Introduction to Structure of English Douglas A. Aragon IITable of Specification Demonstrate understanding of the structural aspect of language, i.e., morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics Apply concepts and principles of language learning, teaching, and language use in specific contexts for language acquisition and learning Draw implication of the theories of linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics to language teaching Demonstrate the understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyze the form, meaning, and use of various language structuresDEFINITION OF LANGUAGE ¥ Mental To express “imitation interaction : ‘peoltary phenomenon vTopersuade “Repetition Socialization v Means of ¥ innate YTogivelask “Reinforcement communication ¥ LAD information ¥ Primarily Vocal ¥To make someone do something* Language: - System of arbitrary system of vocal sounds and symbols used by people for communication. * Arbitrary = - culture * System - words * Vocal sounds __ - body organs * Symbols — - graphic representation* LANGUAGE- is a process of systematic patterning of sounds and symbols which is governed by rules both in oral and written form for cognitive, emotive and effective communication of individuals. * Polyglot — speakers of many languages * Linguist — person who study the structure of human language.ABCs Nature of Language Is the word arbitrary? Background knowledge Culturally determined Context of the situation Doing something when we say something Essentially sounds? Elements combining to form higher elements Feeling and emotions combined Generative — endless utterances Highly systematic and symbolic Innata hialaninalhs hisiltCharacteristics of Language * 1. Language is the invention of man. * 2. Language is speech; all languages were spoken before they were written. * 3. Spoken language uses symbol to convey meaning; the spoken word cow, for example, is not a cow, but a symbol for a cow.Characteristics of language 4. The symbols of a spoken language can usually be represented by written symbols. 5. A language is established by social agreement; member of a given culture agree on the meanings of the symbols hey use. The Germans, for instance, use the symbol Rferd; the French, cheval; and the English, horse — all to refer o the same animal. 6. Language is a system, not simply a random collection of vocal raises.Functions of Language 1. Instrumental function - When you ask someone to do something for you. 2. Regulatory functions - Controlling events ones they happen (approved/disapproved) 3. Representational function - Communicating knowledge to the world (reporting)Functions of Language 4. Interactional function - Maintaining personal relation (hi, hello, greetings) 5. Personal - Expressing ones’ self (apologizing) 6. Heuristic Function - Acquiring knowledge and learning about the world (interviewing someone, research, interview people) 7. Imaginative Function - Creating imaginary system (poems, short stories)Sub-field of Linguistics Phonetics and phonology are the subfields of linguistics that study the structure and systematic patterning of sounds. Morphology is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the relationships among words. Syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationships among the internal parts.Semantics is the subfield of linguistics that studies the nature of the meaning of individual words, and the meaning of words grouped into phrases and sentences. Pragmatics is the subfield of linguistics that studies the use of words (and phrases and sentences) in the actual context of discourse.Morphology * Morpheme is the basic parts of complex word or the different building blocks that make it up. * Free Morpheme can stand alone as an independent word in a phrase. + Bound Morpheme cannot stand alone but must be attached to another morpheme.Classification of morpheme « Free morpheme Open-class words (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) Closed-class words (conjunction, articles, demonstratives, preposition, comparatives, quantifiers) * Bound morpheme (affixes, bound base, contracted form)How New Words Are Created Abbreviation (CD, ER, PC) Orthographic Abbreviation (Dr., Mr.) Acronym (radar, CHED) Clippings (fax, prof) Blends (brunch) Generification (xerox) Category Change (to people = island) Metaphorical Extension (Let me chew those ideas) CompoundingMorphological Changes * Phonological Change * Category Change * Semantic Change Morphological Inflections * — Noun inflectional suffixes * — Verb inflectional suffixes * Adjective inflectional suffixesverb inflectional suffixes 3" person singular marker —s or es Past tense marker — ed Progressive Marker — ing Past participle markers — en or edPhonology & phonetics * Phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are produced (articulated) in the vocal tract and the physical properties of the speech sound waves generated by the vocal tract. * Phonology studies the structure and systematic pattering of sounds in human language.How sound wave is produced? * Sound waves are produced by a complex interaction of: * 1. An outward flow of air from the lungs. * 2. Modification of the airflow at the larynx (the Adam's apple or “voice box” in the throat). * 3. Additional modification of the airflow by position and movement of the tongue and other anatomical structure of the vocal tract.The Consonants of American English * Aconsonant is a speech sound produced when the speaker either stops or severely constricts the airflow in the vocal tract. In addition to being classified as voiceless (like the sound s — sound in cats) or voiced (like the z — sound in dogs).Stops are sounds produced when the airflow is completely obstructed during speech. /p/ pin — voiceless bilabial stop (bilabial — the airflow is stopped b the complete closure of the two lips). * /b/ Bob — voiced bilabial stop. + /t/ tin — voiceless alveolar stop? (alveolar — produced when the tongue tip approaches or touches the roof of the mouth at or near alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth). + /d/ dad — voiced alveolar stop + /k/ kite — voiceless velar stop (velar — formed when the body of the tongue approaches or touches the roof of the mouth on the palate). * /a/ aaa — voiced velar ston.Fricatives — are sounds produced when the airflow is forced through a narrow opening in the vocal tract so that noise produced by friction is created. + /f/ - voiceless labiodentals fricative (labiodentals — indicates that the point of contact involves the lower lip and the upper teeth). + /v/ vine — voiced labiodentals fricative. * /0/ thin — voiceless interdental fricative (interdental sounds are produced when the tongue tip is placed against the upper teeth, friction being created by air forced between the upper teeth and the tongued)./6/ this, that — voiced interdental fricative /§/ sit — voiceless alveolar fricative /z/ Zeke — voiced alveolar Fricative /8/, (IPA/J/) ship — voiceless alveopalatal fricative /z/, (IPA/3/) Zsa-Zsa, Jacques — voiced alveopalatal fricative /h/ how, here — glottal fricative (glottal — the vocal cords are positioned so that a small amount of turbulent airflow is produced across the glottis)Affricates are a single but complex sound, beginning as a stop but releasing secondarily into a fricative. /é/ (IPA/tI/) chip — a voiceless alveopalatal affricate. /j/ (IPA/d3/) judge — voiced alveopalatal affricate. Nasals the airflow and sound energy are channeled into the nasal passages due to the lowering of the velum. /mimice — bilabial nasal /n/ nice — alveolar nasal /n/ finger, singer — velar nasalLiquids — are non — technical, impressionistic expression indicating that the sound is “smooth” and “flows” easily. It shares properties of both consonants and vowels; as in the articulation of vowels, air is allowed to pass through the oral cavity without great friction. * /I/ life — literal alveolar liquid + /r/ red — non lateral alveolar liquid Glides — the term glide is based on the observation that the sequence of a glide and a vowel is a smooth, continues gesture. /y/ (IPA/j/) yes — alveopalatal glide * /w/ wood - labialized velar glide /m/ which, witch — labialized velar glideThe Vowels of American English Lax (Short) Vowels + /I/ (IPA/t/) A lax high front vowel. The term high and front describe the position of the tongue in the mouth. The symbol /I/ represents the vowel sound in the words bit /bIt/ and wish /wls/. + /£/ A lax mid front vowel. The tongue body is relatively forward, as in the production of /I/, but | is slightly lower. The symbol /£/ represents the vowel sound in the words get /g£t/ mess /m£s/.+ /el A lax lo front vowel. This vowel (and he symbol for it) is called ash b many linguists, and the symbol / ze/ represents, in fact, the vowel sound in the word ash /ee8/. It is produced with a front tongue body and with a lowered tongue body and jaw. * /u/ (IPA/ w /) A lax high back vowel. The vowel sound represented by the symbol /u/ is found in words such as put /put/ and foot/fut/. As you start to pronounce the vowel /u/, you can feel your tongue move back and upward to the velum. You can also feel your lips become rounded (pursed and brought closer together) during the production of this vowel; hence it is called a rounded vowel./A/ A lax mid back vowel. The vowel sound represented by the symbol /“/, sometimes called wedge, occurs in words such as putt /p“t / and luck /I*k/. + /a/ A lax low back vowel. The position of the tongue is low and retracted /a/. There are several varieties of /a/ - like vowels in English; these vowels constitute one of the most difficult aspects of the study of English vowel sounds. The difficulty is due in part to the fact that there is considerable dialect variation in the pronunciation of these vowels. We leave it to your it your instructor to help assign the appropriate symbols to represent vowels of your own speech or of the English spoken in your area. The vowel sound represented by the symbol /a/ (script — a/ is the low back vowel shared by most speakers of American English. It is typically found in words such as hot /hat/ and pot /pat/.+ / A lax low back (rounded) vowel. If you pronounce the words cot and caught differently, you probably have the vowel /-= /in your pronunciation of caught. There is minor lip rounding in the articulation of this vowel.Tense (Long) Vowels and Diphthongs + liy/ (IPA /i/) A tense high front vowel ?(with an accompanying /y/ - off glide). For this vowel, the /y/- offglide is difficult to hear since it is articulated in essentially the same position as the initial vowel. You may nevertheless may feel your tongue moving upward throughout the /iy/ articulation, demonstrating the two-part nature of this sound. The transcription /iy/ represents the vowel sound in words such as bead (biyd) and three (Oriy/.* /ey/ (IPA /e/) A tense mid front vowel (with an accompanying /y/-offglide). When you pronounce this vowel, you can easily follow the change that occurs in pronunciation from a mind front vowel to a /y/-offglide. The vowel is found in words such as clay /kley/ and weight/wey/.+ /uw/ (IPA /u/) A tense high back (rounded) vowel with an accompanying /w/-offglide). For this vowel, the /w/-offglide id difficult to hear since it is articulated at the same position as the initial /u/ vowel. You will nevertheless be able to perceive the continual and increasing rounding of your lips as you pronounce this diphthong. This transcription ee the vowel sound in words such as crued /kruwd/ and shoe /Suw/. + /ow/ (IPA /O/) A tense mid back (rounded) vowel (with an accompanying /w/-offglide). This transcription represents the vowel sound in words boat /bowt/ and toe /tow/.+ /oy/ (IPA /2j/) A tense mid back (rounded) vowel (with an accompanying /y/-offglide). This transcription represents the vowel sound in words such as boy (boy/ and Floyd /floyd/. + /awl (IPA /aus/ A tense low back vowel (with an accompanying /w/-offglide). This transcription represents the vowel sound in the words cow /kaw/ and blouse /blaws/. In some dialects of American English this diphthong begins with a low vowel and should be transcribed as /eew/. + Jay/ (IPA /at/) A tense low back vowel (with an accomnanvina /v/-offalide). This transcrintion renresents,VOICE QUALITY * VOICE- is the production of sound. * SPEECH- is the combination of sounds. * Quality- is the distinctive characteristics of voice that makes it pleasant or unpleasant. -often referred to as “timbre” or “tone color”Five Common Voice * 1. Normal Voice - You speak naturally showing little or no emotion. This is the result of proper distribution between the oral and nasal resonance. - 2. Breathy Voice- It is used when you want to create an atmosphere of secrecy and mystery.3.The Full Voice- Use the full, deep quality of your voice when it must be projected to a greater distance or when a occasion is formal and dignified. -this is commonly used in public speaking. * 4.The Chesty Voice- This is a deep hollow voice as if coming from a deep and empty cave. ex. Voice of a ghost or a spirit¢ 5. Thin Voice- thin and high-pitched; it occurs in extreme fatigue, weakening, old age, ill-health or excitement. * Volume- the loudness or softness of voice. RATE OF SPEECH * SPEED- the duration of delivery -this is important to avoid monotony