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 Foreword
Prestressed concrete is widely used today in many branches of civil
engineering and building construction. Elegant and spectacular structures
have been created to bridge across rivers and ravines or roof over large areas -
indeed the history of prestressing is rich with innovation and inspired design
by brilliant engineers. Other, more mundane, applications include the
manufacture of everyday structural items such as railway sleepers, piles, lintels,
beams and flooring units.

This publication is intended for those readers requiring an introduction to

prestressed concrete, but not wishing to get involved with the complicated
mathematical treatment often found in textbooks on the subject. In the
following pages prestressed concrete is introduced by words and pictures in a
way that should appeal to the student and the practising architect or engineer
who needs a basic understanding of the concepts and technique. However,
the use of some technical terms is inevitable and some design aspects are
also considered.

This publication is based on the text of an earlier edition written by A H Allen

of the Cement and Concrete Association in 1981. This 2002 edition has been
updated and re-written by Tony Threlfall, formerly of the C&CA (now the BCA)
and currently an independent training consultant, specialising in the design of
concrete structures.

47.022 Published by the British Cement Association

First published 1981 Century House, Telford Avenue
Reprinted with amendments 1986, 1992 Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS
Second edition 2002 Telephone (01344) 762676
ISBN 0 7210 1586 7 Fax (01344) 761214
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Price group E www.bca.0rg.uk

OBritish Cement Association 2002 www.concretebookshop.com

All advice or information from the British Cement Association is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and
take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is
accepted. Readers should note that all BCA publications are subject to revision from time to time and should therefore ensure that they are in possession
ofCement
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 Contents
Basic concepts................................... 2
What is prestressing? ......................................... 2
Why prestress concrete? ..................................... 2
Benefits of prestressing ...................................... 2
Mechanics of force system .................................. 3

Methods of prestressing ..................... 4

Pre-tensioning .................................................. 4
Post-tensioning ................................................. 6

Materials ........................................... 8
Concrete .......................................................... 8
Tendons ........................................................... 9

Equipment........................................ 12
Pre-tensioning ................................................ 12
. .
Post-tensioning ............................................... 13
Strand systems ............................................................. 13
Bar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Applications ..................................... 16
Pre-tensioning ................................................ 16
Railway sleepers ............................................................ 16
Piles and pylons ............................................................ 16
Bridge beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Flooring and roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Handling of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Post-tensioning ............................................... 19
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Bridges ........................................................................ 21
Containment vessels ........................................................ 22

Appendix.......................................... 23
Brief history and development ............................ 23
Design considerations ...................................... 24
Further reading ................................................ 25
Addresses of companies and organisations ........... 26
Acknowledgments ........................................... 27

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 Basic concepts
What is prestressing?
Prestressing is best explained by considering a row of books. Each book is a

f- discrete element but, if they are stacked closely together and an axial
compressive force is applied at each end of the stack, it is possible to lift the
whole row as a single unit (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Row of books lifted as a single unit This is prestressing in its simplest form. It provides the unit, in this case a row
of books, with a strength and stability that it would not othewise possess.
Other forms of prestressed items in everyday use include:
1 The barrel and the cartwheel (timber segments held in compression by
iron bands in tension);
1 The bicycle wheel (steel rim held in compression by spokes in tension);
1 The umbrella (membrane held in tension by ribs in compression).
Flexure In the case of concrete, prestressing is used as in the row of books, to form beams
Concrete cracks and similar members, and as in the barrel, to form cylindrical tanks and silos.

Why prestress concrete?

/.---- Concrete is a building material that is strong in compression but relatively weak
I
/ /
I \
/
1
!I I I
\ \
\ \
in tension. In principle, there are two ways of overcoming this deficiency:
Reinforcing bars
Figure 2. Reinforced concrete beam with cracks
1 Embed within the concrete reinforcement that is strong in tension -
reinforced concrete;
in tension zone
1 Avoid the tension altogether by (a) arching the structure or (b) prestressing
the concrete.

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In reinforced concrete construction, steel reinforcing bars are provided in the
regions where tension occurs, compensating for the low tensile strength of the
concrete (Figure 2).

Anchorage Reinforced concrete members are designed on the assumption that cracks will
I Anchorage I occur under the design service loads. In beams and similar members cracks
form only on the tension side of the member, but they pass through the entire
wall thickness in cylindrical tanks and silos.

L I
Cracking considerably reduces beam stiffness and increases deflection. Crack
width is a critical design criterion with regard to the appearance, durability and
water-tightness of the structure. Since crack widths increase as the reinforcement
stress increases, the strength of reinforcement is limited typically to 500 N/mm2.
In prestressed concrete construction, steel tendons are stretched and
anchored at each end so that compressive forces are applied to the concrete
(Figure 3). The forces are transmitted from the tendons to the concrete either
by the bond created between the concrete and the tendons or by embedded
anchorages, depending on the method of prestressing.

cost, Benefits of prestressing

f/m/kN
1 Tension and cracking under service loads may be avoided or reduced to a
low level, depending on the magnitude of the prestressing force.
1 Downward deflections of beams and slabs under service loads may be
avoided or greatly reduced.
1 Fatigue resistance (i.e. the ability to resist the effect of repeated live
loading due to, for instance, road and rail traffic) is considerably enhanced.
500 1000 1500 2000
Steel strength, N/rnmz
1 Segmental forms of construction, as in the row of books, become a
practical reality.
Figure 4. Relative unit cost @er unit force) of
reinforcing and prestressing steels 1 Very high strength steel may be used to form the tendons (Figure 4).
1 Beam and slab sections may be smaller than in reinforced concrete, due
mainly to the capacity to reduce deflection.
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 Mechanics of force system Line of thrust

In order to understand how the magnitude and position of the prestressing

force affects the strength and stability of a beam, the mechanics of the system
must be investigated.
Consider the row of books. When a compressive force P is applied at each end
of the row, a friction develops between each book that enables the complete
0.5W L
row to act as a single unit. If the unit, of length L, is supported at the ends and
a vertical load W is applied at the mid-span, reactions of 0.5W are produced at Figure 5. Prestressed unit with central point load
each end.
Resulting lines of thrust, dependent on both P and W, extend from each
support and intersect on the line of action of W. Taking moments about the
point of intersection, at height 'a' above the level of the prestressing force,
gives Pa = 0.5W x 0.5L and hence W = 4Pa/L (Figure 5). 1111 " 1 " 'f " 1 1'

# - - - ' -
- - - - -..-_--- Line of
'thrust
If the vertical load is uniformly distributed, the line of thrust forms a parabolic
cuwe with the apex at mid-span. In this case, Pa = 0.5W x (0.5L-0.25L) and
b**- ,a -*
44
hence W = 8Pa/L (Figure 6).
For a given prestressing force, increasing the load, W, causes a corresponding I
0.5W L
increase in a, the height of the force diagram. If the apex of the force diagram
falls outside the unit, the system of forces becomes unstable. Clearly, it is
advantageous to locate the prestressing force towards the bottom of the unit.
The load-carrying capacity of the unit and the location of the prestressing force
are limited by the compressive stresses in the concrete and also
by tension and cracking considerations. If tension is to be avoided entirely in a
rectangular section, the force diagram should be kept within the middle-third
1
of the section depth. This region, which varies with the shape of the
If 5
cross-section, is called the kern of the section.
If the prestressing force is located close to the bottom of the unit, tension
develops at the top of the unit throughout its length. Although the effect of the
applied load is to negate the tension within the middle portion of the unit,
tension zones will remain at each end (Figure 7). Similarly, if the magnitude of
1
Figure Z Cracking at top of unit due to
the applied load causes the apex of the force diagram to rise close to the top prestressing force being located below the kern
of the unit, tension develops at the bottom of the unit within the middle portion
(Figure 8).
Further advantage may be gained if the prestressing force can be either
deflected (Figure 9) or draped (Figure 101, in order to mirror the line of thrust.
1
In this way, the load-carrying capacity of the unit may be enhanced without
developing tension in the concrete at the ends of the unit.
It can be seen that the additional load-carrying capacity of the unit is provided
by the vertical reaction of the prestressing force on the concrete. If all of the
load were to be removed, then tension zones would develop in the top of
the unit at mid-span. In reality, a substantial part of the load is due to the
self-weight of the unit, which is permanent.
1
Figure 8. Cracking at bottom of unit due to apex
of force diagram rising above the kern
It should be noted that the horizontal component of the prestressing force has
been taken as P, rather than Pcos9, since 9 is normally small.
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0.5L W

I
2PsinWL per unit length

0.5W L 1 0 5W
0.5W L

Figure 9. Beam with central point load and Figure 10. Beam with uniformly distributed load
deflected tendons and draped tendons

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to prestressed concrete 3 I
 Methods of prestressing
Prestressing tendons may be tensioned before the concrete is placed
IStage 1 - Tendons are tensioned and anchored
I
@re-tensioned) or after the concrete has hardened (post-tensioned). The
resulting prestressed concrete members are also frequently described as being
either pre-tensioned or post-tensioned.

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I I
Pre-tensioning
Stage 2 - Concrete is placed Here the tendons are tensioned and anchored between fixed supports before
the concrete is placed around the tendons. The concrete is either cast in
I
moulds or formed by an extrusion or slip-form process to provide the required
I I cross-section. When the concrete has achieved sufficient strength, the tendons
are slowly released from the support at one end (Figure 11).

IStage 3 - transferred
I
Tendons are released and force is
to concrete I
I
The prestressing force is transferred from the tendons to the concrete by the
bond existing between the hardened concrete and the tendons. The transfer of
force occurs over a short transmission length at each end of the concrete, as
the tendons outside the concrete revert to their original untensioned condition
(Figure 12). The elastic shortening of the concrete that occurs at this stage
Figure 1 1. Prestressing using pre-tensioned
causes a corresponding reduction of the tendon force.
tendons
Pre-tensioning may be used on site where large numbers of similar precast
units are required, but is usually carried out in a factory where permanent

,
stressing beds have been installed. Single units and units cast side-by-side
may be produced in rigid steel moulds, against which the tendons are
tensioned and anchored until the forces can be transferred to the concrete, but
Zero stress in
tendon after the most effective use of pre-tensioning is in long-line production.
transfer

L -4-b
Transmission length
40 to 60 diameters for strand Maximum stress
in tendons
Long-line production
In this case, a number of similar units are produced in line at the same time.
Tendons, generally 7-wire strands, are tensioned between anchor plates placed
I
I
I at opposite ends of a long stressing bed. The anchor plates bear against steel
I
I
I
joists embedded in concrete abutments. The base to the casting surface may
I
I I
sometimes act as a strut between the abutments but, in most cases, the
I
abutments are sufficiently massive to be independently stable. In very long
Elastic shorleningof member stressing beds, intermediate abutments with preformed pockets to receive
+I+ at transfer of prestress
temporary steel joists may be provided, so that a shorter stressing bed can be
Figure 12. Transmission zone at end of member created should the need arise.

Positioning the tendons

At one end the anchor plate bears directly against the supporting joists. At the
other end, the jacking end, temporary steel struts are introduced between the
anchor plate and the joists. The anchor plates are large thick steel plates with
holes through which the tendons can be passed and anchored. For items such
as bridge beams, where the concrete
Steel
Temporary is placed within moulds, stop-end
ioists
struts plates are provided at the ends of
each unit. These plates contain
standard patterns of holes to
accommodate the particular layout
1, ,I

Fixed :: I: :: : : J a c k i n g of tendons required for each unit. A

abutment;::.:I ;:::: end
typical arrangement for long-line
production is shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Typical arrangement for long-line
production
Stressing the tendons
Tendons are drawn down the full length of the stressing bed, threaded through
the holes in the stop-ends and anchor plates and anchored-off at the
fixed abutment. At the other end, when all the tendons have been positioned,
each one is tensioned. A stressing jack is attached to the tendon, the
slack taken up and the load applied. The extension of the tendon is
checked against a calculated value, the tendon is anchored-off and the jack

41
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 is released. The operation is then repeated on the remaining tendons.
The stressing sequence is not important in pre-tensioning but, as with all
prestressing, the stressing operation needs to be carefully controlled

Fixing additional reinforcement

If reinforcement is required within the transmission zones and for shear
purposes, the amount necessary for each unit will have been grouped near the
stop-ends when the tendons were being drawn down the stressing bed. Once
I
the tendons have been stressed, the reinforcement can be spaced out and
fixed in its final position. The moulds can then be assembled in preparation for
concreting. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the tendons are kept free of
I any material, such as mould oil, that would impair the bond with the concrete.
I
I Compacting and curing the concrete
Vibrators are used to achieve full compaction of the concrete. Internal vibrators,
if badly handled, can result in small pockets of water adjacent to the tendons
that will reduce the effective bond. External vibrators are generally more
effective provided there are enough of them and the moulds are sufficiently
rigid. As with all concrete, proper curing is essential. In order to obtain a high
concrete strength at an early age, the hardening process is often accelerated
by raising the temperature of the concrete; this enables a more rapid
turn-round in production.

Releasing the tendons

When the concrete has attained sufficient strength, typically after 8 to 16 hours,
the temporary struts at the jacking end of the bed are replaced by large jacks
that can be slowly released. As the tendons attempt to return to their original
length, the concrete in each unit is put into compression, provided the units are
free to slide back along the bed. The tendons can now be cut. using an
abrasive disc cutter, in the gaps between the units. The end plates are removed
and the projecting lengths of tendon cut back to the end faces of the units.
In some prestressing arrangements, large jacks between the anchor plate and
the joists form an integral part of the system and are used to both tension and
release all the tendons simultaneously.
Figure 14. Long-line production of prestressed
Extrusion and slip-forming processes hollowcore flooring. After 8- 16 hours the tendons
For many proprietary items, where additional reinforcement is not required, will be released and the concrete cut into lengths
of 3 in to 20 in.
moulds are not needed and the concrete can be simultaneously placed and
compacted. Small beams, solid slabs and lintels can be slip-formed, while
hollowcore slabs (see later) can be either slip-formed (Figure 141 or extruded.
After releasing the tendons the concrete strip is cut into lengths, using a circular
saw, to form separate units. At this stage a small pull-in of the tendons occurs at
the ends of each unit.
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Altering the prestress along the length of the unit

In the arrangements considered so far, the tendons have all been straight and
bonded to the concrete for their entire length. Although most pre-tensioned
units are made in this way, the arrangement does not provide the most efficient
use of the prestressing force in members of constant cross-section. The location
of the prestressing force is limited by the conditions that can be permitted at the
ends of the member, as shown earlier in Figure Z In large units, where
self-weight is significant, a smaller force can be used if the eccentricity of the
force can be increased within the central portion of the span without exceeding
the critical value at the ends. Typically, the tendons are arranged in several
layers with multiple tendons in each layer, and the eccentricity and magnitude
of the prestressing force are progressively reduced towards the ends of the unit
by deflecting and/or debonding some of the tendons.

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prestressed concrete 5
 - -
Deflecting typically involves holding down the tendons at two symmetrically
1 R
e---

::
,I
I;

:: +
n\
t n\
t t
1%
ji jj
placed positions within each unit, and holding up the tendons within the gaps
between units and at the ends of the line, as shown in Figure 15.
::
...::
..... .,
...::
.....
The tendons are usually tensioned before being deflected. They may be held in
Figure 15. vpical arrangement for deflecting the upper part of the section during tensioning, and then pushed down from
pre-tensioned tendons above at the hold-down points. Alternatively, they may be held in the bottom
part of the section during tensioning and then hoisted up from above at the
hold-up points In this case, at the hold-down points, a steel tube with
projecting lugs to deflect the tendons is bolted to the base of the bed. After the
concrete has gained sufficient strength, the bolts are removed before releasing
the tendons. A typical set-up for a bridge beam, before the side-moulds are put
in place, is shown in Figure 16.
Debonding is a more straightforward procedure, in which specified lengths of
plastic tubing are placed around several tendons in different layers, so that no
bond can develop between the tendons and the concrete. In this way, the
transmission lengths for the encased tendons begin at the end of the tubing
and, by varying the lengths of tubing, both the magnitude and the eccentricity
of the prestressing force may be adjusted in steps, as shown in Figure 17.

Post- tensioning
Figure 16. Production of SY bridge beams
incorporating deflected tendons Here the tendons, which may be located inside or outside the concrete, are
tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Internal tendons, which are
contained within ducts or sheaths to prevent them from bonding to the
concrete, can be arranged to follow the curvature of the structure and provide
the most appropriate profile to suit the applied loading. External tendons can
be arranged as a series of straight lengths with changes of direction.at specific
Plastic tubing Tendon layers positions. In cylindrical structures, external tendons may be placed directly
against the surface of the concrete.
In all cases, after the concrete has attained sufficient strength, the tendons are
tensioned using jacks that bear upon the exposed face of cast-in anchorages
at the ends of the tendon. When the required force has been attained, the
1 2 3 4
tendons are made secure at the anchorages (Figure 18).
Number of tendon layers effective
of fubing IS placed around all tendons in each layer) Post-tensioning may be used in the factory production of single
Figure 1Z vpical arrangement for debonding special-purpose precast units, but is usually associated with construction on
pre-tensioned tendons site where the concrete is formed entirely in situ or by assembling a series of
precast segments. Structures may be fully formed or assembled before any
prestressing is carried out. but there is great benefit in being able to assemble

3
, r g e1 - Concrete cast with tendons in duct
and prestress the structure in stages, as will be shown later.

Protection of tendons
An important consideration is the long-term protection of the tendons against
corrosion. Two different methods are used producing either bonded or
un-bonded forms of construction. The particular form has no significant effect

-
Stage 2 - Tendons tensioned after concrete has hardened upon the behaviour of the member under normal loading conditions, but does
--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

affect the nature of the cracking that would occur in the event of over-loading,
and the ultimate strength. Un-bonded forms of prestressed construction are
provided with some ordinary reinforcement to ensure that the post-cracking
behaviour and the ultimate strength are satisfactory.
Ducts to contain groups of tendons can be formed within the concrete, either by
Stage 3 - Tendons secured at anchorages using removable void formers or by casting in steel or plastic sleeves. Tendons may
be contained within the sleeves before the concrete is placed or may be threaded
through the ducts after the concrete has hardened. After tensioning, the ducts are
injected with a cement grout to provide a bonded construction (Figure 19).
Alternatively, tendons may be individually encased in plastic tubing, having
Figure 18. Prestressing using post-tensioned been first coated with protective grease (Figure 20). These tendons are then
internal tendons fixed in position before the concrete is placed and, after tensioning, remain
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 un-bonded to the concrete. The system, which results in Grouttube Vent -. "-Grout tu be
very low tendon friction during stressing, IS particularly
useful in thin sections such as floor slabs and the walls
of cylindrical structures.
Stressing anchorage Dead-end anbhorage
All duct-formers, sleeves and internal sheathed tendons
must be fixed securely so that they are not displaced
during concreting. It is important that the concrete is Figure 19. Typical arrangement for internal
post-tensioned tendons in bonded construction
properly cured but, unlike pre-tensioning, accelerated curing is unnecessary as
the age of the concrete at transfer of prestress is typically between 3 days and
28 days, according to the level of prestress to be applied.

Tensioning
Tendons may be tensioned one at a time or in groups, depending on the system
and the type of jack being used. When there are several tendons or groups of
tendons at different positions within the cross-section of a member, the Permanent corrosion
tensioning sequence specified by the designer must be followed in order to preventing grease
avoid over-stressing the concrete at any stage. The elastic shortening of the
concrete that occurs during tensioning has no effect on the force in the tendons
being stressed. However, with each stressing operation, there is a progressive
reduction of force in any tendons that have been previously anchored.

Measurements during tensioning

It is important to verify the extension of the tendon by recording the movement

--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of the jack, as well as recording the jacking load. The extension is checked I Plastic sheath I Strand
against a calculated value, allowance having been made for the effects of
friction between the tendon and the surface of the duct during the tensioning Figure 20. Sheathed-strand used in un-bonded
construction
process. An irregularity in the observed extension during tensioning may
indicate that a duct has developed a blockage, in which case remedial action
will need to be taken. Any significant difference between the observed and
calculated extensions may mean that the effects of friction are not as assumed,
and the jacking load may need to be adjusted.

External tendons
In major bridge construction, external tendons
contained within sheaths can be installed in the voids of
hollow box sections. The tendon profile takes the form of
a series of straight lengths with deviating saddles
provided at intermediate diaphragms (Figure 21).
Un-bonded tendons are used in structures where the
Stressing anchorage Tendon in sheathing Stressing anchorage
design requires the tendons to be examined at intervals
and, if necessary, removed and replaced. Figure 21. Typical arrangement for external
post-tensioned tendons in bridge construction
In cylindrical tanks and silos, external tendons may be used to form a series of
separate rings or a continuous band encircling the outside of the structure.
Protection against corrosion and accidental damage is provided by a spray
application of a cement-based mortar.

Anchorage zones
There are several different post-tensioning systems, as will be shown later.
Each one involves the use of anchorages that remain part of the finished
structure. Anchorages apply large concentrated compressive forces to the
concrete with an effect like that of driving a wedge into a block of wood. The
resulting bursting forces in the concrete are resisted by concentrations of
reinforcement in the regions containing the anchorages. It is very important
that the concrete in these regions is thoroughly compacted, despite the
congestion caused by the anchorages, ducts and reinforcement. In order to
make concreting easier, the end-block containing the anchorages is
sometimes produced as a precast item in advance of the main structure.

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 Materials
It is important to consider the physical properties of both the concrete and the
tendons in order to understand the effect that each has on the other,
particularly with regard to the losses of prestress that occur at various stages.
Some losses occur immediately, due to friction during the tensioning of the
tendons and elastic shortening of the member during the transfer of prestress
to the concrete. Other losses occur over an extended period of time, due to
steel relaxation and creep and shrinkage of the concrete. The sources and
magnitude of the losses, which differ for pre-tensioning and post-tensioning,
will be examined in more detail later.

Concrete I

The selection of suitable materials and the specification of concrete with

regard to durability and resistance to chemical attack are adequately dealt with
elsewhere (see Appendix for further reading). Grades or strength classes of
concrete are selected in accordance with the recommendations of codes of
practice and standards such as BS 5328 and BS EN 206-1/8500. It is sufficient
here to mention particular factors that are important in relation to prestressing;
namely the strength of the concrete and the deformations that occur before,
during and after the transfer of prestress.

Strength
Concrete needs to be workable when fresh, and strong when it has hardened.
The stiffening and hardening is due to a chemical reaction between the cement
and water in the mix. The workability (consistence) of fresh concrete is
enhanced by good aggregate grading and by using admixtures. The strength
of hardened concrete, which increases with age, is enhanced by good
compaction and by reducing the watedcement ratio. The condition at transfer,
when the prestress is applied, is normally critical, and requires concrete with a

--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
high early strength, e.g. one using CEM I42,5or higher strength class cement,
with thorough vibration of the fresh concrete.
In order to check the concrete strength at transfer, samples are taken from the
fresh concrete. Test specimens, usually in the form of cubes, but cylinders may
also be used, are made in steel moulds. The cubes, which are subjected to the
same curing conditions as the concrete units, are placed in a testing machine
and the crushing strength is recorded. Alternatively, the in-situ concrete
strength can be measured by pull-out tests or by using a calibrated rebound
(Schmidt) hammer.
With pre-tensioning, it is important to be able to achieve a high concrete
strength at early age so that the prestressed units can be lifted from the bed
as soon as possible, since a rapid turn-round is vital to the success of the
production process. The specification of cement and combination types should
be based on durability considerations and the producer will select from these
the one that is most cost-effective for their process. In practice a rapid-
hardening cement such as CEM 152.5 is used.
Concrete at normal temperatures could take several days to develop the
required strength for transfer, but the process can be accelerated so that the
strength is reached in 8 to 16 hours. This can be achieved either by introducing
saturated steam into an enclosure containing the units or by circulating hot
water in pipes embedded in the stressing bed.
The required concrete strengths depend on the type of unit and the level of
prestress applied.
. For flooring units, the cube strengths are typically 28 - 40 N/mm’ at

. transfer and 50 - 60 N/mm’ at 28 days.

For standard bridge beams, the values are typically 40 N/mmz at transfer
and 60 N/mm2 at 28 days.
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 With post-tensioning, the age at transfer is less critical and accelerated curing
is normally not necessary.
. For floors in buildings, where the level of prestress is low and transfer
takes place at 3 to 7 days, cube strengths are typically 25 N/mm2 at
transfer and 40 N/mmz at 28 days.
1 For other forms of construction, where transfer usually occurs at a later
stage, the cube strengths at 28 days are typically 40 N/mm’ for cylindrical
I structures and 50 N/mm2 for bridges.

1
Loss of prestress
When stress is applied to concrete, it undergoes dimensional changes: an _ _ - - _ _ -
i immediate elastic deformation followed by a time-related creep deformation
I (Figure 22). These changes are in addition to the shrinkage caused by changes
Strain
- - - - - -
in moisture content. Any shortening of the concrete that occurs after the
tendons have been tensioned and anchored causes a loss of prestress that Elastic deformation
must be allowed for in the design of the member.
Concrete shrinks over time by an amount that varies with the initial water
content of the mix, the thickness of the section and the relative humidity of the
environment. The shrinkage develops rapidly at first and continues at a
Figure 22. Typical curve of elastic and creep
reducing rate for many years. The resulting loss of prestress that occurs in the deformation for concrete
tendons depends on the age of the concrete at transfer, and is greater with
pre-tensioning than with post-tensioning.
The loss of prestress due to the elastic deformation of the concrete that occurs
at transfer is greatest in pre-tensioning, since the tendons are already
anchored by bond, and all the stress is applied to the concrete at the same
time. In post-tensioning, there is no loss if all the tendons are stressed at the
same time, since the elastic deformation takes place before the tendons are
anchored. When the tendons are stressed sequentially, a progressive loss
occurs in any tendons that are already anchored. The total loss is then
intermediate between nil and half the value that occurs in pre-tensioning.
Concrete under applied stress also undergoes an inelastic creep deformation.
Like shrinkage, creep develops rapidly at first and continues at a decreasing
rate for many years. The creep value depends upon the thickness of the
section, the relative humidity of the environment and the maturity of the
concrete at transfer of prestress. As a result, the loss of prestress that occurs
in the tendons is greater with pre-tensioning than with post-tensioning.

Tendons
Prestressing tendons are usually formed from high tensile steel wires or alloy
steel bars. The wires can be used singly or twisted together to form strand
(usually of seven wires). Several tendons may be arranged in a group with a
common anchorage to form a cable (Figure 23).

Wire
Cold-drawn wire is produced in coil form from hot-rolled rod which is heat
treated to make it suitable for cold drawing. The wire surface is initially smooth
but may be indented by a subsequent mechanical process. In the as-drawn Figure 23. Types of tendon (from the top): wire,
condition, the wire has a natural curvature approximately equivalent to the seven-wire strand, drawn strand, cable of seven
capstan of the drawing machine. A final stress-relieving heat treatment to strands, Dpidag bar and Macalloy bar
improve some of the mechanical properties of the wire is carried out before it
is wound into large diameter coils. The stress-relieving treatment
pre-straightens the wire, so that it will pay out straight from the coil, and
enhances its elastic and relaxation characteristics. Wire to be used for
pre-tensioning is supplied in a de-greased condition and is often indented to
ensure that the maximum bond is obtained between steel and concrete. Wire
is used in factory-produced items such as lintels and small flooring units.
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 Strand
Strand is made from cold-drawn wires: a seven-wire strand consisting of a
straight core wire (the king wire) around which are spun six helical wires in one
layer. The diameters of the outer wires have to be slightly less than that of the
king wire to allow for their helical form. Strand can be supplied with the outer
wires having either a left-hand or a right-hand twist and the stressing jacks
need to be adjusted accordingly. In BS 5896, there are three types of seven-
wire strand: standard, super and drawn (Figure 24).
Figure 24. Cross-sections of (a) standard and Standard and super strands are visibly similar, but the outer wires of drawn
super strand, and (b) drawn strand
strand are clearly flattened as a result of the strand having been drawn through
a die. All strands are given a final stress-relieving treatment in the same way as
wire before being wound into coils. Strand is widely used in factory-produced
items such as railway sleepers, bridge beams, sign gantries, flooring and
terracing, and for post-tensioning in all forms of in-situ and segmental
construction.
Greased and plastic-coated strand is produced for designs involving the use of
un-bonded or external tendons. The process involves the application of a
protective fluid, which penetrates to the centre wire of the strand, followed by
coating with a special corrosion-resistant grease and a continuous hot
extrusion of a high density polypropylene or polyethylene sheath. The strand is
wound onto a wooden reel for extra protection during transit and in use.

Bar
There are two types of bar in common use:
1 Macalloy bars are produced from hot-rolled carbon-chrome steel bars that
are then cold-worked by stretching to obtain the specified properties. The
bars are available in lengths up to 17.8 m for diameters between 25 mm
and 50 mm. Stainless steel bars are available in lengths up to 6 m for
diameters between 20 mm and 40 mm. Both types of bar are provided with
cold-rolled threads at each end, or over the full length if needed, and can

. be joined together by threaded couplers to obtain longer tendon lengths.

Dywidag threadbars are produced to a German Standard specification in
diameters between 20 mm and 40 mm, with a coarse thread extending over
the full length of the bar. The bars may be cut to finished length at the factory
or on site and couplers can be used to connect or extend bars as required.

Relaxation
When tensioned, a steel tendon undergoes a relaxation of stress over time that
is proportional to the initial load applied. Relaxation, like creep in concrete,
develops rapidly at first and continues at a decreasing rate for many years.
Standards are set in terms of maximum values, after a period of 1000 hours, for
the percentage reduction of load for initial loads of 600/0, 70% and 80% of the
breaking load. The values are based on test conditions of constant strain and
a temperature of 20°C. Much higher values can occur at elevated
temperatures. In practice, the 1000-hour value is multiplied by a factor to allow
for the long-term relaxation.
Relaxation values for both wire and strand depend on the way in which the
final stress-relieving treatment is carried out and are defined in BS 5896 as
class 1 (normal) or class 2 (low). In practice, wire and strand are generally
produced to the class 2 requirements.

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 Strength of tendons
The strength of a prestressing tendon is specified in terms of characteristic
load values for the breaking (or failure) load and the 0.1% proof load, which is
defined as the load that produces a permanent elongation equal to O.lO/o of the
gauge length. For wire and strand, the load at lO/o elongation may be used as
an alternative to the proof load (Figure 25).
The British (BS 5896 and BS 4486) and European (pr EN 10138) standards
include a range of sizes and strengths for each type of tendon, a selection of
which is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Dimensions and properties of wires, 7-wire strands and bars

Elongation, %

m @i
& Figure 25. ljpical load-elongation culve for
m m strand showing A: 0.1% proof load, B: load at 7%
elongation, C: breaking load
Wires to 4 12.6 1770 22.3 18.5 19.0
BS 5896 7 38.5 1670 64.3 53.4 54.7

Standard 9.3 52 1770 92 78 a1

strands to 12.5 93 1770 164 139 144
BS 5896 15.2 139 1670 232 197 204

Super 8.0 38 1 a60 70 59 61

strands to 12.9 100 1 a60 1 a6 158 163
BS 5896 15.7 150 1770 265 225 233

Drawn 12.7 112 1860 209 178 1 a4

strands to 15.2 165 1 a20 300 255 264
BS 5896 18.0 223 1700 380 323 334

Bars to 25 491 1030 506 410

BS 4486 32 a04 1030 a28 670
(Macallo)i 40 1257 1030 1295 1050
50 1963 1030 2022 1639

Care of tendons
Prestressing steel is very different to ordinary reinforcement and particular care
must be taken to protect tendons against corrosion, and to avoid damage by
mechanical means or heating while handling. Tendons should be stored clear
of the ground and protected from the weather at all stages. Care must be taken
to prevent the tendons coming into contact with splashes of material from
oxy-acetylene torch or arc-welding operations being carried out in the vicinity.
Tendons should not be left unprotected inside ducts for prolonged periods of
time. All tendons are eventually highly stressed, and failure to observe simple
precautions in storage and handling has led to unfortunate consequences.

I
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prestressed concrete 1 11
 Equipment
Pre-tensioning
With pre-tensioning, the wires or strands are held by temporary grips during
and after tensioning. The method of tensioning may vary but in all cases the
grip consists of a barrel and wedge (Figure 26).
The wedge is generally in two or three pieces with a collar and wire clip, or ‘0’
ring, to keep the pieces in the correct position. It is important that the wedge
is fixed so that the wire or strand is in a central position, with each segment
figure 26. Open grip for pre-tensioning driven the same distance into the barrel. The wedges, which have grooves on
--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

the surface in contact with the tendon, will be used many times, and they need
to be carefully cleaned and examined before each use to ensure that they are
not worn or damaged.
Stressing is carried out either by extending the tendons one at a time, or by
multi-stressing, where all the tendons are extended at the same time. In both
cases, the process starts at the non-jacking end, where grips are forced onto
the unstressed tendons close to the anchor plate. Spring-loaded anchors are
often used to apply a consistent force and retain the anchor in position when
the tendons are being handled (Figure 27).
With conventional stressing, when individual tendons are being stressed, a grip
is then placed onto the unstressed tendon close to the anchor plate at the
jacking end. The jack is attached to the tendon and stressing begins, with the
Figure 27. Spring-loaded anchor for tendon being pulled through the grip. When the required load and tendon
pre-tensioning extension have been reached, the wedge is forced onto the tendon and the
jack is released. As the tendon attempts to pull back, the wedge is drawn
further into the barrel and the tendon is firmly gripped.
Multi-stressing uses the same wedge anchor approach. When the full length of
the stressing bed is not being used, double-ended anchors are introduced
between the abutment and the last concrete unit. These anchors enable two
lengths of wire or strand to be joined together and so avoid wastage (Figure 28).
For tendons that are stressed individually, a relatively small power-operated
jack is used to enable stressing to be carried out quickly and efficiently. A
popular jack for this purpose is shown in Figure 29. Once the controls have
been set to pre-determined values, the stressing and anchoring operations are
carried out automatically.

Figure 28. Double-ended anchor for

pre-tensioning

Figure 29. CCL Stressomatic jacks and pump I

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 Post-t ensioning
A large number of systems have been developed and used throughout the
world over the past 60 years. The main aspects of the systems in current use
and available in the UK will be briefly described but, for full details of the full
product range, reference should be made to the particular company concerned
(see Appendix). Each company has been at the forefront of development, to
meet the changing needs of design and construction, for many years. They
each provide a range of anchorages, ducts, jacks and pumps, as well as
servicing, replacement parts and calibration service accessories. Three
companies use strand systems and two companies use bar systems. Figure 30. CCL multi-strand stressing
anchorage and jack
Strand systems
Suppliers include CCL Stressing Systems, Freyssinet and VSL Systems (UK).
Each system has its own range of anchorages, couplers and equipment for installing,
stressing and grouting the tendons - a selection is shown in Figures 30 to 34.
Multi-strand systems are available that can accommodate up to 55 strands,
all contained within a circular duct and tensioned by a large jack in a single
stressing operation. A selection of frequently used strand groupings with the
Grout inlet Guide
corresponding ultimate load capacities and nominal internal duct sizes is
shown in Table 2. The information is indicative only and many other tendon ---__ J

groupings can also be provided.

Table 2. Ultimate load capacities of multi-strand cables

-
3 492 696 558 795 627 900 35 40

7 1148 1624 1302 1855 1463 2100 50 60 Secondaw tendon /A

12 1968' 2784 2232 3180 2508 3600 65 80

19 3116 4408 3534 5035 397 1 5700 80 100

27 4428 6264 5022 7155 5643 8100 100 120

Figure 3 1. Freyssinet multi-strand stressing
37 6068 8584 6882 9805 7733 11100 120 140 anchorage (above) and coupler (below)
55 9020 12760 10230 14575 11495 16500 140 160
- -
The tendons are generally installed by using a machine that pushes each strand
into the duct from one end. At the stressing (or live) end, each strand is gripped
by the jaws of a wedge that is forced into a tapered hole in the anchorage block.
The same type of anchorage can also be used at the non-stressing (or dead)
end but when the tendons are installed before the member is concreted, the
tendons can be anchored directly into the concrete. In this case, the duct is Grout tube
terminated before the end of the member and the strands are fanned out, with
each one anchored against a steel plate or provided with a bulbous shaped end
that resists pull-out. Couplers and intermediate anchorages are also available to
meet specific design and construction requirements.

Figure 32. VSL multi-strand dead-end

anchorages

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introduction to
Michael prestressed concrete I 13
 )- I Placing of anchor head and wedges

Lr
YJ
Positioning of jack

I ,
7 - 7
Stressing

Figure 33. freyssinet strand-pushing and jacking in operation

The stressing jacks, which need to be hung from a lifting frame, are compact,
easy to operate and highly manoeuvrable. The body can be rotated with
respect to the lifting points, enabling easy access to the hydraulic connections.
The inner workings of the jack can also be rotated, for easy alignment with the
tendons. The jacks can be operated in a vertical or horizontal position and
Figure 34. Multi-strand jacking provide automatic de-wedging and hydraulic locking-off of jaws, to ensure
correct seating of the wedges and minimise losses at transfer.
Bonded slab systems incorporate groups of three, four or five strands, of
13 mm or 15 mm nominal diameter, contained in one layer within a flat duct.
The flat duct, which may be of metal or plastic, enables all the strands to be
positioned close to the surface so as obtain the maximum eccentricity within
the slab. The strands are individually tensioned by means of a hand-held
stressing jack. After stressing, the duct is filled with a cement grout.
I1
I
I
Un-bonded slab systems incorporate 15 mm nominal diameter strands, each of
ii which has been coated with a corrosion-preventing grease and enclosed in an
Figure 35. Freyssinet anchorages for bonded slab extruded plastic sheath. The strands, which are installed either singly or in bundles
tendons. Left. live (jacking) end, right. dead end of two, three oifour, are individuallytensioned using a mono-strand stressing jack.
The live-end anchorage comprises a metal casting, wedges and plastic fittings
to facilitate the fixing of the anchorage to the formwork and to form a stressing
access pocket. After stressing, the strand is cropped, and the strand end and
wedges are sealed with a grease-filled plastic cap. The dead-end anchorage
usually incorporates a factory-applied compression fitting to the strand, which
is secured against the metal casting to prevent displacement during concreting.
A selection of anchorages and equipment for both slab systems is shown in
Figures 35 to 38.

Figure 36. Bonded slab construction, with

tendons shown emerging from sheaths.

_ _ ~ -- - -

-
Fiaure 37.Un-bonded slab construction. Note
the draped profile of the tendons.
Figure 38, Freyssinet anchorages for un-bonded tendon slabs Left. live (jacking) end,
right: dead end
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 Bar systems
Suppliers include McCalls Special Products and Dywidag Systems International.
Although developed initially for use in prestressed concrete, high tensile alloy
steel bars are also used for many other structural applications, including ground
and rock anchorages. The prestressing force is transferred to the concrete by
means of a threaded nut bearing directly against a steel distribution plate. As a

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result, there is little or no movement of the bar or loss of prestress at transfer.
This is particularly important when short tendons are required.
Figure 39. Macalloy bar anchorage
Macalloy bars are normally supplied as smooth bars with rolled-on threads at
each end, but fully threaded bars are also available. The bars are generally
supplied straight, but they may be tensioned in a curved profile if the radius of
curvature is not less than 200 bar diameters.
Dywidag bars are continuously threaded and are anchored by means of a domed
shaped nut, which locates into a cone shaped recess in a surface-mounted
distribution plate. The domed nut, which may also be used with a recessed bell
anchorage, can tolerate small deviations in the direction of the bar.
The prestressing force may be increased in stages to suit design or
construction requirements, and to compensate for any losses of prestress prior
to grouting. In designs where the prestress is required only temporarily during
construction, bars may be de-tensioned for removal. The bars are separately
tensioned, but groups of up to four bars may be contained within a single duct. Figure 40. Dywidag anchorages
Hydraulic jacks are provided with gauges calibrated against a certified load cell
to register the force applied to the bar. In addition, load cells are available to
give an independent check on the accuracy of the pump gauge. Typical details
of each bar system are shown in Figures 39 and 40.

Ducts
Ducts which are normally circular or flat, have to be flexible enough to follow
the required profile yet strong enough to keep their shape during threading of
the tendons and/or concreting. Ducts for internal tendons are made from
corrugated steel or plastic sheathing. For bonded forms of construction, grout
and air vents have to be provided at intervals along the length of the duct;
these are usually formed by drilling through the sheathing and attaching a
plastic vent tube.
Internal ducts can also be created by means of re-useable pneumatic rubber
tube void formers. The tubes are inflated and fixed in position before the
concrete is poured around them. After the concrete has hardened, the tubes
Figure 4 7. Examples of corrugated
are deflated and withdrawn to leave circular voids. steel and plastic ducts
Ducts for external tendons are normally made from high-density polyethylene.
The ducts are either connected to, or continued through, steel deviation pipes
that are embedded in concrete at positions such as transverse diaphrams,
where the direction of the duct needs to be changed.
In bridges and other structures in very severe environments, where a fully Insulation plate HDPE liner
encapsulated system is required, plastic sheaths complete with caps to enclose I plastic plug
I
Plastic sleeve
I
both live and dead-end anchorages are provided. An electrically insulated
system may be provided in structures for railways or light-rail transit systems,
where stray currents may affect durability.
External tendons in major bridges are normally left un-bonded so that they can be
checked after a number of years and, if necessary, removed and replaced. In this
case, if bare strands are used, the duct is injected with petroleum wax. Otherwise, Plastic or
plastic coated
.
Intermediate plate Heat shrink sleeve or tape
pre-greased and plastic coated strands may be used, and the duct left unfilled. cast iron grout cap

Some examples of ducts and duct assemblies are shown in Figures 41 and 42. Figure 42. Electrically insulated tendons

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introduction
Michael to prestressed concrete 15 I
 Applications
The choice between pre-tensioning and post-tensioning is determined
essentially by economic considerations and practical aspects such as the
nature of the structure and the method of construction on site.

Pre-tension ing
Pre-tensioning is best suited to the factory production of large numbers of similar
--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

precast units by the long-line method. Standard items of excellent quality and
durability, ranging from small lintels to large bridge beams, can be produced
efficiently and economically. Pre-tensioning is also used for specially designed
elements, such as large grandstand roof beams, that would be impossible to
precast on site within the space and time available. In order to minimise site
Figure 43. Some of the 35 million prestressed storage requirements and construction time, both standard and special units can
concrete railway sleepers used so far in the UK be produced and delivered to site to suit the construction programme
Some examples of the most commonly produced items are discussed below.

Railway sleepers
During the war from 1939 to1945, it became essential to find an alternative to
timber for railway sleepers and the manufacture of prestressed concrete
sleepers was developed. Factories set up specially to produce these units are
highly mechanised with a low labour requirement. Production lines can output
up to 400 sleepers at a time on stressing beds that are about 135 m long.
A large number of wires was required in the original sleepers but a small
number of 9 mm diameter strands, made from indented wires to minimise the
transmission length, is used now. Prestressed concrete is ideally suited to meet
the need for resilience and high fatigue resistance with excellent durability in
a hostile environment. Concrete railway sleepers in use are shown in Figure 43.

Piles and pylons

figure 44. High-strength spun concrete pylon
prestressed with carbon-fibre reinforced plastic Where the ground conditions are suitable for the use of precast concrete driven
piles, prestressed concrete offers several advantages over reinforced concrete.
Prestressed piles can be made longer than is practical with reinforced piles, due
to their greater ability to resist bending stresses during handling. The tensile
stresses that occur in the concrete, due to the pile rebounding elastically from
the driving hammer, are reduced by prestressing and the risk of cracking is
minimised. Long-line production methods may be used to form solid sections in
conventional moulds or hollow sections by extrusion.
Hollow section spun piles may also be produced in individual moulds designed
to resist the forces in the tendons during the casting and curing of the
concrete. The procedure consists of assembling the tendons and a reinforcing
cage in steel moulds, tensioning the tendons, and spinning the mould on
revolving wheels as the concrete is placed. The centrifugal force compacts the
concrete and forces out the excess water.
Pylons supporting electric cables are required to sustain comparatively light
loads but may be subject to considerable bending and torsion effects due to
wind and in the event of the breakage of one or more cables. Spun concrete
pylons have been used in some countries, but the need to protect the steel
reinforcement against corrosion with at least 30 mm of concrete cover means
that the pylons are very heavy. Recent development work in Switzerland, using
high-strength concrete and carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) instead of
steel, has made it possible to reduce the weight considerably. The wall
thickness of a 27 m high mast for an electric power line has been reduced from
100 mm for a traditional spun reinforced concrete pylon to 40 mm for the new
design. The mast, which has an outer diameter varying from 850 mm at the
Figure 45. Bridge deck using inverted tee base to 530 mm at the top, is prestressed longitudinally by 5 mm diameter
beams (showing alternative positions for sewices) CFRP rods and reinforced circumferentially by a CFRP spiral tape (Figure 44).

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 Bridge beams
Precast prestressed concrete beams are widely used in bridge construction. As 160mm1' .. %.
In-situ slab

. . ._ .. .
-
precast construction takes less time on site, these beams are especially useful
when bridging over roads, railways and waterways, where interruptions to traffic formwork
must be minimised The standardisation of beams in the UK began during a UM beam
period of major road construction in the 1950s. A set of inverted tee beams, of
various depths, was introduced for the span range 7 - 15 m. The beams, which
have holes at regular centres through the bottom of the web, are placed on the
supports side by side at 508 mm centres. Ordinary reinforcing bars are threaded
through the holes, and in-situ concrete is added between and over the tops of
the beams to form a composite solid slab, as shown in Figure 45. 160 m m r

During the 1960s. sets of box beams and I-section beams, of various depths,
Permanent
were introduced for the span range 15 - 30 m. The box beams, which were formwork
U beam
placed on the supports side by side at 1 m centres, were provided with
transverse diaphragms at 2.4 m centres. The narrow gaps between the beams
were filled with in-situ concrete and prestressing bars, threaded through ducts 1500 10 2000 mm
centres
in the diaphragms, were post-tensioned. The I-section beams, which were
formed with holes at 3 m centres through the web, were spaced out at 1.5 m Figure 46. Cross-sections through bridge decks
centres. An in-situ reinforced concrete slab and transverse diaphragms were using M beams and U beams
then formed to create a composite tee section. The box and the I-section
beams were not widely used and alternative designs were sought.
Eventually, a further set of larger inverted tee beams was introduced to cover the
span range 15 - 30 m. As the beams are usually placed side by side at 1 m centres,
they have come to be called M beams. Permanent formwork is placed between the
tops of adjacent beams and an in-situ reinforced concrete slab is added to create a
composite tee section, with a transverse diaphragm formed at each end of the span.
-
240 mrn

It was also possible to create a pseudo-box section, by forming an in-situ reinforced

concrete bottom slab as well as a top slab, but this option was soon discarded as
being uneconomical in practice. During the same period, a set of U-section beams
was also introduced. These were spaced at centres between 1.5 m and 2 m, with
permanent formwork placed between each leg to support an in-situ top slab.
In the 199Os, the Prestressed Concrete Association introduced new sets of
inverted tee beams, which are easier to manufacture and have extended the
span range to meet the requirements of motorway widening schemes. The
beams, which have a 750 mm wide bottom flange, are of three forms as follows:
TY for spans up to 17 m (simply supported) 750 rnrn 750 rnrn 750 rnm

= Y for spans up to 32 m (simply supported) Figure 47. Dimensions of 7l! Y and SY beam
= SY for spans up to 40 m (simply supported). sections

The TY beams may be either placed side-by- side, with in-situ concrete added
to form a composite slab, or spaced out at 1 m centres to support an in-situ
concrete top slab. The Y and SY beams are spaced at centres between 1 m and
2 m according to design requirements, to support an in-situ top slab. Typical
details of M, U and Y beam sections are shown in Figures 46 and 47.
Over the years, many bridges incorporating standard bridge beams have been
constructed as a series of isolated spans separated by movement joints. Too
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often, the joints have allowed salty water to leak through to the piers and _I
abutments, causing serious deterioration of the bearing plinths and supporting
structures. Continuous decks generally ensure more durable structures, and
continuity between spans is a requirement of the current UK highway standards.
This may be full continuity of the whole deck structure or partial continuity of the
top slab alone. Bridges up to 60 m long also have to be constructed as integral
bridges without movement joints between the deck and abutments. Several
forms of span-to-span and deck-to-abutment connection have been used, the
relative merits of which are outside the scope of this publication. All of the Figure 48. Y beams used in continuous span
standard bridge beams have proven long-term durability and are eminently construction
suitable for continuous and integral bridge construction (Figure 48).
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I
 Flooring and roofing
Precast prestressed concrete units are widely used to form floors and roofs in
buildings. The supporting structure may be of concrete, masonry or steelwork,
and the precast units may be used either on their own or in combination with
in-situ concrete. The units are manufactured on stressing beds between 50 m
and 200 m long, using slip-form and extrusion techniques or by casting in
moulds. For most applications, the following three forms of construction are
Figure 49. Beam and block construction using available.
225 mrn deep prestressed concrete beams Solid composite slabs are formed of precast prestressed solid units acting as
fully participating formwork, which may be propped or un-propped according
to design requirements, acting in conjunction with an in-situ concrete topping.
The precast units are usually manufactured in depths of 75 mm and 100 mm,
and widths of either 600 mm or 1200 mm. The units may be used with a 75 mm
topping for spans up to about 5 m (unpropped) and 7 m (propped). Other
depths of topping may be used depending on design requirements.
Beam and block construction, which combines precast prestressed concrete
beams and infill blocks (Figure 493, is ideal for ease of handling in
developments with limited access. The beam depths range from 150 mm for
spans up to 6 m, to 225 mm for spans up to about 8 m.
Figure 50. Hollowcore slabs being lowered into Hollowcore slabs are precast prestressed concrete units with continuous voids
position
that reduce self-weight and provide an efficient structural section (Figure 50).
2390 mrn The unit width is usually 1200 mm but other widths are available. The depths
t 1
range from 110 mm for spans up to 5 m, to 450 mm for spans up to about 18 m.
595 mm 1200 rnni 595 rnm
1 1 The long span units are ideal for multi-story car parks and for open-plan
offices where flexibility of use is required.
For applications where particularly long spans are required, a range of double
tee units is available.
Standard units are produced with a flange width of 2390 mm and ribs at 1200 mm
U
centres, in overall depths of 400, 600 and 800 mm (Figure 51). The units are
140 rnm placed side by side, with welded shear connections between adjacent units.
Figure 51. Standard double tee unit showing
section profile For roofs, a lightweight insulating screed and mastic asphalt or similar
waterproofing is placed on top of the units. In this case, the 400 mm deep unit
I
can be used for spans up to about 15 m and the 800 mm deep unit for spans
up to about 27 m.
For floors, a mesh-reinforced concrete topping of 50 mm minimum thickness is
needed to assist in load distribution and provide a minimum fire resistance of
1 hour. For general office loading, the 400 mm deep unit can be used for spans
up to about 11 m and the 800 mm deep unit for spans up to about 22 m. For a
2-hour fire period, a 75 mm thick topping is needed and, for a 4-hour fire period,
units with wider ribs are used and a 100 rnm thick topping is required.
Special ridged units of uniform depth but with minimum drainage falls of 1 in
50 are produced for parking decks. Ridged units of varying depth with a level
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Figure 52. A double tee unit being craned into soffit but with drainage falls of 1 in 20 in the top flange are produced for
position for use as a floor roofing members.
A range of single tee units with a maximum flange width of 3000 mm and overall
depths up to 1200 mm is also available for extra large spans. Tapered reductions
can be made in the flange width for applications such as curved ramp decking.
Double tee units may be used also for applications such as structural walling
and multi-span footbridges. Examples of the use of double tees units are
shown in Figures 52 and 53.

figure 53. Double tee walling units in office and

maintenance depot for British Gas

I
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 Handling of units I No higher than chest height

In most cases, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer of factory-produced I It

units to deliver them safely to site. The subsequent handling and temporary
stacking of the units is very important. Most units will be designed to act as
single span members, simply supported at the ends, and this is how they
should be handled and stacked. Unless lifting hooks have been cast in, slings
I I
or other lifting devices should be positioned near the ends of the units. Units
I
should not be allowed to rotate during lifting and should, whenever possible, Correct Incorrect
be off-loaded from the delivery vehicle and placed directly in their final position Figure 54. Stacking of precast prestressed
in the structure. Othetwise, the units should be stacked where the ground is concrete units
level on timber bearers placed at or near the lifting positions, and arranged to
be vertically above each other (Figure 54). The bearers should provide support
over the full width of the unit, so that there is no tendency for the unit to twist.
The Precast Flooring Federation has produced a publication to help improve
safety and prevent accidents on sites. All aspects of management, training,
control and safe working methods are covered in the Code of Practice for the
safe erection of precast concrete flooring and associated components. This
manual of industry best practice is to be used for the training of erectors,
foremen and supervisors, who are responsible for ensuring that all handling
operations are carried out by skilled, competent personnel.

Post-te nsioning
Post-tensioning is, in principle, more versatile and more efficient than pre-
tensioning. There are no limits to the size or shape of the structure, or to the
magnitude of the prestressing force that may be provided. The dimensions of
the cross-section and the position of the prestressing force may be varied
along the member to maximise load capacity and minimise deflection.
However, the cost of providing anchorages, ducts and corrosion protection to
the tendons is an important factor in determining the economic viability of
post-tensioning. a

Buildings
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Post-tensioning has been used for many years to prestress large-span beams
supporting heavy loads, but a more general use of post-tensioning in the floors
of multi-storey buildings has developed only within the last 25 years. The main
forms of construction, in both reinforced and prestressed concrete, are flat slab
(solid or waffle) or band beam and slab (solid or ribbed), as shown in Figure 55.
For spans greater than 6 m, post-tensioning starts to become cost-effective
and the economic span range of concrete floors is considerably extended. Floor
thickness is kept to a minimum, so that storey heights are less than with most
other forms of construction. The benefits of reduced building height and rapid b
construction are particularly attractive to commercial developers. W

Figure 55. Concrete floors: (a) solid flat slab, (b) waffle slab, (c) band beam and slab, (d) ribbed slab

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 I . ,.

Both bonded and un-bonded forms of construction are used, but the
un-bonded system has particular advantages. The tendons can be located
closer to the surface of the concrete; the cover being typically 30 mm, compared
with 50 mm to the duct for the bonded system. The tendons are flexible and can
be easily fixed to different profiles. They can also be displaced locally around
holes and to accommodate changes in slab shape (Figure 56). Stressing of the
tendons is simple, using a small hand-held jack, and with no subsequent
grouting, the whole system is well suited to rapid construction methods.
The versatility of post-tensioning is demonstrated in structures that comprise
an assembly of precast concrete elements, joined together by means of internal
Figure 56. Un-bonded tendons displaced to tendons. A typical example is shown in Figures 57 and 58, where the double-
accommodate changes in slab shape diamond shaped units were used to provide the external structural frame of the
building. The units, 3 m high by 3 m wide, are provided with steel bearing
plates at the top and bottom of each diamond. These were used to form a
series of welded connections in the vertical direction. Horizontally, tendons
were fed through the pre-formed ducts in each unit and post-tensioned to
form a continuous edge beam. The beam supports 16 m span pre-tensioned
flooring units, with welded plate connectors.
Shell roofs are another example of the versatility of post-tensioning. Single and
multi-span barrel vault roofs are formed of one or more cylindrical arch
segments, with each segment supported at the four corners. In the direction of
curvature the action is that of an arch, whilst longitudinally the action is that of
a beam. The beam action produces compressive stresses along the crown of
the arch and tensile stresses along the edges. The tensile zones can be
prestressed with longitudinal tendons located in the shells or in edge beams.
Figure 57. Manufacture of precast units for Dome roofs, formed of spherical arch segments, require a containment ring at
Unicorn Hotel and car park the bottom edge. In traditional masonry domes, this was generally provided by
a mass structure and, in the case of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, by a ring
chain. In modern concrete domes, post-tensioned tendons are used.
Many exciting shell and hanging roof forms have been used to cover the large
open spaces required in facilities for concerts, exhibitions and sport. Typical
examples include the famous Sydney Opera House (Figure 59) and the Calgary
Saddledome (Figure 60).

Figure 58. External frame of Unicorn Hotel and

car park at Bristol

Figure 59. Sydney Opera House, Australia Figure 60. Calgaty Saddledome, Canada

I
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 Bridges
For short spans, the simplest form of bridge deck is a concrete slab. Slab
bridges can be cast in-situ in either reinforced or prestressed concrete. As the
spans increase, there is a need to reduce the self-weight of the slab and so
longitudinal voids are created by using polystyrene formers. These are usually
of circular section to enable the concrete to flow more easily under them. They
need to be held firmly in position to prevent flotation during concrete placing
and compaction. Reinforced concrete voided slabs are usually more
economical than the prestressed alternative for spans up to about 25 m, with
prestressed concrete voided slabs being used up to about 50 m span.
For longer spans, prestressed concrete single or multi-cell box girders are
figure 61. Kylesku Bridge! Scotland
generally used (Figure 61). The span-by-span method of construction is often Ipost-tensioned in-situ box section)
adopted for multi-cell viaducts with individual spans up to 60 m. One span plus
a cantilever of about one quarter of the next span is cast first on supporting
falsework. This length is then prestressed and the falsework is moved forward.
Another span length is then formed and stressed back to the previous
cantilever (Figure 62).
As the spans increase, in order to minimise the cost of construction, the weight
of concrete to be supported at any one time is reduced, by dividing each span
into a series of transverse segments. These segments, which can be formed in-
situ (Figure 63) or precast (Figure 64), are normally erected on either side of
each pier to form balanced cantilevers, which are then stressed together.
Further segments are then added, extending the cantilevers to mid-span,
where an in-situ closure is formed to make the spans continuous. During
erection, the leading segments are supported from gantries erected on the
piers or completed parts of the deck, and work can advance simultaneously on
several fronts. When the segments are precast, each segment is match-cast ..
-?.L I I

against the previous one. Subsequently, they are jointed with epoxy resin Figure 62. Span-by-span construction
before being stressed together.
Another technique that is used for bridges of constant cross-section that are
either straight or curved to a single radius, is to build them in short lengths at
one end, and incrementally launch the structure outwards from the abutment
(Figure 65). The segments are cast in-situ, in lengths ranging from 5 m to 30 m.
When each segment is complete, it is attached to its predecessor on sliding
bearings and launched into the span by jacks.

i"
Launching nose Temporary
Figure 63. Skye Bridge, Scotland (balanced

t cantilever; cast in-situ)

Figure 65. Incremental launching Figure 64. Precast box segments

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introduction to
Michael prestressed concrete 1 21
 Containment vessels
The major benefit of prestressing in containment vessels is that tension can be
avoided in the concrete under service conditions. Containers of cylindrical,
conical and spherical forms are used for tanks, silos and pressure vessels. The
post-tensioned tendons are used to create ring compression in the structure to
counteract the ring tension caused by the internal pressure of the contained
liquid, gas or other material. Bonded and un-bonded forms of construction are
used with both internal and external tendons. Most structures are cast in-situ
but precast forms, with external tendons, are also used. Cylindrical tanks are
generally provided with a sliding joint at the bottom of the wall, which allows
the wall to move radially inwards as the prestress is applied. The joint may be
designed to remain in a free-to-slide condition or can be secured against
!' further movement after prestressing has been completed.
Figure 66.Stressing internal tendons for a sugar
silo at Newark, Lincolnshire Circumferential prestressing, using internal tendons within the wall thickness,
requires the provision of several piers or pilasters at regular intervals around
the structure where the tendons are brought to the surface (Figure 66).
Tendons are stressed and anchored at these positions, each tendon normally
extending between alternate piers. The tendons in alternate rings are anchored
at different piers, to reduce the congestion of anchorages that would otherwise
occur, and to obtain a more uniform stress distribution.
Small groups of tendons may be contained within narrow ducts that are
subsequently filled with cement grout or unbonded tendons may be used.
These are individually encased in plastic tubing, having been first coated with
protective grease.
A similar pattern may be adopted for external tendons, using un-bonded
tendons and special anchorage connectors. After all the rings have been
stressed, a sprayed concrete protection is applied.
One of the oldest applications of circumferential prestressing is by wire
winding. In this method, a continuous length of wire is wrapped around the
outside of a tank or silo by a winding machine that travels around the structure.
The process, in which the wire is drawn through a die or a system of braked
pulleys, automatically tensions the wire. Wrapping may be continuous from top
Figure 67.Wrre-winding for a water tower at to bottom of the structure or in a series of bands, with several layers of wire
Appleby. Leicestershire within each band (Figure 67). On completion, a sprayed concrete protection is
provided.
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 Appendix
Brief history and development
Examples of prestressing are not new - classical arches relied upon prestress
for stability and wooden barrels have long gained their strength from tensioned
hoops - but its application as an engineering principle began just over 100
years ago. One of the first exponents was French engineer Considere, who
used vertically tensioned iron bars to prestress granite for the walls of the
harbour at Finistere. In Germany, early attempts to prestress concrete by means
of pre-tensioned metal reinforcing bars met with little success due to the lack
of suitable materials. Meanwhile, in France, a brilliant young engineer had
developed an interest in the technique.
Eugene Freyssinet (Figure 68) is widely regarded as the ‘father’ of prestressed
concrete. Tests carried out in the early 1900s led him to believe that
prestressed concrete would be a practical proposition if high strength steel
and high strength concrete were available. He was greatly helped by Glanville’s
investigations at the Building Research Establishment into the effects of creep
and shrinkage of concrete. Freyssinet duly developed his theory of prestressing
and his first treatise on the subject was aptly entitled A revolution in The art of Figure 68. Eugene Freyssinet (1879 -1962), the
building. In 1928, Freyssinet and Seailles patented the principle and, from then ‘father’o f prestressing
on, Freyssinet was to devote all his time to refining the techniques and
materials. He was a practical engineer, who relied on hard work and experience
rather than complex mathematics, and was also a prolific builder of innovative
and outstanding structures.
The 1930s saw a tremendous boom in prestressed concrete work and a rapid
development in applications and techniques, with continental European
engineers leading the world in this new method of construction. Some of the
most significant developments were in prestressing equipment. In 1939,
Freyssinet perfected his prestressing jack and conical anchorage, which held
twelve wires simultaneously. In Belgium Professor Magnel developed a two-wire
system, while in Germany, Hoyer patented a long-line system of prestressing
for factory production.
In 1945. the end of the world war marked the beginning of a major programme
of rebuilding throughout Europe. The shortage of steel and timber in the post-
war years gave an additional boost to developments in concrete structures. The
Cement & Concrete Association in Britain was to lead the way, setting up the
Prestressed Concrete Development Group in 1948 and the international
organisation, FIP (Federation lnternationale de la Precontrainte) in 1952.
Many famous engineering practices were established at this time and the use
of prestressed concrete expanded rapidly. Applications such as long-span roof
structures for aircraft hangers and industrial sheds, and shells, multi-storey
buildings, bridges, water towers and reservoirs were typical. This period saw
the first use of prestressed concrete for nuclear pressure vessels. It was used
unseen in piles and other foundations, as well as for marine structures such as
the massive offshore oilrigs of the 1970s. The UK road-building programme of
the late 1950s to the early 1970s saw its extensive use for elevated motorways,
bridges and flyovers. Significant examples include the Hammersmith Flyover in
West London and the Spaghetti Junction interchange near Birmingham.
Population booms, commercial expansion and the resulting need for rapid
construction saw the introduction of prefabricated building systems, with
factory-made components assembled on site. Prestressing became part of that
mass-production, and pre-tensioned units continue to be used for items such
as railway sleepers, lintels, joists and floor systems.

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introduction to I
prestressed concrete 23
,
 There have been no fundamental discoveries in prestressing since the 1950s.
but a continuing improvement in its application. The basic components of
concrete and steel have been further developed to give higher strength and
more consistent quality. Tendons made from composite materials (aramid,
glass fibre, carbon fibre) have been investigated, and some have been used in
bridges, but steel tendons remain the norm for the foreseeable future.
Stressing jacks have been made lighter and easier to handle, and anchorages
and corrosion protection systems with enhanced reliability and durability have
been introduced. There may be little scope for further development but
prestressed concrete will continue to be used in novel and exciting ways in
major structures [Figure 69).

Figure 69. The Ravenspurn North Sea oil

platform being towed into position off
Design considerations
Scarborough Concrete structures are designed to satisfy certain requirements with regard
to serviceability limit states (cracking, deflection, vibration) and ultimate limit
states (stability, strength). There are some important differences in the
serviceability behaviour of reinforced and prestressed concrete.

Deflection
Reinforced concrete cracks in tension zones and the stiffness of the member
is reduced. As a result, deflection is often critical in determining the thickness
of a reinforced concrete slab. In the case of a prestressed concrete slab, it is
possible to prevent cracking and also offset deflection. The member retains its
uncracked stiffness and the eccentric prestress creates a precamber. so that
little or no downward deflection occurs under service loads (Figure 70).
The upward camber exhibited by a precast prestressed flooring unit will
depend on the time since its manufacture, as well as the length of the unit and
the magnitude of the prestressing force. The camber of adjacent units, when
placed on the supports, will not necessarily be the same, and allowance must
be made for this when considering the thickness of finishing screed and the
overall dimensions of floor zones and storey heights.

--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Prestressed concrete floors are capable of long spans with relatively shallow
depths. As a result, they may be more sensitive to vibration than heavier
reinforced concrete floors. The dynamic response of the floor is normally
considered only for very shallow slabs and beams, in cases where
synchronised crowd loads can occur or the proposed use is particularly
sensitive to vibration.

. . Cracking
Camber due to prestress Deflection
The ability to avoid cracking under service loads has potential benefits with
Figure 70. Load-deflection diagrams for regard to aspects such as durability and water-tightness. No tension is
reinforced and prestressed members permitted circumferentially in a cylindrical tank or across the joints
in segmental construction. For many other structures, a limited tensile stress or
crack width is permitted, as recommended in a relevant code of practice.
In bridges, for example, the limits are varied according to the combination of
loads under consideration.

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- ~~~ ~~~
 Losses of prestress
In determining the amount of prestress necessary to control deflection, or to
avoid tension or limit crack widths, allowance has to be made for the losses of
prestress that occur at various stages. The losses depend on many factors,
including the inherent properties of the materials and the method of
prestressing.
For pre-tensioning, the losses are due mainly to the elastic shortening of the
member at transfer, and the combined effects of steel relaxation, concrete
creep and shrinkage after transfer of stress. Typical losses for a bridge beam,
as a proportion of the initial prestressing force, would be about 10% at transfer
and a further 20% after transfer.
For post-tensioning, losses due to elastic shortening are less than 5% but
friction losses during tensioning can vary enormously, depending upon the
system, the length and curvature of the tendon and the characteristics of the
duct or sheath. Subsequent losses are generally less than for pre-tensioning
and about 15% of the transfer force would be typical.
Designers begin by assuming values for the expected losses at each stage.
Once the prestressing details have been determined, the losses can be
calculated more precisely from information given in codes of practice and by
systems suppliers: the design is then modified if necessary.

Movement and restraint

An important consideration in determining the effect of a prestressing force is
the extent to which the structure is free to move. Consider, for example, a
cylindrical tank. When the tank is full, the hydrostatic pressure due to the
contained liquid varies linearly from zero at the top to a maximum at the
bottom. If the wall is free to slide at the bottom, the resulting ring tension will
also vary linearly from top to bottom, and the wall can be prestressed
circumferentially with ring compression that varies in the same way. The wall
--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

will move inwards in response to the prestress and, subsequently, the wall will
continue to move out and in as the tank is filled and emptied. If the bottom of
the wall is not free to slide, no ring forces are possible at the bottom and the
force distribution is affected throughout the lower portion of the wall height. In
this case vertical bending and radial shear also occur.
Consider, now, the more general case of beams and slabs, which need to shorten
and deflect under the action of the prestress. A single simply supported span is
normally free to shorten and deflect without restraint. This is generally the case
for pre-tensioned members at transfer, although the conditions may change
subsequently if the members are used in continuous forms of construction. In
this case, the long-term effects of creep have to be taken into account.
Members that are continuous over two or more spans, at the time of prestressing,
are normally free to shorten but are not free to deflect at the support positions. In
most cases, the application of the prestress will induce a set of support reactions
that are in mutual equilibrium (i.e. the algebraic sum of the support reactions due
to prestress will be zero). These support reactions cause a secondary (or parasitic)
set of moments and shears that need to be considered in the design of the
rnember.
A concept of load balancing is usually employed in the design of
post-tensioned slabs. The tendons are arranged in a series of parabolic curves
that trace the bending moment diagram determined for the permanent load. A
prestressing force is chosen so that the effect of the permanent load is
balanced by the vertical reactions of the tendons on the slab. The compression
due to the prestressing force is then utilised to offset the effects of the
transient loads. A different approach is necessary in cases such as bridges,
where there are more load combinations to consider and considerably higher
stresses are applied to the concrete.

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introduction to I
prestressed concrete 25
 . ..

Further reading
British Cement Association. Concretepractice: 3 d edition, 2002,
British Cement Association, Crowthorne. Ref. 48.037. 70 pp.
Concrete Society. Post-tensionedconcrete floors: design handbook,
Technical Report 43. 1994, The Concrete Society, Crowthorne. 174 pp.
Concrete Society. Durable bonded post-tensioned concrete bridges,
Technical Report 47. 1996. The Concrete Society, Crowthorne. 72 pp.
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Gerwick, B C. Construction of prestressed concrete structures: 2"d edition, 1997,

John Wiley & Sons. 591 pp.
Hurst, M K. Prestressed concrete design: 2nd edition, 1998, E & F N Spon. 288 pp.
Kong, F K & Evans, R H. Reinforced andprestressed concrete: 3r6edition, 1987.
Chapman & Hall. 508 pp.
Precast Flooring Federation. Code of practice for the safe erection of precast
concrete flooring and associated components. 2001, The Federation, 88 pp.
Reinforced Concrete Council. CALcrete: computer-aided learning for concrete
materials, design and construction. 2000, RCC/British Cement Association,
CD-ROM. Ref. 97.358.
BS 4486: 1980, Specification for hot rolled and hot rolled and processed high
tensile alloy steel bars for the prestressing of concrete.
BS 5328-1 : 1997, Concrete - Part 1: Guide to specifiing concrete.
BS 5896: 1980, Specification for high tensile steel wire and strand for the
prestressing of concrete.
BS EN 206-1 : 2000, Concrete - Part 1: Specification,performance, production
and conformity
pr EN 10138, Prestressing steel (in 5 parts]. Not yet published.

Addresses of companies and organisations

Suppliers of prestressing wire and strand
Bridon Wire Construction Products,
Carr Hill, Doncaster, South Yorkshire DN4 8DG
Tel: 01302 382217
www.bridon.com
Carrington Wire Cardiff,
P.O. Box 56, Pengam Works, Cardiff CF24 2WR
Tel: 02920 256100
www.carringtonwire.com

Suppliers of strand post-tensioning systems

CCL Stressing Systems Ltd,
Unit 4, Park 2000, Millennium Way, Westland Road, Leeds LS11 5AL
Tel: 01132 701221
www.cclstressing.com
Freyssinet Ltd,
7 Hollinswood Court, Stafford Park 1, Telford, Shropshire TF3 3DE
Tel: 01952 201901
www.freyssinet.co.u k
VSL Systems (UK) Ltd,
Suite 5, Orchard House, Tebbutts Road, St Neots, Cambridgeshire PE19 1AW
Tel: 01480 404401
www.vsl-intl.com
26 I
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I Suppliers of bars and bar post-tensioning systems
McCalls Special Products Ltd,
P.O. Box 71. Hawke Street, Sheffield S9 2LN
Tel: 01 142 426704
www.macalloy.com

--`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Dywidag Systems International Ltd,
Northfield Road, Southam, Warwickshire CV47 OFG
, Tel: 01926 813980
I
I www.dywidag-systems.com

The UK certification authority, covering the production of

I high tensile steel bars, wire and strand and the supply
and installation of post-tensioning systems
UK CARES,
, Pembroke House, 21 Pembroke Road, Sevenoaks, Kent TN13 1XR
Tel: 01732 450000
' www.ukcares.com

Industry associations
Concrete Bridge Development Group,
Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks RG45 6YS.
Tel: 01344 725727
www.cbdg.0rg.uk
I Post-tensioning Association
C/o Balvac Whitley Moran Ltd, Birchwood Way, Somercotes, Alfreton,
Derbyshire DE55 4QQ
Tel: 01773 542600
1 Precast Flooring Federation,
60 Charles Street, Leicester LE1 1FB
Tel: 01162 536161
www.pff,Org.uk
Prestressed Concrete Association,
60 Charles Street, Leicester LE1 1FB
Tel: 01 162 5361 61
www.britishprecast.0rg.uk

Arup - Figure 69
Jan Bobrowski & Partners - Figure 60
CV Buchan - Figure 16
CCL Stressing Systems Ltd - Figures 26, 27. 28, 29, 30
Concrete Bridge Development Group - Figures 62, 63, 64
Dywidag Systems International - Figure 40
Freyssinet Ltd - Figures 31, 33, 35, 36. 38, 41, 42, 68
Lancashire County Council - Figure 48
Platts - Figure 39
SACAC AG, 5600 Lenzburg, Switzerland - Figure 44
Tarmac Precast - Figures 43, 46, 47, 52, 53, 57, 58
Tarmac Topfloor - Figures 14, 49, 50
I VSL Systems (UK) Ltd - Figures 19, 20, 21, 32, 34, 37

Copyright British Cement Association

Provided by IHS Markit Licensee=WSP Group/5970250001, User=Duncan, Michael
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Markit Not for Resale, 03/15/2022 08:18:40 MDT
 --`,`,`,,,``,`,``,,``,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Copyright British Cement Association

Provided by IHS Markit Licensee=WSP Group/5970250001, User=Duncan, Michael
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Markit Not for Resale, 03/15/2022 08:18:40 MDT