Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2017; 5(6): 2122-2127

E-ISSN: 2320-7078
P-ISSN: 2349-6800
JEZS 2017; 5(6): 2122-2127
Study on efficacy of diatomaceous earth to
© 2017 JEZS
Received: 19-09-2017
ameliorate aflatoxin induced patho-morphological
Accepted: 22-10-2017 changes in kidneys of broiler chicken
AW Lakkawar
Department of Pathology,
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of AW Lakkawar, HD Narayanaswamy and ML Satyanarayana
Veterinary Education and
Research (RIVER), Abstract
Kurumbapet, Pondicherry, The present study was carried out at Department of Pathology, Veterinary College, Bangalore, India from
India July 2014 to December 2014. The ability of Diatomaceous earth (DAE) in reducing the detrimental
effects of aflatoxin (AF) on kidneys of broiler birds was evaluated following supplementation of 2000
HD Narayanaswamy
Department of Pathology,
mg DAE along with 0.5 and 1 ppm of AF/Kg feed. A total of 240 healthy day old broiler chicks were
Veterinary College, Bangalore, divided into 6 groups comprising of control and treatment groups. AF feeding caused enlargement,
Karnataka India friable texture, yellowish discoloration and congestion of kidneys. Histopathology revealed varying
degree of congestion and haemorrhages, glomerulo-tubular degeneration and mononuclear as well as
ML Satyanarayana heterophilic cellular infiltration in renal parenchyma.
Department of Pathology, Co-treatment with DAE and aflatoxin resulted in significant decrease in severity and magnitude of renal
Veterinary College, Bangalore, lesions. The study concluded that 2000 mg of DAE in feed can be effectively used to reduce the
Karnataka India histotoxic effects of aflatoxin in broiler chicken.

Keywords: Aflatoxin, 2% diatomaceous earth, amelioration, gross and histopathology, kidneys, broiler
chicken

1. Introduction
Aflatoxins (AF) are secondary metabolites and a class of mycotoxins produced predominantly
by Aspergillus flavus and A. Parasiticus [4]. These toxins are present worldwide in feeds and
cause severe economic losses to the poultry and livestock industries [26]. Studies showed the
adverse effects of aflatoxin in broiler chickens including decrease in body weight gain,
efficiency of feed utilization, alteration in serum biochemical parameters, pathologic changes
in visceral and lymphoid organs as well as altered immune responses [49, 20, 21, 22]. Aflatoxins
disturb the renal function through increasing the relative weight of kidneys [35], inducing
congestion in renal sinusoids [14], degenerative and necrotic changes in renal tubular epithelium
[30, 14, 50]
and reduce the glomerular filtration rate [11].
Producers, researchers and governments aim to develop effective prevention management and
decontamination technologies to minimise the toxic effects of AF [37]. Approaches used have
included the physical, chemical and biological treatment of contaminated feed and feed stuffs.
The adsorbent materials (Aluminosilicates, Bentonite, Silicas, Zeolite, Mycosorb, etc) have
been evaluated for their ability to remove or diminish the adverse effect of mycotoxins in
animal feed. These compounds must have the ability to bind physically with chemical
substances, precluding their absorption [48]. A variety of adsorbents such as bentonite [37],
zeolite [25], hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate [2], Saccharomyces cerevisiae [5] and
activated charcoal [16] have been used successfully in detoxifying AF in contaminated feeds.
Diatomite or diatomaceous earth (DAE) is a mineral that consists of 90% silicon dioxide. It is
fine-grained, biogenic siliceous sediment, and is available in large quantities at relatively low
cost [17]. DAE can be milled to a fine powder, the particle size will differ depending on the
milling used and could affect performance. Diatomite is an inert dust formed by milling of
Correspondence fossilized remains of phytoplankton (diatoms), composed of silicon dioxide, commonly used
AW Lakkawar
Department of Pathology,
for the control of insects infesting stored products [3]. Poultry farmers sometimes feed
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of diatomaceous earth to the birds with the belief that the sharp edges of the fossilized diatoms
Veterinary Education and will damage the parasites in turn it will reduce coccidiosis; however, there is no scientific data
Research (RIVER), to support its use [24]. Earlier study indicated that diatomite is not effective in reducing the
Kurumbapet, Pondicherry, detrimental effects of aflatoxin in broiler [9]. However, Modirsanei et al [27] reported that
India
Diatomaceous earth significantly increased body weight gain, feed intake and improved feed
~ 2122 ~
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies

conversion ratio as well as productive efficiency index, were recorded. Representative tissue samples from kidneys
increased serum albumin and the activity of serum lactate were immediately collected and fixed in 10% buffered
dehydrogenase in the birds fed with AF mixed diet. The formalin for histological examination. Samples from kidneys
variations in results with DAE may be due to variations in were dehydrated in ascending grades of ethanol, cleared in
sources of DAE and processing used in the earlier studies. xylene and embedded in paraffin. Sections of 3-5 μm were
Diatomites from different sources vary in their mineralogical obtained and stained with haematoxylin/eosin (H&E) as per
composition, morphological characteristics and milled particle standard procedure [23]. Light microscopy was used to
sizes. Diatoms vary significantly in size and shape as there are evaluate congestion, degeneration, necrosis, fatty changes and
several thousand species of diatoms [39]. The diatomite used in leucocytic infiltration [38].
this study contains beneficial levels of montmorrillonite The experimental data collected was analysed using the
comprising of hydrated sodium calcium aluminium General Linear models (GLM) procedure using Statistical
magnesium silicate known in the prevention of aflatoxins [34]. Package for the Social Sciences software 16 (SPSS) of 2010
Considering the beneficial properties of diatomaceous earth, version. Statements of statistical significance were based on
the present study was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of P<0.05.
DAE in ameliorating aflatoxin induced experimental patho-
morphological changes in kidneys of broiler chicken. 3. Results
3.1 Gross Pathology
2. Materials and Methods In the present study, gross pathological changes were
The present study was carried out at Department of recorded in kidneys on day 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 day of the
Pathology, Veterinary College, Bangalore, India from July experimental study. The birds of group I (Control) and group
2014 to December 2014. Two hundred and forty unsexed day- II (DAE treated) revealed normal morphological appearance
old healthy broiler chicks were procured from a reputed of the organ throughout the experimental study. The aflatoxin
commercial hatchery and reared in battery cage system in fed birds of group III and IV were emaciated on all the days
experimental sheds with average temperature ranging from 27 of observation. In Group III and IV birds, the kidneys
to 31oC and relative humidity of 59% to 62% with 16:8± 1h appeared pale and swollen in the first and second weeks.
(Light : Dark) cycle of intensity of 10 to 20 lux. All chicks Kidneys appeared mildly congested by the end of third week
were vaccinated on days 7 and 11 of age with the LaSota and thereafter moderately congested (Fig. 1). At the end of the
strain of Newcastle disease virus and Infectious bursal disease experiment, kidneys were enlarged and pale with yellowish
(intermediate strain) respectively. discoloration (Fig. 2). The changes observed in birds of group
Optimum conditions of management were provided to the V to VI (aflatoxin with supplementation with DAE) were less
birds throughout the period of experiment. Toxin free and pronounced and showed improvement (Fig. 3).
DAE free Starter and Finisher broiler feed was procured from
Department of Poultry Science, Veterinary College,
Bangalore, India as recommended by the National Research
Council. Required quantities of cultured aflatoxin material
were added to make the final concentration of aflatoxin in
feed to be 0.5 ppm and 1ppm.
The approval of the Institute Animal Ethics Committee
(IAEC) was obtained prior to the conduct of the experiment.
The birds were randomly divided into 6 groups, each
comprising of 40 chicks (Table 1).

Table 1: Experimental groups in the present study

Groups Treatment
I CONTROL (Toxin free & DAE free feed)
II AGRIPOWER DAE 2000 mg/kg of feed Fig 1: Kidneys from bird fed AF 0.5 ppm showing enlargement and
III AFLATOXIN ( 1 ppm) congestion on day 28 of experiment.
IV AFLATOXIN ( 0.5 ppm)
V AFLATOXIN (1 ppm) + DAE 2000 mg/kg of feed
VI AFLATOXIN (0.5 ppm)+ DAE 2000 mg/kg of feed

All the birds were checked daily for the health and husbandry
conditions. All the sanitary and hygienic precautions were
strictly followed throughout the experiment. Prior permission
of the Institute Animal Ethical Committee (IAEC) was
obtained before the conduct of experiment. The birds were
observed daily for clinical signs and mortality (if any). A
complete record of the daily mortality (if any) was also
maintained. Six birds selected randomly from each group
were weighed individually and sacrificed on day 7, 14, 21, 28
and 35 of experiment.
All the six birds sacrificed on weekly intervals were subjected Fig 2: Kidneys from bird fed AF 1 ppm showing enlargement and
to detailed post-mortem examination and gross lesions if any pale discoloration on day 35 of experiment.

~ 2123 ~
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies

Group V and VI (Aflatoxin and DAE): The

histopathological changes of different organs in birds fed with
aflatoxin (0.5 and 1 ppm) and supplemented with DAE @
2000 mg/kg feed at different time intervals revealed mild
degree of congestion and haemorrhages, vacuolar
degeneration of renal tubules epithelial cells with focal
collections of mononuclear cells in the interstitium from day
14 of experiment. On day 35 of experiment, the kidneys
revealed almost normal architecture with minimal vascular
congestion and vacuolar changes in the tubular epithelium
(Fig. 6).

Fig 3: Kidneys from bird fed AF 1ppm + 2% DAE showing marked

improvement in size and texture on day 35 of experiment.

3.2 Histopathology:
The birds of group I (Control), group II (DAE) revealed
normal architecture of kidneys at different intervals of time.

Group III and IV (Aflatoxin): The renal parenchyma in

aflatoxin fed birds at different time intervals revealed mild to
moderate degree of vascular congestion and haemorrhages in
occasional areas and mild to moderate degree of tubular
epithelial degeneration predominantly in the proximal
convoluted tubules. In addition, infiltration of mononuclear
cells and heterophils was also observed from day 14 of the
experiment (Fig 4, 5). Fig 6: Kidney from bird fed AF 0.5 ppm supplemented with 2%
DAE showing marked improvement in the glomeruli and tubules on
day 35 of experiment. H&E X 200.

4. Discussion
Mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxin, are important to the
poultry industry because of frequent occurrence in feed stuffs
which can cause severe economic loss and health problems to
poultry [6].
Several studies have been carried out to reduce the toxicity of
AF in broilers and many commercial have been investigated
to bind as well as absorption of AF in gastrointestinal tract
[36]
. The major advantage of these adsorbents includes
expense, safety and ease of administration through feeds [7]. A
variety of zeolites, phyllosilicates and synthetic
aluminosilicates are capable of removing AFs from aqueous
solutions however, major difference are observed in the
Fig 4: Kidneys from bird fed AF 0.5 ppm showing moderate degree strength of AFB1 binding by the above sorbents [1].
of congestion, haemorrhages and tubular epithelial
Kidneys are the major excretory organs and about 20–25% of
degeneration/desquamation on day 28 of experiment. H & E x 400.
the total amount of circulating toxins, including mycotoxins,
reaches renal parenchyma [13]. The demands of kidneys for
nutrients and oxygen are high because of their functional load.
The different parts of nephrons are exposed to the toxic effect
of AF and its metabolites before being excreted, resulting in
nephrotoxicity [41]. In birds exposed to the toxic effect of
AFB1, haemorrhagic and fatty kidney syndrome, thickening
of glomerular membranes, degenerative changes in renal
epithelial cells and congestion of renal parenchyma are
reported [14].
The kidneys of aflatoxin fed birds revealed progressive
changes characterised by mild to moderate degree of
congestion and haemorrhages in occasional areas, mild to
moderate degree of tubular epithelial degeneration,
desquamation and necrosis, collections of mononuclear cells
Fig 5: Kidney from bird fed AF 1 ppm showing moderate
along with heterophils in interstitial spaces, varying degree of
haemorrhages, glomerular degeneration and tubular epithelial glomerular hypercellularity, degeneration and hyaline
degeneration/desquamation on day 35 of experiment. H & E x 200. changes. These findings are very well supported by the
observations of previous workers [44, 49, 45, 21].

~ 2124 ~
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies

The AFB induced generation of reactive oxygen species In conclusion, the incorporation of DAE in the diet during the
(ROS) occurs mainly in the mitochondria of hepatocytes and period of exposure to AF in the present study could plausibly
renal epithelial cells and results in damage of important reduce the toxic effects of aflatoxin. This result confirms that
biomolecules such as DNA, proteins and lipids [15]. Aflatoxins the protective effects of DAE, which might be due to its
increase lipid peroxidation in liver and kidney tissues and capability of specific chemisorption of AF in gastrointestinal
induce cellular damage causing impaired morphology of the tract leading to reduced bioavailability of this mycotoxin [33, 1].
organs [46, 8]. Despite the fact that AFB1 is eliminated mainly DAE is a powerful natural adsorbent and which might
through the kidneys, the accumulation of a relatively high effectively adsorb the toxins through its polar ends of the
concentration of toxin impairs the excretory function and toxin [12]. DAE has a small mass (0.5-0.8 g/cm3), high
leads to congestion with subsequent patho-morphological porosity and high content of silicon responsible for the high
alterations [11]. Low activity of glutathione-S- transferases adsorption capacity [48]. These properties and ability of DAE
involved in conjugation, detoxification and excretion of might plausibly be responsible for the ameliorating action
aflatoxins has also been reported in birds. The deficiency or against this mycotoxin in broiler birds.
the total lack of functional activity of these enzymes with In respect of abundant availability, source and cost of DE as
affinity for binding to the major AF metabolite in birds is the well as ability of this absorbent in reducing the moisture
mechanism of renal toxic effect of aflatoxins during their content in the poultry litter [17], it seems that using DAE at the
excretion [19]. Aflatoxins are known to inhibit the protein level of 2000 mg/kg of feed could be effective and economic
synthesis, forming adducts with DNA, RNA and proteins, way of ameliorating the adverse effects of aflatoxin.
inhibit RNA synthesis via binding DNA- dependent RNA Perusal through the available literature reveal that clay,
polymerase, degranulate endoplasmic reticulum and thus, zeolite minerals and DAE are structurally and functionally
cause a variety of alterations in many organs namely liver, diverse group of compounds; they vary considerably from
kidneys, heart and skeletal muscles [28, 41]. Aflatoxin induced source to source and may not have equal affinities and
nephrotoxicity is also assumed to be due to interference with capacities for aflatoxin and other mycotoxins, thus they
transport function in collecting tubule cells together with should be rigorously tested one by one and thoroughly
diffused impairment of the proximal tubules function [31]. characterised in vivo, paying particular attention to their
Supplementation with DAE could reduce the severity of effectiveness and safety for sensitive animal models and their
lesions compared to toxin fed groups, which indicate the potential for harmful interactions. Similarly, generalisations
protective role of DAE. Further, birds of Group V and VI should be avoided for all potential mycotoxins detoxifying
showed less severe lesions than Group III and IV indicating agents, as adsorbing compounds can differ in efficacy even
the protective role of DAE. However, the birds in Group V within the same category. Considering the results of earlier
and VI revealed lesion with less intensity, which could be work done on effect of different levels of DAE on aflatoxin,
attributed to binding by DAE at higher dosage as suggested further studies seems to be necessary to determine whether
by Shi et al. [42] and Denli et al. [10]. The improvement in lower levels of DAE in broilers diet will be effective in
kidney lesions observed in the Groups V and VI were also in controlling or preventing the occurrence of aflatoxicosis in
tandem with these findings thereby affirming the beneficial chicken.
effect of DAE against toxic effects of aflatoxin.
The macroscopic and microscopic changes in kidneys of birds 5. Conclusion
in groups V and VI fed with DAE in combination with In the present study, aflatoxin in the broiler diet at level 0.5
aflatoxin included those that were observed in aflatoxin alone and 1 ppm of feed produced patho-morphological changes in
fed birds, but in reduced magnitude and severity. The gradual kidneys indicating their adverse effect on general health of the
improvement in the gross and histopathological changes in experimental birds.
DAE incorporated in AFB1 fed birds are in agreement with Incorporation of DAE at level of 2000 mg/kg of toxin free
earlier reports [42, 10]. broiler feed showed no adverse effects on kidneys as
Contrary to the present findings, no protective effect of DAE compared to healthy control. The addition of Agripower DAE
on the histopathological lesions in AFB1 fed birds has also to aflatoxin containing feed revealed significant improvement
been reported earlier [40, 37, 9]. in renal parenchyma. The protective effect of 2000 mg of
Differences among studies could be explained by different Agripower DAE/kg feed could be useful to counter
levels of adsorbents or the AF exposure dose tested. Based on aflatoxicosis problem in field conditions that is probably due
the available scientific literature, the chemical complexity of to its higher binding ability.
mycotoxins means that a compound’s effectiveness in
sequestering one mycotoxin does not mean an equal ability to 6. Acknowledgement
sequester other mycotoxins. Each of the mycotoxin has Authors are the thankful to AGRIPOWER, Australia for
different functional groups; thus, the binding capacity of an providing DAE and ICAR-NAE project and Dean, Veterinary
adsorbent depends on its chemical and physical properties and College, Bangalore, India for providing the necessary
its relation with the physical structure of the target facilities to carry out the research work.
mycotoxins. Thus, the physicochemical differences among the
adsorbents used in the studies mentioned above could explain 7. References
the higher or lower efficacy among them. However, the 1. Abdel-Wahhab MA, Nada SA, Amra HA. Effect of
ability of the toxin binder to bind mycotoxins depends on aluminosilicates and bentonite on aflatoxin-induced
other factors such as pH, molecular arrangement and its developmental toxicity in rat. Journal of Applied
geographic region of origin [47]. Natour and Yousef [29] Toxicology. 1999; 19:199-204.
reported significantly higher in- vitro adsorption ability of 2. Abo-Norag M, Edrington TS, Kubena LF, Harvey RB,
DAE to AFB1, which is directly proportional to the number of Phillips TD. Influence of hydrated sodium calcium
diatom valves. In- vitro study showed that DAE has high aluminosilicate and virginiamycin on aflatoxicosis in
(94.71%) ability to adsorb AF from the feed at pH 6.5 [43]. broiler chicks. Poultry Science. 1995; 74:626-632.

~ 2125 ~
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies

3. Alves. Action of diatomaceous earth against adults of the P, Hukkeri R, Mathesh K. Ameliorative efficacy of citrus
lesser meal worm Aliphitobius. Diaperinus (Panzer, fruit oil in aflatoxicosis in broilers: a growth and
1797) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Arquivos do Instituto biochemical study. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and
Biológico, São Paulo. 2006; 73:115-118. Animal Sciences. 2014; 38:207-211
4. Bennet JW, Klich M. Mycotoxins. Clinical Microbiology 21. Lakkawar AW, Sathyanarayana ML, Narayanaswamy
Reviews. 2003; 16:497-516. HD, Yathiraj S, Shridhar NB, Krishnaveni N. Effects of
5. Celik K, Denli M, Erturk M, Ozturkcan O, Doran F. Diatomaceous earth in amelioration of Aflatoxin induced
Evaluation of dry yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae in the patho-morphological changes in broilers. Indian Journal
feed to reduce aflatoxin B1 residues and toxicity to of Veterinary Pathology. 2015; 39(2):154-163.
Japonica Quails (Coturnix coturnix Japonica). Journal of 22. Lakkawar AW, Narayanaswamy HD, Satyanarayana ML.
Applied Animal Research. 2001; 20:245-250 Biochemical alterations in aflatoxicosis and its
6. Dafalla R, Yagi A, Adam SE. Experimental aflatoxicosis amelioration using Diatomacious Earth as toxin binder in
in hybro-type chicks; sequential changes in growth and broilers. European Journal of Biomedical and
serum constituents and histopathological changes. Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017; 4(4):411-419.
Veterinary and Human Toxicology. 1987; 29:222-226. 23. Luna LG. Manual of histopathological staining methods
7. Dakovic A, Tomasevic-Canovic M, Dondur V, of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 3 rd Edn.
Rottinghaus GE, Medakovic V, Zaric S. Adsorption of McGraw Hill Book Co, New York. 1968, 25-78
mycotoxins by organozeolites. Colloids and Surfaces B: 24. McLean BD, Frost E, Clarke EA, Griffiths B. The
Biointerfaces. 2005; 46:20-25 inclusion of diatomaceous earth in the diet of grazing
8. Darwish HR, Omara EA, Abdel-Aziz KB, Farag IM, ruminants and its effect on gastrointestinal parasite
Nada SA, Tawfek NS. Saccharomyces cerevisiae burdens. In International Scientific Conference on
modulates aflatoxin-induced toxicity in male albino mice. Organic Agriculture, Adelaide, Australia. International
Report and Opinion. 2011; 3(12):32-43. Society of Organic Agriculture Research, Bonn,
9. Denli M, Okan F. Efficacy of different adsorbents in Germany. 2005, 277-280
reducing the toxic effects of aflatoxin B 1 in broiler diets. 25. Miazzo R, Rosa CA, De Queiroz Carvalho EC, Magnoli
South African Journal of Animal Science. 2006; C, Chiacchiera SM, Palacio G et al. Efficacy of synthetic
36(4):222-228 zeolite to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin in broiler
10. Denli M, Blandon JC, Guynot ME, Salado S, Perez JF. chicks. Poultry Science. 2000; 79:1-6.
Effects of dietary AflaDetox on performance, serum 26. Miller JD. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: implications
biochemistry, histopathological changes, and aflatoxin for stored product research. Journal of Stored Products
residues in broilers exposed to aflatoxin B1. Poultry Research.1995; 31:1-16.
Science. 2009; 88(7):1444-51. 27. Modirsanei M, Mansoori B, Khosravi AR, Kiaei,
11. Glahn RP, Beers KW, Botije WG, Wideman RF, Huff Mohammad M, Khazraeinia P et al. Effect of
WE, Thomas W. Aflatoxicosis alters avian renal diatomaceous earth on the performance and blood
function, calcium, and vitamin D metabolism. Journal of variables of broiler chicks during experimental
Toxicology and Environmental Health. 1991; 34:309- aflatoxicosis. Journal of the Science of Food and
321. Agriculture. 2008; 88(4):626-632
12. Gowda NKS, Ledoux DR. Use of Antioxidants in 28. Mohammed AM, Metwallyn S. Anti-aflatoxicogenic
Amelioration of Mycotoxin Toxicity: A Review. Animal activities of some aqueous plant extracts against AFB1
Nutrition and Feed Technology. 2008; 8:1-11. induced renal and cardiac damage. Journal of
13. Harriet AM. Is indoor mold contamination a threat to Pharmacology and Toxicology. 2009; 4:1-16
health? Part two. Journal of Environmental Health. 2003; 29. Natour RM, Yousef SM. Adsorption efficiency of
62:47-49. diatomaceous earth for mycotoxin. Arab Gulf Journal of
14. Hussain Z, Khan MZ, Hassan Z. Production of aflatoxins Scientific Research. 1998; 16:113-127.
from Aspergillus flavus and acute aflatoxicosis in young 30. Ortatatli M, Oguz H. Ameliorative effects of dietary
broiler chicks. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. clinoptilolite on pathological changes in broiler chickens
2008; 45:95-102. during aflatoxicosis. Research in Veterinary Science.
15. Hwang E, Kim G. Biomarkers for oxidative stress status 2001; 71:59-66
of DNA, lipids, and proteins in vitro and in-vivo cancer 31. Ortatatli M, Oguz H, Hatipoglu F, Karaman M.
research. Toxicology. 2007; 229:1-10. Evalutation of pathological changes in broilers during
16. Jindal N, Mahipal SK, Mahajan NK. Toxicity of aflatoxin chronic aflatoxin (50 ppb and 100 ppb) and clinoptilolite
B1 in broiler chickens and its reduction by activated exposure. Research in Veterinary Science. 2005; 78:61-
charcoal. Research in Veterinary Science. 1994; 56:37- 68
40. 32. Pasha TN, Farooq MU, Khattak FM, Jabbar MA, Khan
17. Kamigasa S, Kato H. Recent conditions and prospects of AD. Effectiveness of sodium bentonite and two
diatomite resources. Energy Resources. 2000; 21:166- commercial products as aflatoxin absorbents in diets for
172. broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology.
18. Kiaei SMM, Modirsanei M, Farkhoy M, Taghdiri A. 2007; 132:103-110.
Veterinary Department Journal of Tehran University. 33. Phillips TD, Clement BA, Kubena LF, Harvey RB.
2002; 57(2):19-24. Detection and detoxification of aflatoxins: Prevention of
19. Klein PJ, Buckner R, Kelly J, Coulombe Jr RA. aflatoxicosis and aflatoxin residues with hydrated sodium
Biochemical basis of the extreme sensitivity of turkeys to calcium aluminosilicate. Veterinary and Human
aflatoxin B1. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. Toxicology. 1990; 32:15-19
2000; 165:45-52. 34. Phillips TD, Lemke SL, Grant PG. Characterization of
20. Kumar Dhanapal S, Rao S, Kumar Palahally Govindaraju clay based enterosorbents for the prevention of

~ 2126 ~
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies

aflatoxicosis. In: DeVries JW, Trucksess MW, Jackson 49. Yalagod SG. Studies on low levels of Aflatoxin induced
LS (eds.), Advances in Experimental Medicine and immunotoxicity in broiler chicken and its amelioration.
Biology: Mycotoxins and Food Safety, Kluwer PhD Thesis, KVAFSU, Bidar, India, 2014.
Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. 2002, 157-171 50. Yildirim E, Yalchinkaya I, Kanbur M, Çnar M, Oruc E.
35. Quesada T, Cuellar H, Valdivia AG, Reys JJ. Effects of Effects of yeast glucomannan on performance, some
aflatoxin B1 on the liver and kidney of broilers chickens biochemical parameters and pathological changes in
during development. Comparative Biochemistry and experimental aflatoxicosis in broiler chickens. Revue de
Physiology–Part C: Toxicology, Pharmacology. 2002; Médecine Vétérinaire. 2011; 162:413-420.
125:265-272.
36. Ramos AJ, Hernandez E. Prevention of aflatoxicosis in
farm animals by means of hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicate addition to feedstuff: A review. Animal
Feed Science and Technology. 1997; 65:197-206.
37. Rosa CAR, Miazo R, Oli C, Salvano M, Chiacchiera SM,
Ferrero S et al. Evaluation of the dietary effect of
bentonite from the south of Argentina in ameliorating the
toxic effects of aflatoxin in broilers. Poultry Science.
2001; 80:139-144
38. Saif YM, Barnes HJ, Glissons JR, Mcdougald LR,
Swayne DE. Diseases of Poultry, 11th edn, MasbyWolfe,
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 2003, 320-326.
39. Selin AQ, El-Midany AA, Ibrahim SS. Microscopic
evaluation of diatomite for advanced applications: Case
study. In A Mendez-Vilas and J Díaz (eds.) Microscopy:
Science, Technology Applications and Education. 2010;
3:2174-2181.
40. Santurio JM, Mallmann CA, Rosa AP, Appel G, Heer A,
Dageforde S et al. Effect of sodium bentonite on the
performance and blood variables of broiler chickens
intoxicated with aflatoxin. British Poultry Science. 1999;
40:115-119.
41. Sharma V, Sharma C, Paliwai R, Prachetal, Sharma S.
Ameliorative effects of Curcuma longa and curcumin on
aflatoxin B1 induced serological and biochemical changes
in kidney of male mice. Asian Journal of Biochemical
and Pharmaceutical Research. 2011; 1:338-351.
42. Shi YH, Xu ZR, Feng ZR, Wang. Efficacy of modified
montmorillonite nanocomposite to reduce the toxicity of
aflatoxin in broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and
Technology. 2006; 129:138-148
43. Soleimani R, Faradonbeh OP, Bagheri H. Mycotoxin
detoxification of commercial broiler feed by a mycotoxin
binder. Research Opinions in Animal and Veterinary
Sciences. 2011; 1(12):778-780.
44. Valchev I, Grozeva N, Lazarov L, Kanakov D, Hristov
TS, Binev R et al. Investigations on kidney function in
mulard ducklings with experimental aflatoxicosis.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology. 2013;
5(3):282-289.
45. Valchev D, Kanakov TS, Hristov L, Lazarov R, Binev N,
Grozeva Y, Nikolov Y. Effects of experimental
aflatoxicosis on renal function in broiler chicken.
Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 2014;
17(4):314-324.
46. Verma R, Chakraborty D. Emblica officinalis aqueous
extract ameliorates ochratoxin induced lipid peroxidation
in the testis of mice. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica. 2008;
65:187-194.
47. Vieira SL. Nutritional implication of mould development
in feed stuff and alternatives to reduce the mycotoxins
problem in poultry feed. World Poultry Science Journal.
2003; 59:111.
48. Whitlow LW. Evaluation of mycotoxin binders. 4 th Mid-
Atlantic Nutrition Conference (Zimmerman, N.G. ed.),
Proceedings. 2006, 132-143.

~ 2127 ~