 1 3 
0 2 1 0 
e.g.  is an upper triangular matrix.
0 0 3 1
 
0 0 0 3

(xi) Sub Matrix : A matrix obtained by omitting some rows or some columns or
both of a given matrix A is called a sub matrix of A.

2 0 4 
   2 0
e.g., If A   5 6 8  , then   is a submatrix ofA which
5 6
 3 2 29 
is obtained by omitting third row and third column of A.

3. EQUALITY OF TWO MATRICES

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if they are of the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal. If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

4. ADDITION OF MATRICES
If A and B are two matrices of the same order m × n, then their sum is defined to be the matrix of
order m × n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 

 a 23  and B   b 21
 b 23  ,
e.g. If A  a 21 a 22 b 22
 a 31 a 32 a 33   b31 b32 b33 

 a 11  b11 a 12  b12 a 13  b13 

then A  B   a 21  b 21 a 22  b 22 a 23  b 23 
 a 31  b31 a 32  b 32 a 33  b 33 

4.1 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

(i) Matrix Addition is Commutative
If A and B are two m × n matrices, then A + B = B + A.

(ii) Matrix addition is associative

If A, B, C are three matrices, each of the order m × n, then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).

(iii) Existence of additive identity

If O is the m × n null matrix, then A + O = A = O + A for every m × n matrix A. O is called
additive identity.
Illustration 1:
If  is an imaginary cube root of unity, show that

1  2    2 1   2 1 
     
 2 1    2 1   1  2 
is a null matrix.
 2 1    1  2    2 1 


Solution:

1  2    2 1   2 1 
     
 2 1    2 1   1  2 
 2 1    1  2    2 1 


1    2 1    2 1    2  0 0 0 
 
 1    2 1    2 1    2   0 0 0 
, which is a null matrix.
1    2 1    2 1    2  0 0 0 
 

DRILL EXERCISE - 1

1. Construct a 2 × 3 matrix whose elements are given by aij = i + 2j.

 x  y z    1 4
2. If    . Find x, y, z, w..
 2x  y w   0 5

1 4  1  3  2  6
3. If A =   and B =  2 0  7 , find A + B and A – B.
2 6 5   

1  1   1
4. For A =   , show that A  B is a diagonal matrix for any value of  if B = 2 5  .
2 3   

2 3 2 1
5 2 5 2
5. If A =  , B=   and A + B – 2D = 0, then find the D.
8 9 8 9

5. MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR

If A = [aij]m × n and  is a scalar, then  A = [  aij]m × n
 2 1 3   6 3 9 
e.g. A   2 5 1  – 3A =  6 15 3  .
   0 3 6 
 0 1 2   

6. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES

Let A = [aij]m× n and B = [bjk]n×p be two matrices such that the number of columns in A is equal to
number of rows in B. Then the m × p matrix C = [cik]m× p ,
n
where cik =  a .b
j1
ij jk (where i = 1, 2, 3 ... m, k = 1, 2, 3 ... p), is called the product of the matrices

A and B. We have

 a11 a12 ... a 1n   b11 b12 ... b1p   c11 c12 ... c1p 
a b  c ... c 2p 
a 22 ... a 2n   21 b 22 ... b 2p  c 22

12
 21
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...  ,
     
a m1 am2 ... a mn  mn  b n1 bn2 ... b np 
n p  c m1 cm 2 ... c mp 
m p

where Cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + ... + ain bnj = a

k 1
ik b kj

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

(i) Matrix multiplication is associative
i.e., (AB)C = A(BC), A, B and C are m × n, n ×p and p × q matrices respectively.
(ii) Multiplication of matrices is distributive over addition of matrices
i.e., A(B + C) = AB + AC
(iii) Existence of multiplicative identity of square matrices.
If A is a square matrix of order n and In is the identity matrix of order n, then
A In = In A = A.
(iv) Whenever AB and BA both exist, it is not necessary that AB = BA.
(v) The product of two matrices can be a zero matrix while neither of them is a zero matrix.

0 1 1 0  0 0 
e.g., If A =   and B    then AB    , while neither A nor B is a
0 0 0 0  0 0 
null matrix.
(vi) In the case of matrix multiplication of AB = 0, then it doesn’t necessarily imply that A = 0
or B = 0 or BA = 0.

Illustration 2:
Show that product of two upper (lower) triangular matrices is an upper (lower) triangular matrix.
Solution:
Let A = [aij]m× n and B = [bjk]n×p be two upper triangular matrices.
we know that aij = 0, when i > j and bjk = 0 when j > k.
n

Now C = AB is of the type m × p, where C = [cik]m×p, cik = a

j1
ij b jk .

For i > k, cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + . . . + aik bkk + aik + 1 bk + 1k + . . . + bnk = 0.
Hence AB is an upper triangular matrix.

DRILL EXERCISE - 2

 cos 2  cos  sec    cos 2  cos  sec  

1. Show that the product of the matrices   and  
 cos  sin  sin 2    cos  sin  sin 2  


is the zero matrix, when  and  differ by an odd multiple of .
2

L
1 3
M O
L
2 1
P
M O
2. Find x such that [1 x 1] M
0 5 1P
M1P
P
 0.
M
N
0 3 2P
M
Q
NxP
Q
1  1
3. For A = 
2 3  , show that A2  4A + 5I2 = 0.
 

4. If ‘A’ is a diagonal matrix then prove that AB = BA is possible only when B is a diagonal matrix.

L0 1 0O L
0 0
M
0O
M P
, FM 0P
P
5.
M
If E  0 0 1P 1 0 2
calculate the matrices EF and FE, and show that E F + FE 2

M
N0 0 Q M
0P N
0 1 0P
Q
= E.

7. TRACE OF A MATRIX
Let A be a square matrix of order n. The sum of the diagonal elements of A is called the trace of A.
n

 Trace (A) = a
i 1
ii  a11  a 22  ...  a nn .

8. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A, by interchanging rows and columns, is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A  or AT .
 1 2 
   1 4 7
e.g., If A   4 5  , then A  
7 8  32 2 5 823

Properties of Transpose of a matrix

(i) (A)  A (ii) (A  B)  A  B

(iii) (A)  A,  being any scalar (iv) (AB)  BA 

DRILL EXERCISE - 3

1. If a, b, and c are the roots of an equation of the form x 3  x 2  p  0 , prove that the matrix
a b c 
 
A =  c a b  satisfy AAT = I .
b c a 

L
cos x
M
1 0 0 O
P
Let A = M P. If trace A = - 1 , find x .
0 cos 2 x 1 0
2. M
M0 0 cos 3x 1 P
P 2

N1 0 0 cos 4 x Q

3. Show that : (i) tr. (A + B) = tr. A + tr. B, A and B being of order n.

(ii) If A is of order m × n and B of order n × m, then tr. AB = tr. BA

4. If A is 3 × 4 matrix and B is a matrix such that AB and BA are both defined, then find the
type of B.

 8 1 4
1
5. If A =  4 4 7  , then prove that AAT = I.
9
 1  8 4

9. SPECIAL MATRICES
Symmetric Matrix
A matrix which is unchanged by transposition is called a symmetric matrix. Such a matrix is necessarily
square
 2 1 3
 1 4 1 
e.g.,  
 3 1 5
Thus if A = [aij]m × n is a symmetric matrix then m = n, aij = aji i.e., A  A .
Skew Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric, if aij = – aji for all i and j

 0 2 3 1
 2 0 4 3
e.g.  
 3 4 0 1 
 
1 3 1 0 
Thus if A = [aij]m × n is a skew symmetric matrix, then m = n, aij = – aji i.e., A   A .
Obviously diagonal elements of a square matrix are zero.
Note: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of symmetric and skew symmetric
1 1 1 1
(A  A)  (A  A) , where (A  A) and (A  A) are symmetric and
matrix. i.e., A =
2 2 2 2
skew symmetric parts of A.
Illustration 3:

 4 2  3
 1 3  6
Express A as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix, where A =  .
  5 0  7 

Solution: We have

 4 2  3
 1 3  6
A=  
  5 0  7 

 4 1 5 
A   2 3 0 

 3 6 7 

 4 2  3  4 1  5
   0 
Then A  A    1 3  6 +  2 3
  5 0  7    3  6  7

8 3  8
3 6 6 
=  ................(i)
  8  6 0 
  4 2  3  4 1  5
 1 3  6  2 3 0 
and A  A    –
  5 0  7    3  6  7

0 1 2
 
=  1 0 6  ................(ii)
 2 6 14 

Adding (1) and (ii) we get

8 3  8  0 1 2 
3 6 6     1 0  6
2A = 
  8  6 0   2 6 14 

 4 3 / 2  4  0 1/ 2 1 
3 / 2 3  3   1 / 2 0  3
 A=    
  4  3 0    1 3 7 
Symmetric matrix Skew symmetric matrix
Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal, if AA = AA  I , where I is a unit matrix.

Note: (i) If A is orthogonal, then A  is also orthogonal.

(ii) If A and B are orthogonal matrices then AB and BA are also orthogonal matrices.

Illustration 4:

 l1 m1
n1 
If A = l2 m 2 n 2  , where < l1, m1, n1 > , < l2 , m2, n2 > and < l3, m3, n3 > are the direction of
 l3m 3 n 3 
cosines of three mutually perpendicular straight lines, then prove that AA = I.

Solution:
Since < l1, m1, n1 > , < l2 , m2, n2 > and < l3, m3, n3 > are the direction cosines of three mutually
perpendicular straight lines
l12  m12  n12  1, l22  m 22  n 22  1and l32  n 32  m 32  1
and l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = l2l3 + m2m3 + n2n3 = l3l1 + m3m1 + n3n1 = 0
  l1 m1 n1   l1 l2 l3 
A   m1 m2 m3 
We have A = l2 m2 n 2   .
 l3  n1 n2 n 3 
m3 n 3 

 l1 l2 l3   l1 m1 n1   l12 l1m1 l1n1 

 
AA   m1 m2 m 3   l2 m2 n 2   l1n1 m12 m1n1 
  
 n1 n2 n 3   l3 m3 n 3   n1l1 m1n1 n12 
 

1 0 0
0 1 0  I
 0 0 1 
 
Hence proved.

Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent provided it satisfies the relation A2 = A.

 2 2 4 
e.g. The matrix A   1 3 4  is idempotent as
 1 2 3 
 

 2 2 4   2 2 4   2 2 4 
2
A   1 3 4   1 3 4    1 3 4 
 1 2 3  1 2 3   1 2 3
    
Involuntary Matrix
A matrix A such that A2 = I, is called involuntary matrix.

Illustration 5:

 0 1
Show that the matrix A =  satisfies A2 = –I. Hence or otherwise find the 16th power of the
1 0 

1 1
matrix  .
1 1 
Solution:

0 1  0 1  1 0 
A2     I
1 0   1 0   0 1

1 1  0 1 1 0 
Let B = 1 1   1 0    0 1  = A + I
     
B2 = (A + I) (A + I) = A2 + 2A + I
Since A2 = –I, B2 = 2A
  1 0   256 0 
B16 = (B2)8 = (2A)8 = 28 (A2)4 = 28 (–I)4 = 28  0 1    0 256  .
   
Periodic Matrix
A square matrix A is called periodic, if Ak + 1 = A, where k is a positive integer. If k is the least
positive integer for which Ak + 1 = A, then k is said to be period of A. For k = 1, we get A2 = A and
we called it to be idempotent matrix.
Nilopotent Matrix
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix, if there exists a positive integer m such that Am =O.
If m is the least positive integer such that Am = O, then m is called the index of the nilpotent
matrix A.
Illustration 6:

1 1 3
Show that the matrix  5 2 6  is a nilpotent matrix of index 3.
 
 2 1 3
1 1 3 0 0 0
  2  
Solution: Let A   5 2 6   A   3 3 9 
 2 1 3  1 1 3

 0 0 0   1 1 3  0 0 0 
 A  A .A   3 3 9    5 2 6   0 0 0 
3 2

 1 1 3  2 1 3 0 0 0 

 A3 = 0 i.e., A is a nilopotent matrix of index 3.

DRILL EXERCISE - 4

 1  3  4
 4  is a nilpotent matrix, then find the index of given matrix.
1. The matrix   1 5
 1  3  4

 12 1 2 1 3 

 
2. Prove that the matrix  1 2  22  2  3  is idempotent, where 1 ,  2 ,  3 are the direction
 1 3  23  32 

cosines of a line .
 L
M
0
x
2y
y
z O
P
 z is orthogonal.
3.(i) Determine x, y, z such that
M
Nx  y z P
Q
(ii) If A, B, A + I and A + B are idempotent matrices, show that AB = BA.

L
1 2 4 O
A= M
6 8 P
1 .
4. Find symmetric & skew symmetric parts of
M
N
3 5 7 P
Q
10. DETERMINANT
Equations a1x + b1y = 0 and a2x + b2y = 0 in x and y have a unique solution if and only if
a1 b1
a1b2 –a2b1  0. We write a1b2 – a2b1 as and call it a determinant of order 2.
a2 b2

Similarly the equations a1x + b1y + c1z = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3z = 0 have a
unique solution if a1(b2 c3 – b3c2) + b1 (a3c2 – a2c3) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)  0

a1 b1 c1
i.e.,   a 2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

The number ai, bi, ci (i = 1, 2, 3) are called the elements of the determinant.
The determinant obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column is called the minor of the element
at the ith row and jth column. We shall denote it by Mij. The cofactor of this element is (–1)i+j Mij,
denoted by Cij.
Let A = [aij]3×3 be a matrix, then the corresponding determinant (denoted by det A or | A |) is
a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23 .
a 31 a 32 a 33

It is easy to see that | A | = a11C11+ a12 C12 + a13C13 (we say that we have expanded the determinant
| A | along first row). Infect value of | A | can be obtained by expanding it along any row or along any
column. Further note that if elements of a row (column) are multiplied to the cofactors of other row
(column) and then added, then the result is zero : a11C 21  a12C 22  a13C 23  0 .

10.1 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

(i) The value of a determinant remains unaltered, if its rows are changed into columns and the
columns into rows.
 a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
e.g., a 2 b 2 c2  b1 b2 b3 . Thus any property true for rows will also be true for
a 3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3
columns.

(ii) If all the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are zero, then the value of the
determinant is zero.

0 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
e.g., 0 b2 c 2  0, 0 0 0 0
0 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
(iii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, then the value of the determinant
is zero.
a1 a1 c1
a 2 a 2 c2  0
e.g.,
a 3 a 3 c3
(iv) The interchange of any two rows (columns) of a determinant results in change of it’s sign
a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1
i.e, a2 b2 c2   b2 a2 c2
a3 b3 c3 b3 a3 c3
(v) If all the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are multiplies by a non-zero constant,
then the determinant gets multiplied by that constant.

a1 kb1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 ka 1 kb1 kc1

e.g., a2 kb 2 c2  k a 2 b2 c2 and k a 2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 c2
a3 kb3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3

(vi) If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is a sum of two terms, then determinant
can be written as sum of two determinant in the following way:

a1 b1 c1  d1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 d1
a2 b2 c2  d 2  a 2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3  d 3 a 3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 d3
 n n n

f (r) g(r) h(r)

 f (r)  g(r)  h(r)
r 1 r 1 r 1
n
In general 
r 1
a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

(vii) The value of a determinant remains unaltered under a column operation of the form

Ci  Ci  C j   C k ( j, k  i) or a row operation of the form

R i  R i   R j   R k ( j, k  i).

a1 b1 c1 a1 b1  2a1  3c1 c1
e.g., a2 b2 c2  a 2 b 2  2a 2  3c 2 c 2 obtained after C2  C2 + 2C1 + 3C3.
a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3  2a 3  3c3 c3

(viii) Product of two determinants

a1 b1 c1 l1 l2 l3
a2 b2 c 2  m1 m 2 m3
a3 b3 c3 n1 n 2 n3

a1l1  b1m1  c1n1 a1l2  b1m 2  c1n 2 a1l3  b1m 3  c1n 3

 a 2l1  b 2 m1  c 2 n1 a 2 l2  b 2 m 2  c 2 n 2 a 2l3  b 2 m3  c 2 n 3
a 3l1  b3 m1  c3 n1 a 3l2  b3m 2  c3n 2 a 3l3  b3m3  c3n 3
(row by column multiplication)

a1l1  b1l2  c1l3 a1m1  b1m 2  c1m3 a1n1  b1n 2  c1n 3

 a 2 l1  b 2l2  c 2l3 a 2 m1  b 2 m 2  c 2 m3 a 2 n1  b 2 n 2  c 2 n 3
a 3l1  b3l2  c3l3 a 3 m1  b3 m 2  c3m3 a 3 n1  b3 n 2  c3 n 3
(row by row multiplication)

We can also multiply determinants column by row or column by column.

DRILL EXERCISE - 5
1. If a, b and c are positive and are the pth, qth and rth terms respectively of a G.P., then show without
log a p 1
expanding that log b q 1  0 .
log c r 1
 cos(  ) cos(  ) cos(   )
2. Prove that sin(  ) sin(  ) sin(   ) is independent of  .
sin(   ) sin(  ) sin(  )

a 2   2 ab  c ca  b  c b
2 2
3. Prove that ab  c b   bc  a  c  a =  3 ( 2  a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 3 .
ac  b bc  a c 2   2 b a 

3  13 2 5 5
4. Find the value of determinant 15  26 5 10 .
3  65 15 5

7 6 x
2 x 2
5. If one of the root of the equation is x = –9, then find the other two roots.
x 3 7

(ix) Limit of a determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x) lim f (x) lim g(x) lim h(x)

xa x a xa

Let (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x) , then lim (x)  lim l(x) lim m(x) lim n(x) ,
x a xa x a xa
u(x) v(x) w(x) lim u(x) lim v(x) lim w(x)
xa x a x a

provided each of nine limiting values exist finitely.

(x) Differentiation of a determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x)

Let (x)  l(x) m(x) n(x) ,
u(x) v(x) w(x)

f (x) g(x) h(x)

f (x) g(x) h(x) f (x) g(x) h(x)
then (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x)  l (x) m(x) n (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x)
u(x) v(x) w(x) u(x) v(x) w(x) u (x) v(x) w (x)
(xi) Integration of a Determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x)

Let (x)  a b c , where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants,
l m n
 b b b

 f (x)dx
a
 g(x)dx
a
 h(x) dx
a
b

then  (x) dx 
a
a b c
l m n

Note that if more than one row (column) of (x) are variable, then in order to find   (x) dx first
a
we evaluate the determinant (x) by using the properties of determinants and then we integrate it.

DRILL EXERCISE - 6

c h
cos x  x 2 sin( x  x 2 )  cos( x  x 2 )
2
1. If f(x) = sin( x  x ) cos( x  x 2 ) sin( x  x 2 ) then find f (0) .
sin(2 x) 0 sin(2 x 2 )

cos x x 1
2 sin x x 2
2x f ' ( 0)
2. Let f(x) = , then find lim .
x 0 x
tan x x 1

x  a x2 1 1
2
3. If a, b, c are in A.P. and f(x) = x  b 2x  1 1 then f(x) is
x  c 3x 2  2 1

4. If f r (x), g r (x), h r (x) where r = 1, 2, 3 are polynomials in x, such that

f1 (x) f 2 (x) f3 (x)

f r(a) = gr(a) = hr (a) ; r = 1, 2, 3 and F(x)  g1 (x) g 2 (x) g 3 (x) , then find F(a) .
h1 (x) h 2 (x) h 3 (x)

2
u v 0
u 3 d y
5. If y  , where u and v are functions of x, show that v  u  v v .
v dx 2
u v 2v

11. SPECIAL DETERMINANTS

(i) Skew symmetric Determinant

0 b c
b 0 a 0
A determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order is zero. e.g.,
c a 0
 (iii) Circulant Determinant
A determinant is called circulant if its rows (columns) are cyclic shifts of the first row (columns).

a b c
b c a
e.g., . It can be show that its value is – (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc) .
c a b

1 1 1
(iv) a b c  (a  b) (b  c) (c  a)
a2 b2 c2

1 1 1
a b c  (a  b) (b  c) (c  a) (a  b  c)
(v)
a3 b3 c3

1 1 1
2 2
a b c2
(iv) = (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (ab + bc + ca)
a3 b3 c3

Illustration 7:
If A, B and C are the angles of a triangle and

1 1 1
1  sin A 1  sin B 1  sin C  0 , prove that the  ABC is isosceles.
sin A  sin A sin B  sin B sin C  sin 2 C
2 2

Solution :

1 1 1
Let   1  sin A 1  sin B 1  sin C
sin A  sin 2 A sin B  sin 2 B sin C  sin 2 C
Applying C 2  C 2  C1 and C3  C3  C1 , we get

1 0 0
 1  sin A sin B  sin A sin C  sin A
2
sin A  sin A (sin B  sin A) (sin B  sin A  1) (sin C  sin A) (sin C  sin A  1)
Expanding along R1

sin B  sin A sin C  sin A


(sin B  sin A) (sin B  sin A  1) (sin C  sin A) (sin C  sin A  1)
 1 1
= (sinB – sinA) (sinC – sinA)
sin B  sin A  1 sin C  sin A  1
Now   0  (sinB – sinA) (sinC – sinA) (sinC – sinB) = 0
 sinB = sinA or sinC = sinA or sinC = sinB
 B = A or C = A or C = B
In all the three cases, we will have an isosceles triangle.

12. ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Let A = [aij]n×n be an n × n matrix. The transpose B of the matrix B = [Aij]n ×n, where Aij denotes
the cofactor of the element aij in the determinant |A|, is called the adjoint of the matrix A and is
denoted by the symbol adj A.
Thus the adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose of the matrix formed by the cofactors of A i.e., if

 a11 a12  a1n   A11 A 21  A1n 

a a 22  a 2n  A A 22  A n2 
A  21
, then AdjA   12
         
   
 a n1 a n 2  a nn   A1n A 2n  A nn 

It is easy to see that A(adjA) = (adj A)A = |A|. In.

13. INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Let A be any n–rowed square matrix. Then a matrix B, if exists, such that AB = BA = In, is called
the inverse of A. Inverse of A is usually denoted by A–1 (if exists).
We have |A| In = A(adjA)
 |A| A–1 = (adjA). Thus the necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to possess
Adj(A)
the inverse is that |A|  0 and then A–1 = . A square matrix A is called non-singular if
|A|
|A|  0. Hence a square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non-singular..

Properties of Inverse of a Matrix

(i) Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse.
(ii) If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is invertible and
(AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
(iii) If A is an invertible square matrix, then AT is also invertible and (AT)–1 = (A–1)T.
(iv) If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n, then |adjA| = |A|n–1
(v) If A and B are non-singular square matrices o f the same o rder, then
adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
Illustration 8:

1 2 2
 
If A =  2 1 2  , then show that A2 – 4A – 5I = 0, where I and 0 are the unit matrix and the null
 2 2 1
 

matrix of order 3 respectively. Use this result to find A–1 .

Solution :

1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 9 8 8
 
Given A =  2 1 2   A =  2 1 2  2 1 2  =  8 9 8 
2
   
 2 2 1  2 2 1   2 2 1   8 8 9 
     

9 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0
2      
A  4A  5I   8 9 8   4  2 1 2   5  0 1 0 
 8 8 9  2 2 1 0 0 1
     

 9 8 8   4 8 8   5 0 0  0 0 0
     
  8 9 8    8 4 8    0 5 0  0 0 0
=
 8 8 9   8 8 4   0 0 5   0 0 0 
     

 A2 – 4A – 5I = 0
or 5I = A2 – 4A
on multiplying by A–1 , we get

 3 2 2 
1 2 2  4 0 0  
 2 3 2 
5A–1 = A – 4I   2 1 2    0 4 0  
     
 2 2 1   0 0 4   2 2 3 
   

 3 2 2   3/ 5 2 / 5 2 / 5 
1  
 A 1   2 3 2    2 / 5 3/ 5 2 / 5  .
5  

 2 2 3   2 / 5 2 / 5 3/ 5 
 DRILL EXERCISE - 7

2
1. Prove that Adj (Adj (A)) = |A| n–2 A. Deduce that |Adj (Adj (A))| = | A |( n 1) .

1 2
2. If A = 3 4 , show that A satisfies the equation A2 – 5A – 2I = 0. Using this result determine A5.
 

3. If A and B are non-singular matrices of order n × n, prove that

(a) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
(b) If A is non-singular then (A–1)–1 = A.
(c) If A is non-singular, then (A–1)´ = (A´)–1.
(d) If the matrix product AB of two square matrices is zero, then either A = 0 or B = 0 or both
A and B are singular matrices.

 a b (a  b)
4. Find the condition for the matrix  b c (b  c) to be non invertible.
 2 1 0 

5. If a matrices A satisfies a relation A2 + A – I = 0, prove that A–1 exists and A–1 = I + A, I being
identity matrix.

14. SYSTEM OF LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Consider the system of linear non-homogeneous simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y
and z, given by a1x + b1y + c1z = d1, a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 and a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ,

 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 
Let A   a 2 c 2  , X   y  , B   d 2  ,
b2   
 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
Let | A | =   a 2 b2 c2 ,  x  d 2 b2 c 2 , obtained on replacing first column of  by B.
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3

a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
Similarly let  y  a 2 d2 c 2 and  z  a 2 b2 d2 .
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

It can be shown that AX = B, x    x , y.   y , z   z .

14.1 Determinant Method of Solution
We have the following two cases :
Case I
If   0, then t he given system of equat ions has unique solution, given by
x   x / , y   y /  and z   z / .

Case II
If   0, then two sub cases arise:
(a) at least one of  x ,  y and  z is non-zero, say  x  0. Now in x.    x , L.H.S. is zero
and R.H.S. is not equal to zero. Thus we have no value of x satisfying x.    x . Hence
given system of equations has no solution.
(b)  x   y   z  0. In the case the given equations are dependent. Delete one or two
equation from the given system (as the case may be) to obtain independent equation(s).
The remaining equation(s) may have no solution or infinitely many solution(s).
For example in x + y + z = 3, 2x + 2y + 2z = 9, 3x + 3y + 3z = 12,    x   y   z  0
and hence equations are dependent (infact third equation is the sum of first two equations).
Now after deleting the third equation we obtain independent equations x + y + z = 3,
2x + 2y + 2z = 9, which obviously have no solution (infact these are parallel planes) where
as in x + y + z = 3, 2x – y + 3z = 4, 3x + 4z = 7,    x =  y   z  0 and hence
equations are dependent (infact third equation is the sum of first two equations). Now after
deleting any equation (say third) we obtain independent equations x + y + z = 3,
2x – y + 3z = 4, which have infinitely many solutions (infact these are non parallel planes)
7  4  2
For let z =   R, then x  and y  . Hence we get infinitely many solutions.
3 3
14.2 Matrix Method of Solution
(a)   0, then A–1 exists and hence AX = B  A–1 (AX) = A–1 B  x = A–1 B and therefore
unique values of x, y and z are obtained.
(b) : We have AX = B  ((adj A)A)X = (adj A)B  X = (adj A)B.
If  = 0, then X = 03 × 1, zero matrix of order 3 × 1. Now if (adj A)B = 0, then the system
AX = B has infinitely many solution, else no solution.
Note : A system of equation is called consistent if it has a least one solution. If the system has no solution,
then it is called inconsistent.

Illustration 9:
Solve the system of equations, x + 2y + 3z = 1 ; 2x + 3y + 2z = 2 ; 3x + 3y + 4z = 1
with the help of matrix inversion.
Solution :
The given system of equations in the matrix form can be written as
1 2 3  x  1
 2 3 2   y    2
       AX = B
 3 3 4   z   1 

1 2 3  x  1
where A   2 3 2  , X   y  and B   2  .
   
 3 3 4   z   1 

Now |A| = 1(12 – 6) – 2 (8 – 6) + 3(6 – 9) = 6 – 4 – 9 = –7  0.

Hence the given system has unique solution.

 C11 C12 C13 

Let C be the matrix of cofactors of elements in |A|. Then C  C 21 C 22 C23 

C31 C32 C33 

3 2 1 2
Here C11  6 ; C 23   3
3 4 3 3
2 2 2 3
C12   2 ; C31  5
3 4 3 2
2 3 1 3
C13  3 ; C32   4
3 3 2 2
2 3 1 2
C 21   1 ; C33   1
3 4 2 3
1 3
C 22  5
3 4

 6 2 3  6 1 5
 C   1 5 3    Adj A = C   2 5 4 
 
 5 4 1  3 3 1

 6 1 5   6 / 7 1/ 7 5 / 7 
AdjA 1
A 1     2 5 4    2 / 7 5 / 7 4 / 7 
 |A| 7
 3 3 1  3/ 7 3/ 7 1/ 7 
  6 / 7 1/ 7 5 / 7  1
 A B   2 / 7 5 / 7 4 / 7 
1 2 
 
 3/ 7 3 / 7 1/ 7   1 

 x   3 / 7 
 y   8 / 7 
     ( A–1 B = X )
 z   2 / 7 

 x = –3/7, y = 8/7, z = –2/7

DRILL EXERCISE - 8

1. Solve the following system of equations by Determinant Method.

(i) x + y + z = 6, x + 2y + 3z = 14, x + 4y + 7z = 30

(ii) x + y + z = 6, x – y + z = 2, 2x + y – z = 1

(iii) x + y + z = 3, x + 2y + 3z = 4, 2x + 3y + 4z = 8.

2. If x = cy + bz, y = az + cx, z = bx + ay where x, y, z are not all zeros, prove by using consistency
of equations that a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 abc = 1.

3. Solve the following system of equation by Matrix Method

(i) 5x + 2y = 4; 7x + 3y = 5
3
(ii) 2x + y + z = 1 ;x – 2y – z = ; 3y – 5z = 9
2

4. Solve the following system of equation by Matrix Method

(i) 2x + 3y + 3z = 5; x – 2y + z = –4; 3x – y – 2z = 3

(ii) x – y + 2z = 7; 3x + 4y – 5z = –5; 2x – y + 3z = 12

5. Investigate for what values of ,  the equations

x+ y+ z= 6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + z   have
 (i) no solution
(ii) unique solution
(iii) infinitely many solutions

15. SYSTEM OF LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Consider the system of linear homogeneous simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y and z,
given by a1x + b1y + c1z = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3z = 0.
In this case, system of equations is always consistent as x = y = z = 0 is always a solution. If the
system has unique solution (the case when coefficient determinant  0), then x = y = z = 0 is the
only solution (called trivial solution). However if the system has coefficient determinant = 0, then
the system has infinitely many solutions. Hence in this case we get solutions other than trivial
solution also and we say that we have non-trivial solutions.

Illustration 10:
Solve : 2x + 3ky + (3k + 4) z = 0
x + (k + 4) y + (4k + 2) z = 0
x + 2(k + 1)y + (3k + 4) z = 0.
2 3k 3k  4  x 
 1 k  4 4k  2   
Solution : The given system of equations is AX = 0, where A =   and X =  y  .
 1 2k  2 3k  4  z
Now | A | = 0  k =  2
Hence if k   2, then | A |  0  the given system has only trivial solution
i.e., x = y = z = 0.
However if k = – 2 or 2, then | A | = 0 and we consider the cases separately

Case I k = 2,
the given equations become
2x + 6y + 10z = 0  x + 3y + 5z = 0 . . . (i)
x + 6y + 10z = 0 . . . (ii)
x + 6y + 10z = 0 . . . (iii)
Hence independent equation are (i) and (ii). Solving we get,
3
x = 0, 3y + 5z = 0  x = 0, y =  , z =   ,   R .
5

Case II k = – 2
The given equations becomes
2x – 6y – 2z = 0  x – 3y – z = 0 . . . (iv)
x + 2y – 6z = 0 . . . (v)
x – 2y – 2z = 0 . . . (vi)
 4 1
We observe that (iv) + (v) = (vi). Thus equations are dependent. Consider independent
5 5
equations x – 3y – z = 0 and x – 2y – 2z = 0. Let z =   R, then x – 3y =  and x – 2y = 2 
 y =  , x = 4  . Hence x = 4  , y =  and z =  ,   R.

DRILL EXERCISE - 9

1  1 1
 2 1 3
1. If A =   , Find A–1. Using A–1, solve the following system of linear equation.
1 1 1

x + 2y + z = 4 ; –x + y + z = 0 ; x – 3y + z = 2.

2. Show that the equations 3x + 4y + 5z = a ; 4x + 5y + 6z = b ; 5x + 6y + 7z = c, do not have a

solution unless a + c = 2b.

3. Solve the following system of homogeneous equations

2x + 3y – z = 0 ; x – y – 2z = 0 ; 3x + y + 3z = 0

4. Find the product of the following matrices

 5 1 3 1 1 2
7 1  5  3 2 1
A=  and B =   and use it to solve the following system of linear
 1  1 1   2 1 3
equations.
x + y + 2z = 1 ; 3x + 2y + z = 7; 2x + y + 3z = 2

5. Show that the following system of equations is inconsistent,

3x – y + 2z = 3 ; 2x + y + 3z = 5 ; x – 2y – z = 1.
 ANSWERS
Drill Exercise -1
 3 5 7
1.  4 6 8 2. 1, 2, 4, 5
 

2 2
4 2  7  2 6 5  5 2
3.  4 6  2 and  0 6 12 5.  
    8 8
Drill Exercise -3
2 k
2. x= , k I , k  9 n , n I 4. 3 × 4, 3 × 3
9
Drill Exercise -4
L
M
1 1 1 O
3P
x , y , z
1. 2
N 2
3. (i)
6 Q
L
1
M
4
4
8
7 / 2O L 0  2
3 P & M2 0
1 / 2O
 2P
4.
M
N
7/2 3 7 P QNM
 1 / 2 2 0 P
Q
Drill Exercise -5

4. 15 2  25 3 5. 2, 7
Drill Exercise -6

1. 2 2. –2 3. 0
Drill Exercise -7
1069 1558 1
2.  2337 3046 4. =
  2
Drill Exercise -8
1. (i) x = k – 2, y = 8 – k, z = k, k  R. (ii) x =1, y = 2, z = 3
(iii) no solution
1 3
3. (i) x = 2, y = –3 (ii) x = 1, y = ,z=–
2 2
4. (i) x = 1, y = 2, z = –1 (ii) x = 2, y = 1, z = 3
5. (i)   3,   10 (ii)   3,   R (iii)   3,   10
Drill Exercise -9
9 2 7
1. x= , y= ,z = 3. x= y= z= 0
5 5 5
4. x = 2, y = 1, z = –1