Physics

IG1 – End of year exam revision – 2022

-author – Yakun MENG


CH 1 – Measurement and Density

Symbols:

G – Giga - 109
M – Mega - 106
K – Kilo - 103
d – deci – 10-1
c – centi - 10-2
m – mili - 10-3
µ - micro - 10-6
n – nano - 10-9

Examples:

1 nanometer = 1*10-9 meters = 0.000000001 meters

1 gigameter = 1*109 meters = 1000000000 meters



SI units:

Quantity Symbol Unit

Time t s(second)
Length l m(meter)
Mass(quantity of matter) m Kg(kilogram)
Force F N(newton)
Temperature T K(kelvin)
Power P W(watt)
Energy E J(Joule)
Area A m2
Volume V m3





Formula for density:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒



Scientific notations:

Always expressed with the form:

X * 10y

Where:
X always remain at one digit with unlimited decimal places,
Y always expressed using integers.

For example:

200000 can be expressed 2 * 105

0.00000000934 = 9.34 * 10-9

Significant figures:

21403400 contains 6 significant figures.

2000000000 contains 1 significant figure.

10001 contains 5 significant figures.

End of CH 1

Beginning of CH 2 – states of matter

Arrangement of particles and properties of particles in different states of matter:

Brownian motion:

Brownian motion states that the tiny particles moves in a random zig-zag movement
in air due to the collisions of fast moving particles.

Eg: smoke, pollen.

The evaporation effect in terms of particle theory:

Internal energy: Kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic energy: is a measure of the kinetic energy of the particle in terms of
temperature. The energy transferred between particles in called heat.

Potential energy: energy due to attraction and position.

Particles don’t have the same amount of kinetic energy, especially significant to
different state of matter. In terms of kinetic energy,

Gas > liquid > solid.

Evaporation is when the particles with high kinetic energy at the surface of liquid
turn to gas state.

The temperature of liquid decreases during evaporation because the particles with
high kinetic energy escaped and the average kinetic energy in the liquid is smaller.

Factor to increase rate of evaporation:

- Temperature: higher temperature gives more particles the energy to turn to
gas.

- Surface area: the bigger the surface area, the more energetic particles will be
on the surface of the liquid, giving particles more opportunity to escape.

- Current: air currents remove the energetic particles in air, so particles are
more likely to escape.

- Humidity: as humidity decrease, the more particles may escape from the
surface of the liquid.

Heating curve:

Specific heat capacity: specific heat capacity is the energy needed to heat 1 kg of a
substance by 1°C

Formula: 𝑄 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝛥𝑇(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

Where:
Q=amount of heat
m=mass

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠)

If time and power is given, this equation can be used to calculate the energy.

The absolute zero: the absolute zero is the lowest temperature possible, which is
approximately -273°C.

Temperature in terms of Kelvin scale is the temperature in °C + 273, for example 22 °C

= 295K
Gas law: P * V = constant

P= pressure
V=volume
Which means that they are inversely proportional, if one increase, the other one decreases.

Upper and lower fixed point:

Upper fixed point is the temperature that pure water boils. Ex: 100°C, 373K

Lower fixed point is the temperature that ice melts. Ex: 0°C, 273K

Heat can travel through conduction, convention or radiation

Conduction: Kinetic energy travels to nearby particles.

Insulator: substance or material that does not transfer heat or electricity.

Factors affecting conduction:

- Material
- Length
- Cross section
- Heat difference between two ends

Convention: Heat travelled that require the theory that hot things rise and cold things sink.
Eg: air conditioning.

Radiation: heat travelled through electromagnetic waves

- No particles involved
- Heat can also travel in vacuum
- Always happen
- To all directions
- Hot objects are often the emitter
- Good observers are: bad reflectors, dark colour, low temperature, big surface area.
- Bad observers are: good reflectors, light colour, high temperature, small surface area.

Black is both a good emitter and observer.

Shiny things are great reflectors

End of CH 2

Beginning of CH 3 - Electric charge

Electrostatics:

1proton= +1
1electron= -1
1 neutron= 0

Electric fields:

The denser the lines, the greater the force.

Force of attraction between different charge, force of repulsion between same
charge.

Earthing: the action of connecting an object to the ground to make charges flow
away.

Unit of charge: colomb, C.

Conductors of electricity: metals, due to a special bonding structure, free electrons
are available in metal to carry charge.

Insulators of electricity: plastic, glass, rubber and wood.

Use & dangers of static electricity:

Static electricity builds up as the charges of two objects exchange.

Static electricity can be use for printers, photocopiers, air filters and dust removal.

However, a sudden flow of electricity may cause the stopping of the heart.


End of CH 3

Beginning of CH 4 circuits and electricity
( HIGHLIGHTED )

Electricity:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)

Electric current: flow of electrical charge to a certain direction.

Current: amount of charge flow over time. Often expressed as I. Measured in amps.

Potential difference: also called the voltage. Measures the potential difference
between two points in a circuit. Often expressed as V. Measured in volts.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒


Components of circuits:


Diode: allows current to flow only to one direction, the direction which the arrow
points to.

Ammeter: has to be connected in series. Measures the current of the circuit in amps.

Voltmeter: has to be used parallel from the circuit. Measures the potential
difference(voltage) in volts.

Thermistor: resistance varies with the temperature.

Cold – high resistance

Hot – low resistance

LDR light dependent resistor: the resistance varies with the brightness of the
environment.

Dark: high resistance

Bright: low resistance

Ohm’s law:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Resistance calculation: could be calculated using ohm’s law, or another formula.

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 )
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Most likely, you are not going to be asked to calculate using this formula, but indeed,
you’ll have the understand the basic concept of the ratio between resistance and the
factors.

Conventional notation:

Series circuits: a circuit that has one path of flowing current.


𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

Parallel circuits: circuits that has multiple paths of flowing charges.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑅1 ∗ 𝑅2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2


Combination of series and parallel circuits:

The combination of series and parallel circuits is very likely to appear on the exam as
a 4 point question. So it is necessary to know how to calculate different values in the
circuit.

As shown in the diagram, the current splits into two different currents. The current in
path one and path two are different if the resistance of resistor 3 is not equal to
resistor 1 + resistor 2. However, the voltage in path one and two is the same, but the
voltage passing resistor 1 and resistor 2 in path 1 is not the same, because it’s seen
as a series circuit. Try to voltage and current given to find the resistance in path one,
and then use that to find the total resistance for the resistor. What is important is to
combine the resistance formula of simple and parallel circuit, and understand well
the current and voltage in them. REFER BACK TO:

Ohm’s law:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Simple circuits:

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

Parallel circuit:
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑅1 ∗ 𝑅2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2

Electrical energy and power:

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑉) ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Power dissipated in series:

𝑃 =I2∗ 𝑅


Power dissipated in parallel:

P= V2/R


Electromotive force: electromotive force(EMF) is the energy to drive 1 C of charge in
a circuit. The maximum voltage that a cell can produce. NOT SAME AS VOLTAGE, but
also measured in volts.

Electricity in real life:

Safety precautions:
1. Insulations on electric component
2. Insulated clothes
3. Avoid wet hands

Hazards:
1. Old wires
2. Insulation unstable
3. Long extension wires

End of CH 4

Beginning of CH 5 – waves – light

Characteristics of waves:

Mirrors:

Reflection and refraction:

Total internal reflection:

Light on prism:

Dispersion of light:

Electromagnetic spectrum:

Diffraction:

Lens:

End of CH 5

Beginning of CH 6 – sounds

Sound waves: sound is a longitudinal wave. A wave of compression and rarefaction.
Sound waves Tavel through vibration of particles, which means that they need a
medium to travel, can be air, liquid or solid. THEY CANNOT TRAVEL IN VACUUM.

















Longitudinal wave: wave that has the vibration parallel to the direction of the
wave(wave propagation).

Compression: a region in a longitudinal wave where particles are closest together.

Rarefaction: a region in a longitudinal wave where particles are far away from each
other.

Speed of sound waves: speed of sound in different mediums is different.

Sound in air: 340m/s

Sound in water: 1500m/s

Sound in solid: 5000m/s

When calculating the speed of sound, formulas:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 =
2

The second formula is used due to the fact that sound has to bounce back from an
object until we hear it. For example, we yell to a building, and we hear our voice
after 2 seconds. If the speed of sound in air is 340m/s, then the distance between us
and the building should be:

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2

340 ∗ 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑛𝑒 =
2

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 340𝑚

This will be the distance between us and the building, because the sound has to
travel double the actual distance in order to make us to hear it. CAREFUL WITH
UNITS AND DECIMAL PLACES!

Sound & ultrasound:
Audible sound has the frequency of 20Hz – 20000Hz. Sound with frequency beyond
20000Hz is called Ultrasound.

The amplitude:the distance between the axis and crest/trough, representing the
loudness of a sound wave. (Refer back to diagrams)

End of CH 6

Beginning of CH 7 – nuclear physics

Atomic structure:


Protons and neutrons are only found inside the nucleus, the center of the atom.
Electrons are only found in electric shells surrounding the nucleus.

Nucleus: the absolute center of an atom, holding almost all the mass of the atom.

An atom is made out of three different types of subatomic particles. Protons,
Neutrons and Electrons.

Protons: has the charge of +1, relatively heavy, relatively big, present in the
NUCLEUS.

Neutrons: has the charge of 0, relatively heavy, relatively big, present in the
NUCLEUS.

Electrons: has the charge of -1, very light, very small, present in electric shells
surrounding the NUCLEUS.

Nuclear radiation: An atom needs a lot of energy to bond together, and if they break
apart(DISINTEGRATE), they release energy, and this energy is called nuclear
radiation(or ionising radiation).

Calculation of charge: in order to calculate the charge of an atom, use the following
formula:

-1*number of electrons in the atom + number of protons in the atom=charge of
atom
Symbol of element:

If no label on top right corner, automatically assume it as charge of 0.

For example:

A carbon atom has 6 electrons, 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

The charge of atom= -1*6+6

So the charge of atom is simply 0.

A magnesium atom has 10 electrons, 12 protons and 12 neutrons.

The charge of magnesium atom = -1*10+12=+2

So the charge of the magnesium ION is +2

Ion: an ion is a charged atom. An atom with positive or negative charge. An atom
witch charge 0 is an atom.

Isotope: an isotope is an atom that has the same amount of protons but different
number of neutrons. The number of neutrons affect the mass of the atom.

For example:

A normal carbon atom contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons.

But another carbon atom contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 8 neutrons.

The other carbon atom has 2 more neutrons than the normal carbon atom, so we call
it an ISOTOPE of carbon.

Atomic number(proton number): the number of protons in the atom.

Mass number: the total number of subatomic particles in the nucleus. The total
number of protons and neutrons.

Radioactive decay: they are three types of radioactive decay, Alpha, Beta and
Gamma.











Alpha particles(α) Beta particles(β) Gamma rays(γ)

Nature The nucleus of A single electron Electromagnetic

helium atom wave
without electrons
Ionising ability Great, has a charge Weak, has a charge Very weak
of +2 of -1
Penetrating Bad, can be easily Relatively good, Very good. Stopped
ability stopped using a stopped by a few by a few inches of
piece of paper. millimetres of heavy metal or a
metal. few feet of
concrete.
Speed Slow, 0.1*speed of High, 0.9*speed of Speed of light
light light
Relative mass Heavy Light No mass

Speed of light: 3×108 m/s
Calculation of decay:

Alpha radiation example(could be any element):

Beta radiation example(could be any element):

Half life: the time taken for half of the original substance to disappear. Use a smooth
graph to deal with. If you need a formula then:

!"#$
1 (&'() (")$)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ L N
2


Use and dangers:

Nuclear weapons. Many can cause cancer and cell mutation.

End of CH 7

Congratulations! Hope that you are ready for your physics end of
year exam.