• Introduction • Klein PART 1 Eysenck

DAY 1

DAY 2

DAY 3

DAY 4
• Kohut Allport Sheldon &
• Freud • Kernberg • Cattell & Stevens
• Adler • Mahler Eysenck Plumin & Buss
• Jung • Bowlby • Costa & Gray
• Horney • Fromm McCrae Zuckerman
• Erikson • Filipino
Psychology
• Maslow
• Rogers
• PART 2
• May
• Skinner
• Murray
• Dollard &
• Sullivan
Miller
• Bandura
• Rotter &
Mischel
• Kelly
MELANIE KLEIN
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
Introduction

 Object relations theory is an offspring of Freud’s instinct theory

 Difference from Freud’s:
 Less biological based (Emphasis = consistent patterns of interpersonal
relationships)
 Maternalistic (stress intimacy and nurturing of the mother)
 Prime mover of behavior = Human contact & relatedness (not sexual
pleasure)
 Klein = mother of object relations theory; Freud = father
 Real or fantasized early relations with the breast/mother = model for
all later interpersonal relationships
Psychic Life of the Infant

 Emphasized: first 4 or 6 years

 Infants do not begin life as a blank slate
 Infants have an inherited predisposition to reduce anxiety
(Phylogenetic Endowment)
 Phantasies/ Fantasies
 Children have active fantasy life
 Fantasies - psychic representations of unconscious id instincts; children
possess unconscious images of good and bad
 Impacts psychic life; Later fantasies are shaped by reality and inherited
presdispositions
Psychic Life of the Infant

 Objects
 Objects – a part of a person or a thing through which the aim is satisfied
 Drives have objects (hunger drive = good breast object)
 Earliest object relations = the mother’s breast
 Soon interest develops in the face and in the hands which attend to his
needs and gratify them
 In their active fantasy, infants introject the external objects (physically
internalizing the object)
 These introjected objects have a power of their own (like a Freud’s
superego which is the parents’ conscience carried by the child)
Positions

 Infants constantly engage in conflict between life and death

instinct, good and bad breast
 To deal with these dichotomies, infants organize experiences into
positions
 Positions – ways of dealing with both internal and external objects;
alternate back and forth; not periods of time or stages of development;
normal for social growth
 Basic: Paranoid-Schizoid Position and Depressive Position
Positions: Paranoid-Schizoid

 Developed during 3 or 4 months

 Used to control the good breast and fight off persecutors
 Paranoid-schizoid position – a way of organizing experiences that
includes both paranoid feelings of being persecuted and a splitting
of internal and external objects into good and bad.
 Infants must keep the good breast and bad breast separate.
Because to confuse them would be to risk annihilating the good
and losing it.
 Destructive feelings/negative values = bad breast ; Nourishment
feelings/positive values = good breast
 This splitting = prototype for subsequent development of ambivalent
feelings towards a single person (unconscious ambivalence)
Positions: Depressive
 Begins 5 or 6 months
 View objects as a whole (bad and good exist in same person)
 Ego becomes mature = tolerate & do not project destructive feelings
 Develops realistic view of mother (She is independent)
 Infant realizes mother might go away & be lost and wants to protect and keep
her, BUT because infant lacks capacity = GUILT and ANXIETY
 Reparation – infants try to reproach themselves from previous destructive feelings
towards mother
 Empathy – developed in infants as they see mother as whole and being endangered
 Resolved = experience love from and for the mother
 Incomplete resolution = lack of trust, morbid mourning, psychopathology
Psychic Defense Mechanisms
 Protect ego against anxiety from own destructive feelings
 Destructive feelings originate from oral-sadistic anxieties with breast
1. Introjection
 fantasy of taking in/ incorporate into body perceptions/experiences with external objects
 Originates from mother’s breast, begins at First feeding
 Infants introject good and bad
 Internalized objects are only representations of real objects
2. Projection
 Fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses actually reside in another peron and not
within one’s body
 Bad images/feelings = used to alleviate unbearable anxiety
 Good images/feelings = attribute own feelings of goodness onto breast and image the
breast is good
 Allows people to believe that their own subjective opinions are true
Psychic Defense Mechanisms
3. Splitting
 Used to manage good and bad aspects of self
 Keep apart incompatible impulses = Ego splits into “Good Me” or “Bad Me”
 Normal splitting = enables people to see both Positive & Negative aspects
of themselves, evaluate behavior as good or bad, differentiate likeable &
unlikeable
 Excessive splitting = leads to pathological repression; Destructive impulses
become unacceptable, undealt with, and repressed
4. Projective Identification
 Real mechanism of splitting unacceptable parts of self > project onto
another object > introject in a distorted from & indentify with it > Gain
control over unacceptable parts
Internalizations
 Internalizations – psychologically meaningful frameworks formed from
person’s introjection of aspects of external world
 Klein ignored the Id
 Three Important Internalizations:
1. Ego
 Unorganized at birth BUT feels anxiety and USES defense mechanisms
 Begins to evolve with infant’s first feeding experience
 The introjected Good and Bad breast become bases of evaluating all
experiences
 The first object relation (breast) becomes the prototype for ego’s future
development and later interpersonal relations
 Before ego becomes unified, it first splits itself, producing a Dual Image of
Self – allows to manage good and bad aspects of external objects
Internalizations
2. Superego
 Different from Freud’s
 Emerges early in life
 Early superego in young children, not guilt but Terror
 Infant’s own destructive instinct is experienced as anxiety
 To manage anxiety, Ego then mobilizes the life instinct
 Ego defends itself from its own actions
 Not an outgrowth of the Oedipal complex
 Grows along with it, and become realistic guilt when Oedipus complex is
resolved
 More harsh and cruel
 Harsh superego = antisocial and criminal tendencies
Internalizations

3. Oedipus Complex
 Differ from Freud’s
 OC begins at a much earlier age (earliest month of life, overlaps with oral
and anal phase, peaks at Genital/Phallic stage)
 Children experience fear of retaliation from the parent for their fantasies
 Children retain positive feelings towards BOTH parents
 Serves same need for both sexes: Establish positive attitude with good
object & avoid bad object
 Healthy resolution: Allow parents to have intercourse with each other
 Positive feelings towards parents later serve to enhance adult sexual
relations
Internalizations

MALE oedipal devt. FEMALE oedipal devt.

1. Boy adopts feminine position, 1. Sees mother’s breasts as good &
desires father’s penis bad
2. Moves to heterosexual relationship 2. @ 6 mos.= See breast as more
with mother positive
3. Imagine how babies are made
3. Develops oral-sadistic impulses
and wants to bite off father’s penis 4. Sees father as the giver of babies
4. Feelings arouse castration anxiety 5. Adopts a feminine position
and fear of retaliation 6. If not resolved, girl see mother as
rival and rob mother of her babies
5. Resolved partially by the
castration anxiety 7. This creates fear of retaliation and
is resolved when she gives birth
Expansion of The Object Relations
Theory
 Margaret Mahler
 Heinz Kohut
 Otto Kernberg
 John Bowlby
 Mary Ainsworth
Margaret Mahler’s View

 Concerned with the psychological birth

 first weeks to 3 years of life
 Child becomes an individual separate from his/her primary caregivers
 An achievement that leads to a sense of identity
 First 3 Years – time when a child gradually surrenders security for
autonomy
 Based on Empirical Research: Observed behavior of normal and
disturbed children’s interactions and bond with their mothers
 Any errors made during the First 3 years = Later regressions to the
stage where individual didn’t achieve individuation and indentity
Margaret Mahler’s View
 To achieve Normal Normal Separation-
Psychological autism symbiosis individuation
Rebirth, the child
must go through -
Three major DIfferentiation
developmental
stages

Practicing

Rapprochement

Libidinal Object
Constancy
Heinz Kohut’s View
 Emphasis: The process by which the self evolves and achieves a sense
of individual identity
 Early mother-and-child relationships = Key to understanding later
development
 Human relations are at the Core of Human Personality (NOT instinctual
drives)
 Selfobjects (adults)
 Infants require satisfaction of Physical and Psychological Needs
 Adults/Selfobjects must treat infants as if they have a sense of self (act with
warmth, coldness, or indifference)
 Through Empathic Interaction, infants take in the attitudes shown by the
selfobjects/adults which become the building block of the self
Heinz Kohut’s View

 Self
 Center of the individual’s universe
 Gives unity and consistency to experiences
 Remains relatively stable
 Center of initiative and a recipient of impressions
 Child’s focus of interpersonal relations
Heinz Kohut’s View
 Infants are naturally narcissistic
 Self-centered; looking our for their own welfare
 2 Basic Narcissistic needs
1. Grandiose-exhibitionistic self – established when infants relate “mirroring”
selfobjects who reflects approval of their behavior; “if they see me perfect,
then I am perfect”
2. Idealized parent image – implies someone else is perfect, infants then
adopt the attitude; “ You are perfect, but I am part of you”
 Necessary for healthy personality development
 Must change as children grow up into realistic views
 If unaltered = pathological narcissistic personality
Otto Kernberg’s View

 Observed older patients/ disturbed adults to show how mature

relationships evolve from childhood experiences
 Key to understanding personality = Mother and Child relationship
 In all experiences, there are Internalized Object Relationships
 Self-image (eg. bad me)
 Object-image (eg. bad mother)
 Affect (eg. Negative)
 During positive or negative experiences, infants separate
contradictory aspects of the self by splitting the ego, a defense
mechanism
PGC1

Otto Kernberg’s View

 Defense Mechanisms/Levels of Internalized Object Relationships

 Introjection – “swallowing whole”
 Most primitive; 1st level
 Images are kept apart (good internal object/ bad internal object)
 Eg. Oral gratification, physical contact = good internal object
 Identification
 Higher form of introjection; 2nd level
 Capable to see self and mother as having specific social roles
 Various roles played lead to consistent patterns of behavior, facilitating ego
identity
Slide 22

PGC1 (CONTINUE THIS!!!)

Paula Glenda Cheng, 02/06/2015
Otto Kernberg’s View

 Ego-identity
 overall organization of identifications and introjections
 Highest level of organization of the self (like a schema)
 Leads to ego development and Mature superego
 Lack of stable ego = split-off ego, disintegration, psychological disorder
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

 Integrated object relations theory with evolutionary perspective

 Infused knowledge of ethology (Konrad Lorenz’ idea of early
bonding to a mother-figure)
 Bowlby’s theory, attachments formed during childhood have an
important impact on adulthood
 Study childhood directly and not rely on distorted retrospective
accounts from adults
 His theory came from observations of human and primate infants
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

 Three stages of Separation anxiety

1. Protest
 When caregivers are out of sight, infants cry, resist soothing done by others
2. Despair
 Infants become quiet, sad, passive, listless, apathetic
3. Detachment (unique to humans)
 Infants become emotionally detached from other people, including
caregiver (mother)
 If caregiver returns, infant will disregard or ignore her
 Infants no longer upset when caregiver leaves
 These children appear sociable but interact with little emotion
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

 Two Fundamental Assumptions:

1. A responsive/accessible caregiver must create a secure base for a
child
 If the caregiver is dependable, the child develops confidence and
security in exploring the world
2. The bonding relationship (or lack thereof)becomes internalized and
serves as a model for future relationships
 The first bonding moment is the most critical ones
 Attachment is a relationship and not a trait; it’s a two-way street –
infant and caregiver must be responsive to each other
Mary Ainsworth
 Developed a technique for determining type of attachment style
called the Strange Situation
 A stranger interact with the infant as the mother leaves.
 The critical behavior is how the infant reacts when the mother returns

 Three attachment style ratings

1. Secure – when mother returns, infants are happy and initiate contact;
infant are confident in the accessibility & responsiveness of caregiver
2. Anxious-resistant – infants are ambivalent; when mother leaves infants
become unusually upset, when mother returns they seek contact but
rejects being soothed
3. Anxious-avoidant – infants stay calm when mother leaves, accepts
stranger, when mother returns ignore and avoid her
ERICH FROMM
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS
Basic Assumptions

 Personality must be seen in the light of human

history
 Human Dilemma
 People do not have instincts but have the facility to
reason
 We become separated from nature
 But we are also aware that we are isolated beings
 Our ability to reason permits us to survive But forces us
to solve insoluble dichotomies we cant do away with
Existential Dichotomies
 Life and death
 Reason tells us that we will die eventually
 We negate this by postulating life after death
 But it doesn’t change the fact the life ends in death
 Goal of complete self-realization and shortness of life
 Reason tells us that life is too short to completely be self actualized
 Some people negate this by assuming that their own historical
period is the crowning achievement of humanity
 People are ultimately alone but cannot tolerate isolation
 Reason tells us that we are separate individuals
 We negate this by believing our happiness depends on uniting with
others
Human Needs
 Move people toward reunification with the natural world
 Human needs are existential needs
 Emerged during the evolution of human nature
 Grow out of the attempts of people to find answer to their existence
and avoid becoming insane
 Human needs may be pursued through Productive or
Nonproductive approaches
 Healthy people find answers to their existence and are able
to find ways of reuniting to the world by solving human
needs
 Lack of satisfaction: Unbearable and results in insanity
Human Needs
1. Relatedness
 The drive for union with another person/s
 3 Basic ways of relating:
 Submission – (nonproductive) transcend separateness by becoming part of
something bigger or stronger
 Power – (nonproductive) transcend separateness by welcoming submissive
partners
• Symbiotic Relationship – Satisfies both domineering and submissive people but blocks
growth toward integrity and psychological health; People are drawn not by love, but
by desperate need for relatedness
 Love – (productive) the only route by which a person can relate to the world
• Defined as “union with somebody or something outside oneself under the condition of
retaining separateness and integrity of one’s own self”
• Four basic elements: Care, Responsibility, Respect, Knowledge
Human Needs
2. Transcendence
 The urge to rise above a passive and accidental
existence into the realm of purposefulness and
positive freedom
 Sought by:
 Creating life (productive)
 To create means to be active and to care about whats created
 Destroying life (nonproductive)
 Malignant
Narcissism – killings for reasons other than survival;
humans are the only species to use this
 -not common to all humans
 Human Needs
3. Rootedness
 the need to establish roots or to feel at home in the world again
 Influenced by Johann Jaob Bachofen = mother is central figure providing roots for her
children and motivate them to become whole or fixated
 Fromm saw incestuous desires are not essentially sexual
 “Incestuous feelings are based on the deep-seated craving to remain in, or to return to, the
all-enveloping womb or the all-nourishing breast”
 People employ these strategies:
 Wholeness or Integration (productive) –
 people wean from the orbit of the mother and become fully born; they actively relate to the world
 Confers security and and sense of belongingness
 Fixation (nonproductive) -
 A tenacious reluctance to move beyond the protection of the mother
 Afraid to take the next step; dependent, frightened , insecure
Human Needs
4. Sense of Identity
 The capacity for human to be aware of themselves as a separate
entity
 A true sense of “I”; not just an identity attached to others or institutions
 Without Identity, people would not retain sanity
 This serves as great motivation
 Strategies:
 Individuality (Productive)- healthy people have less need to conform; possess
authentic sense of identity
 Adjustment to a group (Unproductive)- Surrender freedom in order to fit into
society; Give up their sense of self
Human Needs
5. Frame of Orientation
 Is a need for a road map to make their way through the world, a goal map, an
organizer of life
 It Enables people to organize various stimuli that impinge on them (schema)
 With reason, It allows people to make sense of puzzling phenomena and put them in a
context they can understand
 Its a philosophy, a consistent ways of looking at things
 People will do anything to have this, even to the extreme of following bizarre philosophies
(religion)
 It must have a GOAL or Destination:
 A final goal or object of devotion which focuses peoples energies in a single direction in order
to transcend isolated experiences and find meaning to their lives
 Strategies:
 Rational goals (Productive)
 Irrational goals (Unproductive)
Summary of Fromm’s Human Needs

Human Needs Unproductive (Negative Productive (Positive

Components) Components)
Relatedness Submission or domination Love

Transcendence Destructiveness Creativity

Rootedness Fixation Wholeness

Sense of Identity Adjustment to a group Individuality

Frame of Orientation Irrational goals Rational goals

Burden of Freedom
Humans are torn from nature yet remain part of the
natural world

Self-awareness and Reason = Unique to humans

“Freaks of the Universe”

Reason:
(curse)feelings of isolation &(blessing) seek ways to be
reunited with world

More Freedom = More Isolation

Burden of Freedom = Basic Anxiety – the feeling of

being alone in the world
Mechanisms of Escape
 People’s attempt to fly from freedom which causes basic anxiety
1. Authoritarianism – tendency to give up independence of one’s
individual self, to use oneself to somebody or something, in order to
acquire strength which is lacking (use authority)
 Masochism (self = authority)
 Results from basic feelings of powerlessness, weakness, inferiority
 Join the self to a more powerful person/institution
 Disguised as love or loyalty, BUT its dependency and inauthenticity
 Sadism (others = authority)
 More neurotic and socially harmful
 Make others dependent on oneself and gain power over weak person/s
 Compelled to exploit and take advantage of others, use them for own benefit
 Desire to see others suffer physically or psychologically
Mechanisms of Escape
2. Destructiveness –
 Does not depend on other people BUT seeks to eliminate
 Used to restore lost feelings of power
 Self-defeating for in destroying one can no longer unite
 Attraction to Isolation which would be achieve by eliminating the
outside world
3. Conformity
 Give up individuality and become whatever others desire
 Automaton Conformity – people become robots, reacting
mechanically, clinging to expected standards
 Adopt an inauthentic self
 More conforming =more powerless, More powerless = more need to
conform
Positive Freedom
 A spontaneous and full expression or both rational and
emotional potentialities
 Little or no tendency to conform
 Affirmation of uniquness and self realization
 People become part of the world yet separate from it
 Free and not alone, Critical but not full of doubts,Independent but
integral to mankind

 Twin Components of Positive Freedom: Love and Work

 Humans unite with one another and with the world without
sacrificing their integrity
Character Orientations
 Character orientation –
 Reflects personality
 Defined as a relatively permanent way of relating to people & things
 Personality – “the totality of inherited and acquired psychic qualities
which are characteristic of one individual and which make the
individual unique”
 Character – “relatively permanent system of all non-instinctual
strivings through which man relates himself to the human and natural
world”

 2 Ways of Relating to the world

 Assimilation – acquiring and using things
 Socialization – relating to self and others
Character Orientations:
Nonproductive Orientations
 Strategies fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self realization
CHARACTER Description Positive Qualities Negative Qualities

Receptive More concerned with receiving than Loyalty, acceptance, Passivity,

giving; Want others to shower them with trust submissiveness, servility,
love, ideas, gifts lack of self-confidence
Exploitative Aggressively take what they desire; Use Impulsiveness, pride, Egocentric, conceited,
force; Steal rather than create; Willing to self-confidence, active, arrogant, seducing
express opinion captivating, takes
initiative
Hoarding Seek to save what has been obtained; Orderliness, cleanliness, Rigidity, sterility,
Hold on to everything; Live in the past punctuality obstinacy,
(anal traits = result from general interest in compulsivity, lack of
all that is not alive) creativity
Marketing See themselves commodities; Adjust Changeable, open- Aimless, opportunities,
personality to which is “in”; Motto: “I am minded, undogmatic, inconsistent, wasteful,
what you desire”; Empty adaptable, generous no permanent values
 Character Orientations: Productive
 Single, Most healthy of all orientations
 Three Dimensions:
1. Work
 Healthy people enjoy what they’re doing, don’t work to exploit others or market
themselves
 Means of creative self-expression and producing life’s necessities
2. Love
 Healthy people possess Biophilia – a passionare love of life & all that is alive
 Characterized by four qualities: care, responsibility, respect, knowledge
 Have love of others and self-love
3. Reasoning
 Healthy people are motivated by a concerned interest in another person / object
 Know themselves for who they are and have no need for self-delusion
 (cannot be separated from Love and Work)
 Personality Disorders
 Syndrome of Growth: Biophilia. Love, Positive Freedom
 Syndrome of Decay: Necrophilia, Malignant Narcissism,
Incestuous Symbiosis
 Emphasis on Assimilation rather than Socialization, incapable of loe
and union with others

1. Necrophilia
 Fromm - “any attraction to death”
 Alternative of Biophilia
 Hunger for power: advocates of law & order
 Hate humanity: racists, warmongers, bullies, love torture and
terror
 Personality Disorders
2. Malignant Narcissism
 Greater interest in one’s body and concerns that impedes perception
of reality
 Everything belonging to oneself is highly valued; everything else is
belittled
 Preoccupation leads to hypochondriasis
 Hypochondriasis – an obsessive attention to one’s health
 Fromm also recognized moral hypochondriasis
 moral hypochondriasis – preoccupation with guilt about previous transgression
 This stems from the same narcissism of the vain person, from an intense interest in
oneself
 The sense of worth is dependent on their narcissistic self-image and
not on real achievements; When they are criticized, they react with
anger and rage
Personality Disorders
3. Incestuous Symbiosis
 Extreme dependence on the mother or mother surrogate
 Originates from infancy as natural attachment
 Exaggerated from of Mother Fixation
 People are inseparable from the host
 Feel extremely anxious & frightened if relationship is threatened
 Believe they cant live without mother surrogate
 Prevents people from achieving independence and integrity
 Host = not necessarily the mother
Fromm: Method of Investigation

 Psychohistory
 Psychobiography

 Examinationof historical documents to sketch a

psychological reort of a prominent person
 Example: Life of Adolf Hitler
 Fromm:the world’s most conspicuous example of syndrome
of decay
ERIK ERIKSON
POST-FREUDIAN THEORY
Abreaction (Abnormal Psychology)

 the expression and consequent release of a previously

repressed emotion
 Vivid, cathartic return of painful emotion/s from past
circumstances
 The patient may have been conscious before, or may
have suddenly emerged from repression
 achieved through reliving the experience that caused it
 Typically through hypnosis or suggestion
Post-Freudian Theory
 Life Cycle Approach - Erikson extended Freud’s
Developmental stages into Adolescence, adulthood, and
old age
 Each stage has a Psychosocial struggle which contributes
to personality development
 Example, Adolescence has identity crisis as a
psychological struggle
 Crisis– a turning point in one’s life that may either
strengthen or weaken personality
 More emphasis: Ego, Social & Historical influences
 Ego and Sense of Identity develops over the lifespan
The EGO IN Post-Freudian Theory
Erikson: Ego is defined as a person’s ability to unify experiences and actions in an
adaptive manner.

Freud Erikson

• Ego borrow strength from id • Ego is a positive force creates self-

• Constantly balances demands of id, identity
superego & external world • A sense of “I”
• Ψ Healthy: ego reins over id; but id • Center of Personality – adapt to
may overwhelm ego conflicts and keeps from losing
• Conscious, Unconscious, individuality
Preconscious • Unifies and guards personality
• Partially unconscious
• Synthesize present with past identities
and anticipated self-images
Three Aspects of the Ego
1. Body Ego
 Experiences with the body
 Physical self, as differentiated from others
 Responsible for the satisfaction/dissatisfaction with physical body
2. Ego ideal
 Image people have of themselves in comparison with an ideal
 Responsible for the satisfaction/dissatisfaction with physical body
and personal identity
3. Ego identity
 Image people have of themselves in various roles they play
Society’s Influence

 Ego is largely shaped by society

 Different societies shape personalities that fit the needs
and values of their culture
 Certain characteristics help both in the individual and
the culture, no one characteristic is prescribed for all
cutlures.
 Tribes and nations have developed pseudospecies,
 Pseudospecies is an illusion perpetrated and perpetuated by a
particular society that it is somehow chosen to be “the” human
species (eg. Nazi Germany, Aryan Race)
Epigenetic Principle
 A term borrowed by Henry Murray from embryology
 Erikson believed that the EGO develops through various
stage of life according to the epigenetic principle
 Epigenetic principle – anything that grows has a ground
plan. The parts arise, each part having its time of special
ascendency, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning
whole
 The ego, like the growth of fetal organs, must develop
according to a predetermined rate & in a fixed sequence
 One stage emerge from and is built upon a previous stage
 No stage replaces another
 Psychosocial Stages: Basics
1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle
2. Every stage involves interaction of opposites
 Syntonic - harmonious
 Dystonic - disruptive
3. Conflict between Syntonic & Dystonic elements produce Basic Strength (Ego Strength)
4. Too little strength = Core Pathology
5. Erikson stages are called Psychosocial stages. It involves biological aspects of human
development
6. Ego identity is formed by multiplicity of conflicts and events – which includes past,
present , future
7. Especially starting adolescence, each stage is characterized by identity crisis
 Identity Crisis – a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and
heightened potential
 Not catastrophic, but an opportunity adaptive/maladaptive adjustment
Psychosocial Stage:
Infancy
• A time of incorporation – infants take in through mouth & other sense organs

•Modes of incorporation: receiving & accepting what is given

Psychosexual Mode: Oral-sensory
•In getting people to give, infants learn to trust/mistrust other people

•basic trust – correspondence between infant’s pattern of accepting

Psychosocial Crisis: Basic trust vs. basic things and culture’s way of giving things
mistrust
•Some ratio of trust and mistrust is needed for people’s ability to adapt

•Painful and pleasurable experiences, infants learn to expect that

Basic Strength: Hope
future distresses will meet with satisfactory outcomes

Core Pathology: Withdrawal •With little or no hope, infants will retreat from outside world

Significant Relations: Mother/Mothering

one
Psychosocial Stage:
Early Childhood
Children develop control; Parallel to Freud’s anal phase (2-3 years old); Time of Toilet training
•Children learn to control body (cleanliness and mobility)
Psychosexual Mode: Anal-urethral-
muscular •Display stubborn tendencies: contradiction, impulsivity, deviance,
resistance, compliance, cooperation,

•Autonomy – self expression

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. shame
•Shame – feeling of self-consciousness, being looked at or exposed
and doubt
•Doubt – feeling of uncertainty

Basic Strength: Will •Willful expression; Striving for autonomy; Beginning of free will

Core Pathology: Compulsion •Too much doubt and shame; too little will

Significant Relations: Parents

 Psychosocial Stage:
Play Age
Parallel to Freud’s Phallic Phase; 3-5 years old; Oedipus Complex is only one of important
developments
•Oedipus complex – a drama played out in the child’s imagination and
Psychosexual Mode: Genital-locomotor should not be taken literally
•Such is an expression of rapidly developing locomotor abilities

•Children approach the world & create/select own goals

Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt •Most goals are unacceptable/taboo and must be repressed or delayed
= Consequence: Guilt

•Children set goals and develop a conscience

Basic Strength: Purpose
•Youthful conscience: “cornerstone of morality”

Core Pathology: Inhibition •Children become compulsively moralistic and over controlled

Significant Relations: Family

 Psychosocial Stage:
School Age
Parallel to Freud’s Latency stage; 6-12 or 13 years old ; Time of social growth & Sexual Latency
•Children divert energy to culture and social interactions
Psychosexual Mode: Latency
•Form Ego-Identity (“I” or “me-ness”)

•Industry – willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job

Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. inferiority •Inferiority – feelings of inadequacy, when work is insufficient to
accomplish goals
•Competence – confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive
Basic Strength: Competence abilities to solve problems during school age
•Lays foundation for cooperative participation in productive adult life

Core Pathology: Inertia •Inertia – children give up and regress

Significant Relations: Neighborhood,

school
 Psychosocial Stage:
Adolescence
• Puberty to adulthood; One of the most crucial stages
• Time for gaining a sense of ego identity and social latency
• Identity comes from (1) Childhood identifications (2) Society’s standards

* Psychosexual Mode: Puberty •Defined by Erikson as Genital Maturation

•Crisis – a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and

heightened potential
* Psychosocial Crisis: Identity vs. identity
•Identity – who they are and who they are not
confusion
•Identity confusion – divided self-image, cant establish intimacy, rejection
of family and community values

•Fidelity –faith in some ideological view or vision of the future; Developed

* Basic Strength: Fidelity
from trust in infancy

* Core Pathology: Role repudiation (refusal •Diffidence – lack of self-trust or self-confidence

to accept roles) •Defiance – open act of rebellion against authority

* Significant Relations: Peer groups

 Psychosocial Stage:
Young Adulthood
Age 19-30 years old; Time of acquisition of Intimacy

* Psychosexual Mode: Genitality •Distinguished by mutual trust & stable sharing of sexual satisfactions

•Intimacy – ability to fuse one’s identity with another person without fear
of losing it
* Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
•Isolation – incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing
true inimacy

•Love – mature devotion that overcomes basic differences between

* Basic Strength: Love males and females; Contains both intimacy and isolation to detain
identity
•Excluding certain people, activities, ideas in order to develop strong
* Core Pathology: Exclusivity identity
•Pathlologial: Blocks ability to cooperate, compete, compromise

* Significant Relations: Sexual partners,

friends
 Psychosocial Stage:
Adulthood
Age 31 – 60 years; Longest stage; Time to take assume responsibility for society

•More than perpetuation of species, it includes assuming responsibility

* Psychosexual Mode: Procreativity
for the care of one’s children and other people’s children

•Generativity – generation of new beings and products and ideas;

* Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity vs. Guiding next generation with altruistic concern
Stagnation
•Stagnation – self-absorption

•Care – a natural desire; A widening commitment to take care of

* Basic Strength: Care
persons, products, ideas one has learned to care for

•Rejectivity – unwillingness to take care of certain persons or groups

* Core Pathology: Rejectivity
•Pseudospeciation – belief that other groups are inferior to one’s own

* Significant Relations: Divided labor and

shared household
Psychosocial Stage:
Old Age
Age 60 until end of life; Time of joy, playfulness, wonder and senility, depression, despair
* Psychosexual Mode: Generalization of •Take pleasure in different physical sensations
sensual modes •Greater appreciation for the traditional lifestyle of the opposite sex

•Integrity – feeling of wholeness & coherence; ability to hold together

one’s sense of “i-ness” amidst diminishing abilities
* Psychosocial Crisis: Integrity vs. despair
•Despair – to be without hope; life without meaning; expressed as disgust,
depression, or contempt

•Wisdom – informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of
* Basic Strength: Wisdom death itself
•Exhibit active but dispassionate concern (not lack of)

•Disdain – a reaction to seeing and feeling others, in an increasing state

* Core Pathology: Disdain of being finished, confused and helpless
•Continuation of Rejectivity

* Significant Relations: All humanity

Erikson: Methods of Investigation
 Anthropological Studies
 Erikson studied the apathy causes among Sioux children
 Apathy – lack of feeling, emotion, interest, or concern
 He Sioux lost their group identity as hunters and were
trying to be farmers
 Pastand Traditional Child-rearing practices became
inappropriate: trained boys to be hunters and trained girl
as helpers of mothers of future hunters
 Result: children had difficulty achieving a sense of ego
identity
 Conclusion: Early childhood training is consistent with
strong cultural value and that history and society help
shape personality
Erikson: Methods of Investigation
 Psychohistory
 Freud originated Psychohistory (investigation of Leonardo da Vinci)
 Defined as “the study of individual and coactive life with the
combined method of psychoanalysis and history”
 Its used to demonstrate that each person is a product of his historical
time and that those historical times are influenced by exceptional
leaders experiencing a personal identity conflict
 An author of psychohistory must be emotionally involved with his
subject
 Eg Martin Luther and Mahatma Ghandi
 “Difference between case history and life history: Patients are
debilitated by their inner conflicts, but in historical actuality, inner
conflict adds an momentum to all superhuman effort”
Erikson: Methods of Investigation

 Play Construction
 Used to study children who would image being movie directors
constructing a scene from a movie using toys
 Erikson: Stories built were unconscious expressions of their life
history
 Result: Boys and Girls differ in their constructed scenes
 Erikson: These differences are due to anatomical differences
between sexes
 BUT social influences also account for who a person will become
 So “Anatomy, history, and personality are our combined destiny”
Humanistic-
Existential
MASLOW, ROGERS, MAY
THIRD FORCE PSYCHOLOGY TO SIGNAL A DEPARTURE FROM THE FIRST TWO MAJOR
THEORIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR: FREUDIANISM AND BEHAVIORISM
ABRAHAM MASLOW
HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY
Basic Assumptions Regarding
Motivation
1. Holistic approach to motivation
 Whole person, not a single part
2. Motivation is usually complex
 Behavior springs from several separate motives (conscious/unconscious)
3. People are continually motivated by one need or another
4. All people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs
 The manner in obtaining needs is different
5. Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy
 Categories of Needs
Basic or Conative
Aesthetic Needs Cognitive Needs Neurotic Needs
Needs

• Include needs in • Include: Need for • Include: A desire to • Nonproductive,

Maslow’s beauty and know, solve perpetuate
Heirarchy: pleasing mysteries, to unhealthy lifestyle;
Physiological, experiences, understand, to be • Satisfaction does
Safety, Love and orderly curious not foster health
Belongingness, surroundings • Knowledge is • Reactive – serve as
Esteem, Self • When not met: necessary to satisfy compensation for
Actualization people become the conative unsatisfied
sick and frustrated needs basic/conative
• Not universal • Ignorance, need
dishonesty and • Play no value or
secrecy frustrate role in movement
people’s need to towards self-
know realization
Hierarchy of Needs

 Basic or Conative Needs

 Assumes lower level must be
satisfied (completely or
partially) before higher need
become motivators
 Arranged: A higher need
but one less basic to survival
 Lower level needs have
prepotency over higher level
needs, they must be satisfied
first
Hierarchy of Needs
1. Physiological needs
 Most prepotent
 Include: Food, water, oxygen, maintentance of body temperature, etc
 Difference with other needs:
 Only needs that can be completely or overly satisfied; Recurrent in nature
2. Safety needs
 Include: physical security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from illness,
fear, anxiety, danger, & chaos
 Activated during emergency situations
 Children often motivated by safety needs
 Neurotic adults spend more energy trying to satisfy these needs
 Basic Anxiety – unsuccessful attempts to gain safety
 Hierarchy of Needs
3. Love and Belongingness
 Include: desire for friendship, a mate and children, need to belong to a family, a club,
or neighborhood, or a nation
 Includes aspects of sex and human contact
 Motivation for Love: Strongest when need is partially satisfied (as compared to healthy
amount of love or non at all)

4. Esteem
 Include: Self-respect, confidence, competence, knowledge that others hold them in
high esteem
 2 LEVELS:
 Reputation – perception of prestige, recognition, fame achieved in the eyes of others
 Self-esteem – own feelings of worth and confidence; based on real competence & not
merely on others’ opinions
Hierarchy of Needs
5. Self-Actualization needs
 Note: Satisfaction of esteem needs don’t always move to self-
actualization level
 One must embrace the B-Values in order to accelerate
 Include: Self-fulfillment, realization of all potential, desire to be creative

o Note: These needs emerge gradually

o People might be motivated simultaneously by needs from two levels
Discussion of Needs
1. Needs are never reversed
2. Some behaviors are not motivated (Not all determinants are motives)
 Expressive Behavior
 Coping Behaviors
3. Deprivation of self-actualization needs lead to metapathology, or the
absence of values, lack of fulfillment, loss of meaning in life
4. Some human needs are Instinctoid, or are innately determined but
can be modified by learning
5. Higher level needs emerge later in course of human development and
produce more happiness than lower levels
Criteria for Self-Actualization
1. People must be free from psychopathology
2. Self-actualizing people had progressed through the
hierarchy of needs
3. Embracing of the B-values

 B-Values
 “Being” values which are indicators of psychological health
 Are metaneeds – or needs that are ultimate
 Move under metamotivation – characterized by expressive behavior
 Absence or deprivation lead to metapathology - the absence of
values, lack of fulfillment, loss of meaning in life
B-values

 A single jewel with many facets

 INCLUDE: truth, goodness,
beauty, wholeness or the
transcendence of dichotomies,
aliveness or spontaneity,
uniqueness, perfection,
completion, justice and order,
simplicity, richness or totality,
effortlessness, playfulness or
humor, and self-sufficiency or
autonomy
 Characteristics of Self-Actualizing
People
1. -More Efficient Perception of Reality
 Can discriminate between fake and genuine; less prejudiced
2. -Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature
3. -Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness
 Can be unconventional but not compulsively so
4. -Problem-Centering
1. Interest in problems outside the self, develops a mission in life
 Characteristics of Self-Actualizing
People
5. The Need for Privacy
 Feel comfortable being alone or with people; little energy to impress others
6. Autonomy
 Independent of culture; confident, unmoved by criticism
7. Continued Freshness of Appreciation
8. The Peak Experience
 aslo Optimal experience; gives a feeling of transcendence
 “Most people have peak experiences or ecstacies”
 Intense pleasure or satisfaction
9. Gemeinschaftsgefühl
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing
People
10. Profound Interpersonal Relations
 Close friendship limited to a few
11. The Democratic Character Structure
 Friendly, considerate to others regardless of race, age, gender
 Have desire and ability to learn from everyone
12. Discrimination Between Means and Ends
 Clear sense of right and wrong; Enjoy doing things for its own sake
13. Philosophical Sense of Humor
14. Creativeness
15. Resistance to Enculturation
 Less molded, more individualized
B-Love (Love, Sex, and Self-
Actualization)
 B-love
 Love for the essence or “being” or the other
 Love that is mutually felt and shared
 Notmotivated by a deficiency: it is Expressive
Behavior

 People with B-love

 Tolerate absence of sex
 They simply love and are loved
 Allows lovers to be relaxed, open, and nonsecretive
Philosophy of Science
 Maslow was critical of scientists who have DESACRALIZED
or removed the emotion, joy, wonder, awe, and rapture
from their study in order to purify and objectify it
 Scientist should put back values, emotion, and ritual
back into their work

 One must employ a TAOISTIC ATTITUDE for psychology,

meaning noninterfering, receptive, and passive
 Abolition predicting and control
 Not analysis but awe
Jonah Complex

 Defined as “fear of being one’s best”

 Although everyone is born with will toward health and self-
actualization, few reach it
 Why?
 Human body is not strong enough to endure ecstasy of fulfillment for
any length of time (intense emotion)
 Evasion of growth is necessary for humility
 People with lower aspirations feel stupid and humble and adopt a self
defeating approach of running away from the realization of their full
potential
CARL ROGERS
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
 Basic Aspects of Rogers’ Approach

A. Holism: Level of Analysis is Whole Individual.

B. Drive Toward Self Actualization
C. Active "Construing" of Experience:
 Phenomenology - The reality of our environment depends
on our perception of it
D. Importance of Free Will:
 Humans: active participants in their development.
 NOT deterministic approach.
 Basic Aspects of Rogers’
Approach
E. Importance of social influences on development:
 Feedback from others shapes view of self.
F. Importance of Consciousness / Awareness:
 Awareness of “WHY” behave.
 What is allowed into awareness?
 Basic Aspects of Rogers’
Approach
G. Positive View of Human Nature:
 If “necessary” conditions exist,
healthy development will ensue.
H. Importance of Research:
 Heavily Researched Theory.
 Not "Slave" to Methodology.
Two Basic Human Tendencies /
Basic Assumptions

A) FORMATIVE TENDENCY
B) ACTUALIZING TENDENCY
 Basic Human Tendency:
Formative Tendency

 a tendency for all matter, both

organic and inorganic to evolve from
simpler to more complex forms
 a creative process
 eg. human consciousness evolves
from primitive unconsciousness to
highly organized awareness
 Basic Human Tendency:
Actualizing Tendency
 tendency within all human beings to move
toward completion or fulfilment of potentials
 creative power to solve problems, alter self-
concepts, and be self directed
 All behaviour is relative to this single actualizing
tendency
 Actualization involves the whole person –
psychological, cognitive, unconscious and
conscious
 But this is NOT limited to humans
The Self and Self-Actualization
 a subsystem of the actualizing tendency but
NOT synonymous with it
 tendency to actualize the SELF as perceived in
awareness
 Conditions for Self-Actualization
1. Congruence or authenticity – real or genuine
2. Unconditional Positive Regard
3. Empathy
 These conditions do NOT cause self actualization
but Permits it
 TWO Subsystems of the SELF
1. SELF-CONCEPT
 includes all aspects of one’s being & experiences that are perceived in awareness by
the person
 Differs from the Organismic self
 The Real Self – biological; What one "is.“; One’s Entire Being which may be beyond a person’s
awareness
 People can disown experiences or aspects of themselves not consistent with their self-
concept eg. an instance of dishonesty
2. IDEAL SELF
 one’s view of self as one wishes to be
 includes attributes , usually positive, one aspires to possess

 A wide gap between the Self-Concept and Ideal Self indicates Incongruence and
unhealthy personality
 “Organismic Self” versus “Self-
Concept”
 A “true” experience may conflict with self-concept
(“Incongruence”).
 Result -- the experience may be denied OR distorted.
 Example: Attraction to another person while in committed
relationship.
 Attraction = True Self / Organismic Self.
 "I'm Faithful" = Self-Concept.
 "Other is Seductive" = Distortion.
 A wide gap between the two indicates incongruence and
an unhealthy personality
 Levels of Awareness
in
Rogers' Theory of Personality
A) SUBCONSCIOUS (IGNORED/DENIED)
B) ACCURATELY SYMBOLIZED
C) DISTORTED
What is “awareness”?

 Synonymous with consciousness and

symbolization
 The symbolic representation of some portion of
our experience
 We used verbal and non verbal symbols
 Levels of Awareness:
Ignored/Denied
 Material not brought into awareness.
 Filtered / Ignored.
 e.g., Sights / Sounds Outside.
 Denial -- Exclusion from awareness.
 e.g., Material conflicting with self-concept.
 Things not in awareness CAN influence behavior
(“Subception”).
 Subception – refer to experiences inconsistent with the self-
concept which are already perceived but not yet accepted into
awareness
 Levels of Awareness:
Freely/Accurately Symbolized
 Allowed freely into awareness.
 Experiences Consistent with Self Concept.
 Not Threatening.
 Example: if recognize a personal weakness, person is
able to “hear” feedback about that weakness.
 Levels of Awareness:
Distorted Form
 Level which involves experiences that are perceived but in
distorted form
 Material inconsistent with self-concept is “modified” or
“reshaped” before being allowed into consciousness or
assimilated in their self-concepts
 Individual may distort positive or negative information
 Distortions lead to increased incongruence.
 Even positive experiences are denied.
 Example: Compliment on one's appearance:
 "I don't deserve it; I’m ugly" --> Self Concept.
 "They don't mean it" --> distortion.
 “false humility”
Needs According to Rogers

A) MAINTENANCE NEEDS;
B) ENHANCEMENT NEEDS;
C) POSITIVE REGARD;
D) SELF REGARD
 A) Maintenance Needs

 Similar to Basic Needs as described by Maslow

 Desire to maintain the organismic self
 Examples:
 Food.
 Shelter.
 Safety.
 Consistency.
 B) Enhancement Needs
 Desire for growth and enhancement of self
concept.
 The need to become more, to develop, to
achieve growth
 eg. People’s willingness to learn things that re
not immediately rewarding
 Motivation toward Actualization.
 Similar to Maslow’s Actualization Needs.
 expressed in Self-exploration, curiosity,
maturation, friendships
 C) Need for Unconditional Positive
Regard:
 Desire for Unconditional Love, Acceptance from
Significant Others.
 Very strong need across lifespan.
 May override “natural instincts.”
 Similar to Maslow’s Love/Belongingness Needs.
 D) Need for Positive Self
Regard
 The need to love, like, and accept one’s self
 Includes feeling of self-confidence & self-worth.
 Initially dependent on receiving unconditional positive
regard from others:
 Like Maslow --> Esteem grows from
love/beloningness needs being met.
 Later in life, autonomous and self-perpetuating.
 Similar in general to Maslow’s Esteem Needs.
Barriers to
Psychological
Health
 1) Conditions of Worth and
Conditional Positive Regard
 Conditions of Worth: people perceive parents, peers, partners
love and accept them only if they meet these people’s
expectations or approval
 Condition of Worth arises when Positive Regard is Conditional
 Not unconditional love.
 "Strings" attached to acceptance and love from others.
 Can be Internalized --> Distorts Self Concept.
 External evaluations: prevents people from being completely
open to their own experiences because others don’t approve of it
 2) Incongruence
 Incongruence: Discrepancy between Organismic Self and Self Concept.
 Incongruence: Discrepancy between Self-Concept and Ideal Self.
 Linked to Conditional Positive Regard.
1. Vulnerability
 The more incongruence = more vulnerable
 People are unaware of discrepancies
2. Anxiety and Threat
 Anxiety: “state of uneasiness” or tension whose cause is unknown” (somewhat aware of
discrepancies
 Threat: “an awareness that their self is no longer whole or congruent” (completely aware)
 Can represent steps towards psychological health: signal incongruence
 3) Defensiveness
 Protection against anxiety and threat by:
1. Denial: refuse to perceive an experience in
awareness, or a least keep some aspects from
reaching symbolization/awareness
2. Distortion: misinterpret an experience in order to fit
into the self-concept
 Defenses’ Purpose: Keep people’s perception of
their organismic self consistent with their self
concept.
 Allows people to ignore/block out experiences that
otherwise would cause anxiety or threat
 4) Disorganization
 When incongruence is too obvious or occurs too
sudden, people become confused, disorganized,
or psychotic
 Behavior is still consistent with the self-concept, but
because self concept is shattered, behavior
appears bizzare and confusing

 NOTE:
 Defensive: slight discrepancy
 Disorganized: most incongruent
Person of Tomorrow
 First termed as “Characteristics of the altered personality”
(1951)
 Next termed as “Fully-functioning person” (1953)
 Finally termed as “Person of tomorrow” (1980)
1. More adaptable
2. Open to their experiences
3. Trust in their organismic selves
4. Live fully in the moment
5. Harmonious relations with others
6. More integrated
7. Basic trust of human nature
8. Greater richness in life
Client-centered Therapy
 Represents a shift from medical model to growth
model
 Strong emphasis on the therapeutic relationship

 3 Conditions for Change:

 Empathy/ Empathic Listening
 Congruence/Genuineness
 feelings
 awareness
 expression
 Unconditional Positive Regard
Client-centered Therapy

 Rogers believed that humans are basically

good.
 He argued that we have an innate drive to
reach an optimal sense of ourselves &
satisfaction with our lives.
 He felt that the process by which we do this, not
the end result is what matters.
 A person who does this is what he calls a “Fully
Functioning Person.”
Client-centered Therapy

 B. Process/ Stages of Therapeutic Change

 Stage 1: Unwillingness to communicate anything about oneself
 Stage 2: Clients become slightly less rigid
 Stage 3: Clients more freely talk about self, although still as an object
 Stage 4: Clients begin to talk of deep feelings but not ones presently
felt
 Stage 5: Clients begin to undergo significant change and growth
 Stage 6: Clients experience dramatic growth and an irreversible
movement toward becoming fully functioning or self-actualizing
 Stage 7: Clients become fully functioning “persons of tomorrow”
ROLLO REESE
MAY
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ROLLO REESE
MAY
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Existentialism
1. First tenet is that existence take precedence over essence,
meaning that process and growth are more important
than product and stagnation.
2. Second, existentialists oppose the artificial split between
subject and object.
3. Third, they stress people's search for meaning in their lives.
4. Fourth, they insist that each of us is responsible for who we
are and what we will become.
5. Fifth, most take an antitheoretical position, believing that
theories tend to objectify people.
BASIC CONCEPTS
 Being-in-the-World or Dasein
 the basic unity exists between people and their environments
 Three simultaneous modes of the world characterize us in our
Dasein:
1. Umwelt - or the environment around us
2. Mitwelt - our world with other people
3. Eigenwelt - our relationship with our self
 Nonbeing/Nothingness
 Death is the most obvious form of nonbeing, which can also be
experienced as retreat from life's experiences.
 People are both aware of themselves as living beings and also aware
of the possibility of nonbeing or nothingness
Anxiety
 People experience anxiety when they become aware that their
existence or something identified with it might be destroyed.
 The acquisition of freedom inevitably leads to anxiety, which can be
either pleasurable and constructive or painful and destructive.
1. Normal Anxiety
 Growth produces normal anxiety,
 defined as that which is proportionate to the threat
 does not involve repression, and can be handled on a conscious level.
2. Neurotic Anxiety
 a reaction that is disproportionate to the threat
 leads to repression and defensive behaviors.
 felt whenever one's values are transformed into dogma.
 blocks growth and productive action.
Guilt
 Guilt arises whenever people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately
perceive the needs of others, or remain blind to their dependence on
the natural world.
 Both anxiety and guilt are ontological - they refer to the nature of being
and not to feelings arising from specific situations.
 3 FORMS of guilt
1. Umwelt Guilt – lack of awareness of one’s being-in-the-world resulting
from one’s separation or alienation; aslo called Separation Guilt;
Comparable to Fromm’s Human Dilemma
2. Mitwelt Guilt – result from looking at the world with our own eyes and
never perfectly judging others’ needs
3. Eigenwelt Guilt – result from denial of our own potentials or failure to
fulfill them; Comparable to Maslow’s Jonah Complex
Intentionality
 The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows
people to make decisions about the future.
 May believed that intentionality permits people to
overcome the dichotomy between subject and object
 It is the structure of meaning which makes it possible for us,
subject that we are, to see and understand the outside
world, objective that it is.
 Enables people to see that their intentions are a function of
both themselves and their environment.
Care, Love and Will
 Care is an active process that suggests that things matter.
 Love means to care, to delight in the presence of another
person, and to affirm that person's value as much as one's
own.
 Will is a conscious commitment to action. Care is also an
important ingredient in will
Union of Love and Will
 psychologically healthy people are able to combine love and will
because both imply care, choice, action, and responsibility.
 our modern society has lost sight of the true nature of love and will,
equating love with sex and will with will power.
Forms of Love
 Sex
 no longer simply a natural biological function, but a preoccupation to the point of
trivialization

 Eros
a psychological desire that seeks an enduring union with a loved one.
 include sex, but it is built on care and tenderness.

 Philia
 an intimate nonsexual friendship between two people
 takes time to develop and does not depend on the actions of the other person.

 Agape
 an altruistic or spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing God.
 Agape is undeserved and unconditional.
 Freedom
 FREEDOM
 Defined as “the individual’s capacity to know that he is a determined one”
 comes from an understanding of our destiny: Recognize that death is a possibility ,
that one is male or female, that one has weakness
 Often leads to normal anxiety
 willing to experience changes, even in the face of not knowing what those changes
will bring.
 Forms of Freedom
1. Existential Freedom - freedom of doing, or freedom of action
 Freedom to act on the choices one makes
2. Essential Freedom - freedom of being, or an inner freedom
 Destiny itself is our prison
Destiny

 defined as “the pattern of limits and talents that constitutes the

givens of life”
 the design of the universe speaking through the design of each one
of us.
 our destiny includes the limitations of our environment and our
personal qualities, including our mortality, gender, and genetic
predispositions.
 Thrownness is the circumstanced of a person's lives which it can't be
control.
 Other existentialist referred this as thrownness and May refers it as
destiny.
The Power of Myth
 Myths – conscious and unconscious belief system that’s provide
explanations for personal and social problems
 Myths are stories that unify a society; stories that help us to “make sense” out of
out lives, “guiding narratives.”
 According to May, the people of contemporary Western civilization
have an urgent need for myths. Because they have lost many of their
traditional myths, they turn to religious cults, drugs, and popular
culture to fill the vacuum.

 The Oedipus myth has had a powerful effect on our culture

 May’s Myths are comparable to Jung’s Collective Unconscious
 Myths were described in May’s book The Cry for Myth
Psychopathology
 Apathy and Emptiness - not anxiety and guilt-as the chief
existential disorders of our time.
 People have become alienated from the natural world
(Umwelt), from other people (Mitwelt), and from themselves
(Eigenwelt).
 This alienation cause feelings of insignificance which leads to apathy
 Apathy – state of diminished consciousness

 Psychopathology is a lack of connectedness and an

inability to fulfill one's destiny.
 Lack of communication – inability to know others and to share
oneself
Stages of Development
1. Innocence
 the pre-egoic, pre-self-conscious stage of the infant.
 The innocent is premoral, i.e. is neither bad nor good; only doing what he or she must do.
 Does have a degree of will in the sense of a drive to fulfil their needs
2. Rebellion
 the childhood and adolescent stage of developing one’s ego or self-consciousness by means of contrast
with adults, from the “no” of the two year old to the “no way” of the teenager.
 The rebellious person wants freedom, but has as yet no full understanding of the responsibility that goes
with it.
 The teenager may want to spend their allowance in any way they choose, yet they still expect the parent
to provide the money, and will complain about unfairness if they don't get it
3. Ordinary
 the normal adult ego,
 They have learned responsibility, but find it too demanding, and so seek refuge in conformity and
traditional values.
4. Creative
 the authentic adult, the existential stage, beyond ego and self-actualizing.
 This is the person who, accepting destiny, faces anxiety with courage
INTERACTIONIST
(PERSON-
SITUATION)
MURRAY, SULLIVAN
HENRY MURRAY
PERSONOLOGY
Principles of Personology
1. Personality is rooted in the brain
 Personology - Murray’s term for the study of personality
 The individual’s cerebral physiology guides and governs every aspect of the personality
1. People act to reduce Tension
 does not mean we strive for a tension-free state; process of acting that is satisfying
2. Individual’s personality continues to develop over time and is constructed of all the
events that occur during the course of that person’s life
 study of a person’s past is of great importance
3. Personality changes and progresses; it is not fixed or static
4. Emphasized the uniqueness of each person while recognizing similarities among
people.
Divisions of Personality
1. Id
 contains the primitive, amoral, and lustful impulses
 is the repository of all innate impulsive tendencies
 also contains desirable impulses, such as empathy and love
 strength or intensity of the id varies among individuals

2. Superego
 shaped not only by parents and authority figures, but also by the peer group and culture
 Defined as the internalization of the culture’s values and norms, by which rules we come to
evaluate and judge our behavior and that of others
 not rigidly crystallized by age 5, develops throughout life
 not in constant confl ict with the id, because id is both good and bad
 Ego-ideal - represents what we could become at our best and is the sum of our ambitions and
aspirations

3. Ego
Divisions of Personality
3. Ego
3. conscious organizer of behavior
4. rational governor of the personality
5. it tries to modify or delay the id’s unacceptable impulses
6. ego consciously plans courses of action
7. foster pleasure by organizing and directing the expression of acceptable id impulses
8. arbiter between the id and the superego
Needs: The Motivators of Behavior
 “motivation is the crux of the business and motivation always refers to
something within the organism”
 A need involves a physicochemical force in the brain that organizes
and directs intellectual and perceptual abilities
 Needs arouse a level of tension; the organism tries to reduce this tension
by acting to satisfy the needs
 Needs energize and direct behavior
 a list of 20 needs - Not every person has all of these needs
LIST OF NEEDS
 - Abasement -To submit passively to external force.
 - Achievement -To accomplish something diffi cult.
 - Affiliation -To draw near and enjoyably cooperate or reciprocate with
an allied other who resembles one or who likes one.
 - Aggression -To overcome opposition forcefully
 - Autonomy -To get free, shake off restraint, or break out of confi
nement.
 - Counteraction -To master or make up for a failure by restriving
 - Defendance -To defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame.
LIST OF NEEDS

 - Deference -To admire and support a superior other.

 - Dominance -To control one’s environment.
 - Exhibition -To make an impression. To be seen and heard.
 - Harmavoidance -To avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death.
 - Infavoidance -To avoid humiliation.
 - Nurturance -To give sympathy to and gratify the needs of a
helpless other
 - Order -To put things in order. To achieve cleanliness, arrangement,
organization, balance, neatness, and precision.
LIST OF NEEDS

 - Play -To act for fun, without further purpose

 - Rejection -To exclude, abandon, expel, or remain indifferent to an
inferior other
 - Sentience -To seek and enjoy sensuous impressions.
 - Sex -To form and further an erotic relationship.
 - Succorance -To be nursed, supported, sustained, surrounded,
protected, loved
 - Understanding -To be inclined to analyze events and to generalize
TYPES OF NEEDS
1. Primary (viscerogenic) needs
 arise from internal bodily states and include those needs required for survival
2. Secondary (psychogenic) needs
 indirectly from primary needs, no specifiable origin within the body
 less important & concerned with emotional satisfaction
3. Reactive needs
 response to something specifi c in the environment and are aroused only
when that object appears
 Eg. harmavoidance need appears only when a threat is present.
4. Proactive needs
 do not depend on the presence of a particular object.
 spontaneous needs that elicit appropriate behavior whenever they are
aroused, independent of the environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDS
1. Prepotency - Needs differ in terms of the urgency with which they impel behavior
2. Fusion of needs
 Complementary needs and can be satisfied by one behavior or a set of behaviors
3. Subsidiation
 refers to a situation in which one need is activated to aid in satisfying another need
4. Press
 The influence of the environment and past events on the current activation of a need
 Is an environmental object or event presses or pressures the individual to act a certain way
 Alpha press - objective characteristics of an object in the environment
 Beta press - person’s perceptions and evaluation of that object
5. Thema
 Is a combination of press (the environment) and need (the personality) that brings order to our
behavior.
 formed through early childhood experiences and largely unconscious
 Themas
 Themas occur in sequences that vary in duration:
1. Proceedings-the shortest themas, e.g., going to the store.
2. Durances-overlapping proceedings, e.g., a semester at school, adolescence.
3. Serials--longer proceedings, e.g., a marriage.
4. Serial Programs (Ordination)-A planned series of proceedings that lead to a remote
goal (e.g., what I must do to become an RN).
1. Unity Themas-a single pattern of related needs and presses that repeats itself through life.
 Relates needs and presses in a pattern that gives coherence, unity, order, and uniqueness to our
behavior.
 Unity themas are also called “Complexes” and they are the result of unfortunate developmental
experiences.
Personality Development in
Childhood
 divided childhood into five stages
 each characterized by a pleasurable condition that is inevitably
terminated by society’s demands
 Each stage leaves its mark on our personality in the form of an
unconscious complex that directs our later development
 Complexes become abnormal when they are manifested in the
extreme, a condition that leaves the person fixated at that stage.
Murray: Development

1. Claustral stage
1. fetus in the womb is secure, a condition we may all occasionally wish
to reinstate
 Simple caustral complex
 experienced as a desire to be in small, warm, dark places that are safe
and secluded
 Insupport form - centers on feelings of insecurity and helplessness; fear
open spaces, falling, drowning, fi res, earthquakes, or simply any
situation involving novelty and change
 Anti-claustral or egression form -based on a need to escape from
restraining womblike conditions; fear of suffocation and confi nement
Murray: Development

2. Oral stage
 Oral succorance complex
 combination of mouth activities, passive tendencies, and the need to
be supported and protected.
 sucking, kissing, hunger for affection, sympathy
 Oral aggression complex
 combines oral and aggressive behaviors
 biting, spitting, shouting, and verbal aggression
 Oral rejection complex
 vomiting, eating little, avoiding dependence on others
Murray: Development

3. Anal stage
 Anal rejection complex
 preoccupation with defecation & feces-like material such as dirt
 Aggression: dropping & throwing things, firing guns
 Anal retention complex
 accumulating, saving, and collecting things, and in cleanliness,
neatness, and orderliness
Murray: Development

4. Urethral stage
 Unique to Murray’s system
 Urethral complex
 excessive ambition, a distorted sense of self-esteem, exhibitionism,
bedwetting, sexual cravings, and self-love.
 called the Icarus complex, after the mythical Greek figure that flew so
close to the sun that the wax holding his wings melted.
 Persons with this complex aim too high, and their dreams are shattered
by failure
Murray: Development

5. Genital or castration stage

 Castration complex
 a boy’s fantasy that his penis might be cut off
 Taken literally
 a fear grows out of childhood masturbation and the parental
punishment that may have accompanied it.
HARRY STACK
SULLIVAN
INTERPERSONAL THEORY
 Interpersonal theory relates to a theory of
personality that is “ the relatively enduring
pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations
which characterize a human life”
 Believes that personality is a hypothetical entity
 Human development rests on his ability to
establish intimacy with another person
 THE DYNAMICS OF
PERSONALITY

1. TENSION
2. ENERGY
TRANSFORMA-TIONS
 1. T E N S I O N –potential for action
A. Needs
 Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person or to
specific zones, such as the mouth or genitals
 brought by biological imbalance between physiochemical
environment inside and outside the person
 MOST BASIC INTERPERSONAL NEED: Tenderness – concerned with the
over all wellbeing of a person
 1. T E N S I O N –potential for
action
B. Anxiety
 Unlike needs- which are conjunctive and call for specific actions to reduce them-
Anxiety is disjunctive and calls for no consistent actions for its relief. A complete
absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria
 Defined as “the tension in opposite to the tension of needs and to the action
appropriate to their relief”
 Transfered from Parent to Infant in the process of EMPATHY
 Anxiety in the mother = anxiety in the child
 THE CHIEF DISRUPTIVE FORCE THAT BLOCKS HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT
 PREVENT PEOPLE FROM LEARNING FROM MISTAKES
 KEEP PEOPLE PURUSING CHILDISH WISH FOR SECURITY
 HINDER PEOPLE FROM LEARNING FROM EXPERIENNCES
2. ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS – action
themselves

A. Overt Activities
 Involving the stripped muscles of the body

B. Covert Activites
 Involving the mental aspect such as perceiving,
remembering and thinking
 1. DYNAMISM
2. PERSONI-
II. THE STRUCTURE OF FICATIONS
3. COGNITIVE
PERSONALITY PROCESS
1. D Y N A M I S M – formed by
extra energy from needs
A. Malevolence
 The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred as a feeling of living among one's
enemies
B. Intimacy
 The conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal relationship between two
people of equal status
C. Lust
 In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an isolating dynamism. It is a
self-centered need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate interpersonal
relationship
D. Self-System
 The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system, or that pattern of behaviours
that protects us against anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security
Security Operations

 dissociation
 refuse to allow into awareness
 actions neither rewarded or punished
 selective inattention
 refusal to see those things we do not wish to see
 attempts to block out experiences not consistent with
self-system
2. P E R S O N I F I C A T I O N S
A. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
 grows out of infants' experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their hunger needs.
Later, infants acquire a good-mother personification as they become mature enough
to recognize the tender and cooperative behaviour of their mothering one

B. Me Personifications
 (1) the bad-me, which grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval, (2) the
good-me, which results from experiences with reward and approval, and (3) the not-
me, which allows a person to dissociate or selectively inattend the experiences related
to anxiety

c. Eidetic Personifications
 people often create imaginary traits that they project onto others. e.g. imaginary
playmates that preschool-aged children often have
 3. C O G N I T I V E P R O C E S S
A. Prototaxic Level
 Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to others are
called prototaxic

B. Parataxic Level
 Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to
others are called parataxic.
 Included in these are erroneous assumptions about cause and effect, which Sullivan
termed parataxic distortions

C. Syntaxic Level
 Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others are called syntaxic.
Children become capable of syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of age
when words begin to have the same meaning for them that they do for others
 IV. THE DEVELOPMENT
OF PERSONALITY

1. STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
 S T A G E S O F D E V E L O PM E N T
A. Infancy (Birth- 18 months) Gratification of needs
 The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic language
is called infancy, a time when the child receives tenderness
from the mothering one while also learning anxiety through an
empathic linkage with the mother

B. Childhood (18 mo-6 yrs) Delayed gratification

 The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic language
until the need for playmates of equal status is called
childhood.
 The child's primary interpersonal relationship continues to be
with the mother, who is now differentiated from other persons
who nurture the child
 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
C. Juvenile Era (6-9 yrs) Formation of peer group
 The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of equal status and continues
until the child develops a need for an intimate relationship with a chum
 Learns COOPERATION, COMPETITION, COMPROMISE

D. Preadolescence (9-12yrs) Developing close relationships

 Preadolescence spans the time from the need for a single best friend
(Chumschip) until puberty
 INVOLVES BECOMING A SOCIAL BEING “Quiet Miracle of Preadolescence”
 Friends interest usually of same gender or social status
 there is LOVE without LUST
E. Early Adolescence (12-14 yrs) Identity
 With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the
beginning of early adolescence.
 Development during this stage is ordinarily marked by a
coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of the same
gender and sexual interest in many persons of the
opposite gender
 Turning point. Genital Interest and Lust
 STAGES OF DEVELOPMEN
T
F. Late Adolescence (14-21 yrs) Forming lasting, intimate
relationships
 Chronologically, late adolescence may start at any time after about age 16, but
psychologically, it begins when a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust
toward the same person.
 Late adolescence is characterized by a stable pattern of sexual activity and the
growth of the syntaxic mode, as young people learn how to live in the adult world

G. Adulthood (22-23 yrs and on…) Establishing a stable relationship

 Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a time when a person establishes a
stable relationship with a significant other person and develops a consistent
pattern of viewing the world
V. DETERMINERS OF A. HEREDITY
B.
BEHAVIOR MATURATION
 DETERMINERS OF BEHAVI
OR
A. Heredity
 Sullivan acknowledges the importance of HEREDITY in
providing certain capacities, chief among which are
the capacities for receiving and elaborating
experiences

B. Maturation
 Sullivan also accepts the principle “that training
cannot be effective before maturation has laid the
structural groundwork”. Thus the child cannot learn
to walk until the muscles and bony structure have a
reached a level of growth that will support it in an
upright position
VI. PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDE
RS
 Sullivan believed that disordered behaviour has
an interpersonal origin, and can only be
understood with reference to a person's social
environment
Cognitive-Affective Personality
System (CAPS)
 Also Cognitive-Affective Processing System
 Accounts for the variability across situations and stability of behavior
within a person
 If A, then X; But if B, the Y
 Predicts that a person’s behavior will change from situation to
situation BUT in a meaningful manner
 There is a Behavioral Signature of Personality
 a stable pattern of variability (behavior change)
 It is a person’s consistent manner of varying his behavior in particular
situations
Behavior Prediction &
Situation Variables
 Behavior Prediction
 If personality is a stable system that processes information about the
situation, then individuals encountering different situations should
behave differently as situations vary.
 Even though people's behavior may reflect some stability over time, it
tends to vary as situations vary
 Situation Variables
 include all those stimuli that people attend to in a given situation
 The influence of situation = uniformity or diversity of people’s responses
Five Cognitive-Affective Units
 include all those psychological, social, and physiological aspects of
people that permit them to interact with their environment with some
stability in their behavior
 Prediction of behavior rests on how and when these units are activated

1. encoding strategies
1. people's individualized manner of categorizing information they receive
from external stimuli
2. Stimulus are altered by what is selectively attended to, how it was
interpreted, how it was organized
Five Cognitive-Affective Units
2. competencies and self-regulatory strategies
 Competencies – vast array of information that people acquire about the
world and their relationship to it
 Intelligence - one of the most important which Mischel argues is responsible
for the apparent consistency of other traits
 Self-regulatory strategies - control their own behavior through self-
formulated goals and self-produced consequences
3. expectancies and beliefs
2. Better predictors than competencies
3. people's guesses about the consequences of each of the different
behavioral possibilities
4. Behavior-Outcome expectancies – “if-then” (if I study, then I’ll pass)
5. Stimulus-Outcome expectancies – checking what will happen after a
certain stimuli (if there’s a lighting, there’s thunder)
Five Cognitive-Affective Units
4. goals and values
 tend to render behavior fairly consistent; most stable units
 People don’t passively react but are active and goal-directed
 Different goals = different decisions, despite same situation
5. affective responses
 including emotions, feelings, and the affects that accompany physiological
reactions
 Affect inseparable from cognition
 Eg “Im not a very good mother (C), it makes me feel sad (A)”
Delay-of-gratification
 Refer to the observation that
some people (some of the time)
will prefer more value delayed
rewards over lesser-valued
immediate ones
 Also called deferred gratification,
is the ability to resist the
temptation for an immediate
reward and wait for a later reward

 Eg. The Stanford Marshmallow

Experiment