INTRODUCTION

WHY WE ARE OFTEN BLINDED TO "OBVIOUS" FACTS'

T HEpsychologyandsociologyofperson- they have been incorporatedautomatically

ality and interpersonalrelations have into psychological and sociological theories
been in the past, and still are, vitiated by of personality and interpersonal relations?
three sets of assumptions and tendencies. Our discussion aims to answer these and
The first is a rigid ideal of scientific exact- similar questions.
ness which produces in the minds of many i. Nothing evadesour attentionso persist-
social scientists a bias toward selecting, or ently as that which is takenfor granted.-As
emphasizing, those facts and aspects of re- a rule, we notice in an explicit fashion only
ality which lend themselves best to a pre- those features of our total experiencewhich
cise, if possible, quantitative investigation. strike our attention by the very fact of not
This results in the neglect of those facts and being obvious. This state of affairs is again
aspects which resist or elude precise or exact obvious, but it and its far-reachingimplica-
analysis. The second is the set of silent as- tions are easily overlooked.We are unaware
sumptions rooted in the ideological or cul- of even very striking featuresof our own cul-
tural backgroundof the society to which the ture, for example, and it is frequently the
particularpsychologist and sociologist him- stranger who is able to perceive things to
self belongs. These silent assumptions often which we ourselvesas membersof the socie-
induce the social scientist to ask only those ty are totally blinded. Sophisticated anthro-
questions and to select only those problems pologists are well aware of this kind of hu-
suggestedby the accepted ideology (cultural man behavior. The fact, therefore, that
pattern). The third is the tendency to neg- something is "obvious" need not mean that
lect, or even to ignore, certain very impor- it is explicitly noticed, registered,and scien-
tant facts and problems because those facts tifically taken into account. Instead, some-
and problemsappear to be quite obvious. It thing of the opposite is true. Obvious facts
is this third distortion within the psychologi- tend to remain "invisible." Consequently,
cal and sociological approach that we wish the social scientist should never be more
to discuss in introducing our present study, satisfied with his achievements and more
for many things which are the object of this proud of his insight than when he succeeds
study are, in a way, "quite obvious." in perceiving, in making explicit, and in in-
Are allegedly obvious facts really as obvi- corporatinginto his theory of social reality
ous as some social scientists appear to be- certain "obvious"but perhapsfor that very
lieve? What does it mean when someone dis- reason, overlooked, significant facts.2
misses, as often happens, certain problems
or facts by declaring that they are "quite 2 Cf. Henry A. Murray, Explorations in Personal-

obvious"? Does it mean that, in being obvi- ity (New York and London: Oxford University
Press, I938), p. 36: "Insofar as this psychology em-
ous, they are not important?Or does it mean phasizes facts which for a long time have been and
that they do not deserve to be the subject still are generally overlooked by academic investiga-
matter of a serious scientific inquiry? Or, tors, it represents a protest against current scientific
finally, does it mean that, by being obvious, preoccupations. And since the occurrences which the
specialized professor has omitted in his scheme of
I This introduction is a somewhat changed ver- things are the very ones which the laity believes to
sion of my article, "Why PsychologistsTend To be 'most truly psychological,' the dynamist must
OverlookCertain 'Obvious'Facts," Philosophyof perform the tedious and uninviting task of reiterat-
Science,X (I943), 204-7. ing common sense. Thus he comes on the stage in
I

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Thu, 12 Feb 2015 13:41:18 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 2 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
2. What we perceive,or overlook,
in thefield It is an obvious fact that being considered
of our potential experiencedepends on the to have and actually having certain person-
frameworkof conceptswhich we have in our ality traits are almost equally important in
minds.-Moreover, these concepts with the understandingof personality dynamics.
which we approachpsychological and social Often psychologists, so long as they are not
reality are distorted by certain emotional in the role of "experts,"freely recognizethis
(individually conditioned) and ideological obvious state of affairs. They may even en-
(collectively conditioned) factors. We are joy readinggood novels centeredaroundthe
thus prevented from making significant ob- problem. However, let someone in the ca-
servations and from asking relevant ques- pacity of psychological "expert" refer to
tions. The "obvious" facts are indeed obvi- these "obvious" facts in criticizing certain
ous; still they cannot be grasped until we unrealistictrends in, let us say, experimental
possess adequate descriptive concepts en- psychology, and almost certainly comes the
abling us to performthis task. Any realistic condescending remark that what is being
analysis and theory of personality and inter- said is "quite obvious." This answer does
personal relations presupposes, therefore, not meet the problem. Actually it poses the
the creation of conceptual tools making pos- problem, for the disturbing question re-
sible significant observations of such "obvi- mains: If psychologists as "nonexperts"
ous" facts. At present, we do not possess know those obvious facts so well, why do
such indispensabletools.3 they as "experts" behave as if they do not
3. "Obvious"knowledgewhich we may exist at all?
otkerwisepossess but do not incorporateinto 4. Psychologistsand sociologistssometimes
scientific theoryis scientificallymeaningless. neglectobviousfacts becausetheyfail to realize
-It often happens that the social scientist theirfar-reachingimplications.-Any intelli-
does possess realistic knowledge about "ob- gent observer of everyday life knows that
vious" facts as they operate in human rela- we tend to judge and evaluate individuals
tions. In his everyday, nonprofessionalcon- according to success or failure rather than
tacts and discussions he reflects intelligent according to their intrinsic characteristics.4
and sophisticated understandingof particu- Yet, if we would realistically take into ac-
lar "obvious" facts. But, paradoxically, he count the full implications of this "obvious"
forgets, neglects, or even ignores those facts habit, we would then be compelledto change
as soon as -he takes up the social role of a a whole set of silent assumptionsupon which
psychological and sociological "expert." vast areas of psychology are based.
Sometimes it looks even as if he believes Apparently, these allegedly "obvious"
that remainingblind to "obvious" facts will facts must be somehow not so obvious, if
increase his scientific prestige. taking them into full account would have
such revolutionary repercussions in social
the guise of a protesting and somewhat sentimental science.
amateur."
5. Finally, the confusingof "immediateex-
3Cf. Herbert Blumer, "The Problem of Concepts
in Social Psychology," American Journal of Sociolo-
perience"and "knowledge"plays an impor-
gy, XLV (I940), 707-I9. However, Blumer does not tant part in creatingthe illusion that certain
emphasize sufficiently that it is not enough to intro- facts are "obvious."-To "know" certain
duce the concepts required to make intelligent ob- facts in terms of immediate experience and
servations. We have, rather, first of all, to eliminate to know the same facts in terms of conceptu-
those distorted concepts wllich prevent us from per-
ceiving significant facts. Furthermore, it is not by al penetration are two very different forms
chance that we possess certain concepts which are of awareness. Unfortunately, the two are
misleading and do not possess concepts which would frequently confused. Yet a clear distinction
enable us to see significant facts to which otherwise between them is absolutely indispensablefor
we are blinded. Of basic importance for an under-
standing of this problem is the modern sociology of
the achieving of scientific observation, de-
knowledge. 4 See chap. iv, pp. 3 I-33.

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Thu, 12 Feb 2015 13:41:18 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INTRODUCTION 3
scription,and analysis on which dependsany penetration is the difference between igno-
true science, whether it be psychology or rance and knowledge.
sociology, or what. Herein lies a paradox. The higher the
To illustrate: We are aware in terms of degree of penetration in our analysis of the
immediate perception that two faces are world of complex and elusive human rela-
"somehow" similar or that there is "some- tions, the more striking is the impression
thing" in the behavior of John Jones which that we are saying only something which
we do not like. This does not mean that we everybody "knew all along." The point to
would be able to identify precisely in which remember,however, is that the illusory im-
features or expressive characteristics the pression arises only after the analysis has
similarity of the two faces consists or just been completed and is simply the conse-
what in the personality of John Jones evokes quence of taking implicit awareness (imme-
our dislike. On the level of immediate ex- diate experience) to be explicit knowledge.
perience we are simply aware of certain The following diagramwill help to clarify
facts, relations, or characteristics, and we the facts and problems discussed in this In-
react accordingly. The two faces are "some- troduction.

0000000 ogo~~o0o00
00 0 0 gogogo00
0

~~~~oooo 0o~~g~~g
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 00
0 0 ~~ ~ ~
O'., 0-olgooooooo
00000000 000 0000000ogo

how" similar, and there is "something" un- The circle A and its content symbolize
pleasant in the personality of John Jones. the "immediate experience" of a certain
We have not explicit knowledge of what it fact; the figure Z, given in this immediate
is. Such reality is like a picture puzzle which experience, is "implicit" rather than "ex-
we see but whose meaning we have not pene- plicit"; it is both "obvious" and "veiled."
trated. Only when we have been able to Thus, even though it is "given," it is also
make explicit in what the similarity of the "elusive"; we might or might not "see" it.
two faces consists, or exactly what it is that The circle B shows the same content as A
makes us dislike John Jones, do we succeed after the phenomenologicalpenetration has
in transforming the immediate experience been completed; what previously was only
into knowledge. Indeed, the difference be- implicit is now explicit. The obvious but
tween the awarenessof the facts in terms of veiled Z is now plainly visible, and percep-
immediate experience and the awareness of tion has been accurate. In circles C and D
these same facts in terms of full conceptual two different types of distortions ("false

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Thu, 12 Feb 2015 13:41:18 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
4 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
perceptions")are symbolized.C presents the make visible and explicit certain obvious
same content of experienceas A but distort- facts to which we are blinded, by penetrat-
ed by a false analysis and description: all ing a very important aspect of human rela-
items are reproducedcorrectly, but the es- tions. We hope that the reflectionspresented
sential Z has been overlooked and thus is in this introduction will sufficeto make clear
missing-one example of "blindness to ob- why the contention that certain facts are
vious facts." Another example is presented "quite obvious" must be considered not
by D: the perceiver, instead of penetrating only as meaninglessbut even far worse than
and making explicit the figure Z in the that: as a device for blocking the analysis of
circle, distorted his perceptionby projecting basic phenomena and preventing the incor-
into it another figure instead of Z. poration of these phenomena into a theory
One of the main goals of this study is to of human relations.

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Thu, 12 Feb 2015 13:41:18 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 CHAPTER I
THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER MAN

WE: READa recentnovelwhichmoved conversation with a few conventional

AV
7us profoundly.The author aroused phrases. Then, as we turned to more sig-
our curiosity as a man who is alive to the nificant topics, almost imperceptibly, the
perplexing and perturbing problems of our picture underwent once again a metamor-
time, and a picture of his personality took phosis. The man who spoke to us here, what
shape in our mind. Then, by good fortune, he was saying, his manner of saying it, the
we were given a chance to meet him per- tone of his voice, his shining eyes-yes, this
sonally. Arrangement was made by letter, was the man whom we had expected. True,
but his handwriting,we found, disappointed there remained a few variant factors and
us. In some hazily perceived way it did not certain contradictions and ambiguities of
fit into the picture which we had formed of impression. Nonetheless, it was "he" him-
the man. However, giving this only momen- self. The handwriting which had perturbed
tary attention, we looked forward to the us was forgotten; the room which troubled
meeting with eager anticipation. us disappeared;the outwardappearanceand
We arrived at his house punctually. We the impression it had made on us were al-
were shown into a room and asked to wait most mysteriously transformed.
for a few minutes. As we looked around, On our way home we reflected about the
there came again that feeling of disappoint- experience.Perhaps, so we thought, the con-
ment, the more intense because now it was nection between the handwriting and the
the second time. Just as previously the personality of the man, if it exists at all, is
handwriting, so now the furnishing of the more complicated than we had assumed in
room failed to correspond to our precon- our immediate reaction. Perhaps, his con-
ceived image of the man. Indeed, there was ventional handwriting is not a real, direct
actual contradiction of the picture we had expression of himself but only a compensa-
formed of him in readinghis novel. Ourper- tion for inner restlessness.Or,perhaps,there
plexity was further increased by a similar is no real connection of any kind; maybe we
lack of harmony between the handwriting merely saw and interpreted a connection
and the way the room was furnished. Not where actually there is none. It may be that
only were they at variance with our expecta- his very careful,very bourgeois dress is only
tions but each pointed in a different direc- a mask, only an ironical technique for main-
tion. The handwriting was empty, formal, taining and defending the anonymity of his
and conventional in character;the room was very unbourgeoisself against unpleasant in-
furnished in bad taste, old-fashioned and trusion. Again, is it valid to interpret the
overcrowded. furniture of his room as an "expression"of
We were still struggling to resolve our his personality? Several remarks which he
conflicting feelings and impressions when made during the conversation hinted of
the door opened and our host entered. Now, financial difficulties.What if he himself dis-
our confusion became actual shock. Instead likes the poor quality of his environmentbut
of the ascetic figure we had expected, we is not in the position to change it? In that
saw a carefullydressed,rotund gentleman of case, we were misinterpreting in assuming
advanced years who greeted us with a an expressive connection where in actual
friendly, good-natured smile. fact none exists. Finally, as to his physique,
In ill-concealed confusion we began the here, too, perhaps the relationship between
5

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
6 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
the "inner"and the "outer"personality of a tain interpretations, is influenced by silent,
man is more complicated and more devious individually or collectively, conditionedpat-
than we commonly are inclined to believe. terns of misinterpretationsor misinterpreta-
So went our reflections. tive assumptions.
At this point we fell to generalizing.What A social psychology of human relations
are the basic elements of our impressions which does not take into account these im-
about other people? How do the various plicit, silently operating mechanisms shap-
aspects fit into the whole? By what con- ing and misshaping our social perception is
scious or unconscious mechanisms are ele- in great dangerof falling victim to a pseudo-
ments of impression shaped into a more or empiricismwhich may be easily bolsteredby
less consistent image of the other man? pseudo-verifications. No refined statistical
What causes the different splits and contra- methods will be of any help if the original
dictions within this image? How is this im- data upon which our theories are based are
age of other people related to our attitudes already distorted and falsified by misinter-
toward those people?And, last but not least, pretations operating below the level of our
how well does the image usually correspond explicit awareness.
to the other man "himself"? The facts and problems around which
this study is centered can be best brought to
The psychologically naive, unreflective our attention and presented in their basic
person lives and acts under the silent as- significanceif we begin our main discussion
sumption that he perceives and observes by examining those phenomena which are
other people in a correct, factual, unbiased usually designated by the term "expres-
way. He may have his doubts as to the sion." The theory of expression (expressive
validity of some of his explicit interpreta- movements, expressive behavior, expressive
tions and judgments about other people. He manifestations of any kind) and, conse-
may be suspicious at times about other per- quently, atso the social psychology of human
sons misleading and deceiving him in word relations have always been vitiated by a
and action. However, he is unaware that basic conceptual confusion having its roots
certain misinterpretativemechanismsare at in the ambiguity of the term "expression."
work within himself, distorting and falsi- In the use of this term, we confuse, or at
fying his perception of other people, begin- least fail to distinguish, two different as-
ning even on the level of immediate observa- pects of the facts to which the concept refers.
tion. It remains concealed from him that On the one hand, in saying that, for in-
much of what he considers as "fact" is per- stance, the gesture of an individual "ex-
meated by, and a result of, misinterpreta- presses" calmness, we mean that between
tions functioning within his social percep- particular inner personality characteristics
tion and of which he is totally unaware. of the individual (his calmness) and certain
This unawareness of persistently and, in of his external characteristics (calm ges-
some respects, even "systematically" oper- tures) there obtains a definite objectiverela-
ating misinterpretations,affects not only the tion. The inner calmness is supposed to be
image of personality as constituted in the the source, or cause, of his calm gestures.
common-sensesocial perceptionof everyday On the other hand, however, we may mean
life. It insinuates itself also into scientific something else; we may mean that these
thought. Even psychologists and sociolo- gestures symbolize, or signify, to the ob-
gists are frequently not aware to what ex- server that the state of mind (or "innerper-
tent their perceivingor nonperceivingof cer- sonality") of the individual is "calm." In
tain facts concerningpersonality, their ask- this second meaning we do not refer to the
ing or not asking certain questions, pre- objective, factual relation between his inner
ferring or rejecting certain approaches and characteristicsand his external characteris-
methods, performingor not performingcer- tics, between expressive tendencies and ex-

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER MAN 7
pressive movements. Instead we refer to the tions refers to genetic problems. How did
symbolicrelation between the external char- those psychosomatic mechanisms control-
acteristics and the way they impress the ling the dynamics of expression develop,
observeror the way the observerrespondsto both in the history of the human species and
them. Not differentiating this duality of within the makeup of the individual? More
meaning in the present term "expression") specifically,how did it develop that we tend
has prevented an adequate clarification of to weep when we are sad, to clench our fists
all significant related problems. when we are angry, and the like. Is it consti-
In order to achieve the needed clarifica- tutional? This question, as a matter of fact,
tion, let us, first of all, become aware and was the basic problem of the Darwinian the-
make explicit that all expressivephenomena ory of expression,even though a substantial
do have two aspects. It will help if separate semantic confusion in Darwin's approach
terms are adopted for each. We propose for clouded the issue and evoked sharp and par-
this purpose a redefined concept of expres- tially deservedcriticism of the theory. How-
sion and a newly identified concept of im- ever, in spite of this semantic difficulty, Dar-
pression. Once we have made this differen- win's approach in itself is perfectly sound,
tiation, it will become clearthat, wherethere provided one remains aware of its limita-
seemed to be one set of problems, there ac- tions; it refers to only one aspect of the in-
tually are two: those related to expression volved and multiple problemsof expression-
and those related to impression. impression.
We shall use the new term "expression" 3. Finally, one can investigate in this field
in viewing expressivephenomenafrom with- the various, complicated reactions of per-
in, that is, in referringto the relations ob- sonality to its own expressive, or pseudo-
taining between expressive tendencies, on expressive, behavior. In other words, one
the one hand, and expressive manifesta- may ask how the processesof expression,in-
tions, on the other. We shall use the term cluding repression, influence the formation
"impression"in referringto the meaning of of personality.
those manifestations (or pseudo-manifesta- Having defined the possible problems of
tions) from without, that is, as they look to expression under our new meaning of this
other persons who function in the given term, it becomes clear that these problems
situation as a "receiving station." are not the basic subject matter of this
As to the problems of expression, in the study. Rather, we will be concernedwith the
redefinedmeaning of this term, three sets of problem of impression. Mechanisms of ex-
questions can be asked: pression are mechanisms operating almost
i. What is the nature of the psycho- entirely within the individual personality.
somatic mechanismswhich control the proc- Impressive mechanismsand impressivephe-
esses of expression?On the one hand, what nomena, on the other hand, are fundamen-
are the dynamic relations between different tally sociopsychologicalin their very nature.
emotions, tendencies, impulses, and atti- They are primarilynot problems of a theory
tudes and the differentexpressivemanifesta- of personality but problemsof social percep-
tions? On the other hand, how are those tion and of human relations. They include
emotions, tendencies, etc., as well as their the whole field of interpretations and mis-
manifestations, modified, transformed, and interpretations, conceptions and misconcep-
repressedby other intervening mechanisms tions, understandingand misunderstanding,
and processes?' both in interpersonaland in intergrouprela-
2. The second line of possible investiga- tions. The central fact upon which they
are focused is not the personality "itself"
The expressive manifestations are, of course, not
I

restricted to bodily movements but permeate the

but the image of personality.
whole world of our perceptions and conceptions. We The following example will help us under-
refer here to expression in art, culture, ideology, etc. stand the meaning of this conceptual dis-

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 8 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
tinction: Picture Sally meeting Susan in the way, attuned to each other. This is to say
street. In fact, Sally hates Susan, but, in that the functioning of the transmitting and
seeing Susan approaching, she suppresses of the receiving station is thought to be
the anger rising in her and greets Susan with identical or practically so. As has often hap-
an "expression"of perfect friendliness. Su- pened in social science, here, too, an opti-
san knows nothing about Sally's hostility mistic overemphasis on "harmony" and a
and takes her external behavior at its face minimizing, or even ignoring, of essential
value. Now, for our purpose,the question is: tensions, conflicts, and contradictionsin hu-
What is the meaning and function of Sally's man relationsprevent a realisticapproachto
behavior in terms of expression, on the one the facts of the situation.
hand, and of impression, on the other? Even if we were justified in assumingthat
From the point of view of expression mechanismsof expressionand of impression
Sally's behavior functions as a mask and were "originally"(whatever this may mean)
conceals her actually existing hostile atti- attuned to each other, this "original" or
tudes and sentiments. Approaching Sally's "natural"basis certainly has been radically
behavior in terms of impression,we see that transformed by social factors. Therefore,
it signifies a "friendly attitude" and evokes what really confront us in human relations
the corresponding responses in Susan. To are not natural forms of expression, on the
put it anotherway: The imageof Sally shows one hand, and natural responsesto symbolic
signs of friendliness,whereas Sally herselfis impressions, on the other. Instead, on the
hostile. one side are processes of expression trans-
Here, the objection might be raised that, formed and controlled by sociocultural fac-
in orderto illustrate and to validate our dis- tors and, on the other, similarly conditioned
tinction between expressionand impression, mechanisms of social perception. It is, in
we have chosen an atypical, abnormal case fact, these latter which determinethe mean-
which, just because of its abnormality, does ing of impressive symbols and result in
not prove our point. It might be arguedthat socioculturally conditioned image forma-
we have selected arbitrarily as an example tion.
an interpersonal relation in which a dis- Thus, even in assuming that there might
crepancy obtains between expression and have existed originally a kind of "pre-es-
impression,whereas "normally"the two are tablished harmony"between expressionand
attuned to each other. As a matter of fact, impression,we are still left with the actually
the somewhat extreme example was chosen existing situation where disharmony arises
purposely in order to raise just this ques- under the influenceof processeswhich oper-
tion. Our answer is an insistence that some, ate both in the area of expressionand in the
and frequently even a great degree of, dis- area of impression.
crepancybetween expressionand impression Between the inner personality, its atti-
is the normalstate of affairsand that we are tudes, sentiments, and tendencies, and the
bound to misunderstand extremely impor- externalpersonalitythere is always a certain
tant aspects of human relations if we fail to degree of incongruity. In human relations
take these ever present, basic discrepancies we have always to suppress, or at least to
fully into account. To this problem we shall modify, the frankexpressionof some factors.
now turn our attention. These suppressionsand modifications range
The expectation that there is some kind from the more or less generally applied con-
of "natural harmony," or even a complete ventionalizations of expression, like polite-
identity, between expressionand impression ness, over various forms of more crude or
is based on the silent assumption that the more subtle insincerity and hypocrisy, to
mechanisms of expression and those of im- outright lies and other forms of deception.
pression are somehow, in a predetermined The inner personality remains "invisible";

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER MAN 9
only the external personality-is "visible," ways in some respects and to some degreeat
that is, socially perceivable.2Only the "vis- variance with the personality "itself," our
ible" aspects of our personality are subject distinction is both important and generally
to a direct and effective social control. Con- valid. Illuminating the how and why of this
sequently, our externalpersonality is always variance between the personality "itself"
and fundamentally more "socialized,"more and its image in the minds of others is the
'rational,' more "conventionalized" than main object of our study. This being our
the inner, "invisible"personality. The com- purpose, misinterpretations of personality
pulsion toward social adjustment and adap- become the core of our theory of social per-
tation affects primarily the visible area of ception and of the image of personality cre-
external behavior. In the closet of his inner ated by the mechanisms operating within
self everyone can do much as he pleases. this social perception. Misunderstandingsin
This, therefore,is the fundamentalsource human relations can be comprehendedand
of tensions and discrepanciesin the area of correctly analyzed only within this frame of
expression.However, it is only one aspect of reference.
the total situation and has its full counter- The interdependencebetween social per-
part in the area of the mechanisms of im- ception, misinterpretations of personality,
pression (social perception), for the impres- image of the other man, and social psychol-
sive characteristicsand impressiveresponses ogy of human relations will be clarified,step
are, as we have said, equally and similarly by step, in the following chapters.However,
affected by sociocultural influences. We do some further comments about the central
not wish to enlargehere upon the problemof role of misinterpretations of personality in
modified impressive characteristics and re- this study are in order here. These misin-
sponses for these constitute our chief area of terpretations are extremely important not
concern and provide topics for following only in shaping the image of personality in
chapters. We only reiterate and insist that human relations. They serve also as a key in
by the reasons discussed, a certain, some- enabling us to detect the unconsciousor sub-
times even an extreme, incongruity and dis- conscious mechanismswhich operate within
crepancy within the expression-hnpression social perception. As long as the interpreta-
relations are not an abnormal but rather a tive mechanisms operate to make us under-
very normal state of affairs.3 stand and anticipate the behavior of other
If the two aspects of the expression-im- people accurately, we remain, as a rule, en-
pression relations, as a rule, correspondedto tirely unaware of their presence.Their func-
each other, our distinction would not possess tioning reveals itself only in their results,
great importance, or at least it would have that is, in our perceptions and conceptions
application only in the field of abnormal about other people. The mechanisms them-
phenomena. Under those conditions the im- selves remain hidden. It requires the shock
age of personality would be more or less of having been deceived, or having comn
identical with the personality "itself." How- mitted a striking error of interpretation, to
ever, since the image of personality, as ac- arouse reflectionand pave the way to a pos-
tually constituted through the dynamics of sible discovery of these hidden mechanisms
social perception and its mechanisms, is al- which are responsiblefor our illusions. Thus
it becomes increasingly evident why mis-
2
See chap. ii. interpretations form the central theme of
3 This fundamental discrepancy between expres- our study.
sion and impression incidentally explains why With this in mind, we turn now to defin-
physiognomics was never able to achieve the status
of a science. Physiognomics could be legitimate only
ing, in a general way, the place and role of
if expressive and impressive values would coincide. our theory of misinterpretations in the sci-
But this is not the case. ence of personality and interpersonal rela-

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
tions. VVheredoes it fit in and what con- about the person because we hate him. How-
tributions does it hope to make? ever, neither the social psychologists nor the
The concentration of scientific attention psychoanalysts have ever presented any-
upon the problems of expression at the ex- thing even approximating a comprehensive
pense of the problems of impression is only theory of the image of personality as shaped
one aspect of a more inclusive frame of refer- by the mechanisms of social perception. In
ence. The psychologists of personality have consequence of this state of affairs, we are
taken it mostly for granted that their main still lacking in a realistic understanding of
task should consist in investigating how per- the structure and dynamics of interhuman
sonalities "really are" as over against the relations. Ourstudy hopes to make at least a
"insignificant" problem as to how they significant contribution to such an under-
"seem to be" or "are considered to be." In standing.
the history of psychology we find only spo- Beyond this, we hope also to contribute
radically and mostly from outsidersthe real- to a theory of personality "itself."5 In the
ization and recognition that any adequate past few decades social scientists have come
theory of personality and interpersonalrela- to realize the extent and degree to which
tions has to deal not only with how personal- social and cultural factors, especially socio-
ities "reallyare" but, in addition and equal- psychological factors, determineand perme-
ly important, with how they "appear" to ate the total makeup of personality. Yet this
other people. Even men like George H. growing recognition of the role of others in
Mead, who in principle adhered to a radi- the structure and dynamics of personality,
cally sociological theory of personality, the function of the "looking-glass-self"of
never analyzed and described the various Cooley and others, has remained largely
specific and concrete mechanisms which without substance because no one has ever
shape and misshapethe perceptionsand con- asked or answered how these factors func-
ceptions we have about others and about tion. It is only by understanding our in-
ourselves. The psychoanalysts and those in- terpretations and misinterpretations,evalu-
fluencedby psychoanalysis referredto them ations and misevaluations, of others that we
only vaguely or even dismissed the whole shall be able to achieve scientific under-
all-important area as merely the problem of standing of this exceedingly important as-
"reality" which the individual simply has to pect in the dynamics of total personality.
"take into account" in the actions and re- The way we are seen by others determines
actions determining his adjustment. They the way we see ourselves. And the way we
never seriously approached the problem of see ourselves determinesessentially how we
how this "reality"in fact operates in human "really" are, that is, the formation of what
relations. Yet, the way we see, interpret,and we call vaguely personality "itself." The
evaluate each other constitutes a set of facts theory of the personality image is, therefore,
and problems actually fundamental in any of basic importance not only for the social
realistic science of personality and inter- psychology of interhumanrelations but also
personal relations. There obtains a compli- for a realistic psychology and psychopathol-
cated interdependencebetween the images ogy of the total personality.
we hold about each other and the attitudes Finally, a realistic theory of personality
we take toward each other.4It is the images images and of mechanisms by which these
which actually define the meaning of the at- images are shaped and misshapedhas a sub-
titudes and are, in turn, determinedin their stantial significancefor the practical tasks of
content by the attitudes. Sometimeswe hate applied psychology. The unconsciousor un-
a particular individual because we have in noticed misinterpretations of personality in
our minds a distorted image of his personal- everyday life exert an untold influenceupon
ity; sometimes we have a distorted image the work done in guidance clinics, marriage
4 See chap. v, first section. 5 See chap. iv, last section.

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER MAN II

and family counseling, and similar modern What, then, is the "place"of our study in
movements where, at least in principle, the the framework of social science? In sum-
aim is a more objective and accurate judging mary, we see it as offering three main con-
and evaluating of other people. Even here in tributions: First, by analyzing the mecha-
this area of more rational and objective nisms of social perception, it illuminates a
judgments, these misinterpretationsare the very important aspect of interhuman rela-
source of serious distortion and hence un- tions. Second, it helps to understand an
doubtedly help to account for many of our equally important aspect of the dynamics of
unsuccessful cases. A sound theory of mis- total personality. Third, it preparesthe way
interpretations will furnish the necessary for greatly increasedsuccess in many of our
basis for becomingaware of these distortions appliedpsychology projects throughmaking
and thus eventually being able to neutralize possible more realistic and less illusion-
or offset their sometimes even disastrous bound judgments about particular person-
effects. alities.

This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 17 Jan 2015 06:18:45 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 CHAPTER II

"VISIBLE" AND "INVISIBLE" ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY

the basis as well as the background of all

W E ARE using in this study the term

'social perception" in a very broad human relations.

In addition to the distinction between

sense. It includes all forms of social aware-

"expression" and "impression" as presented

ness of the personality of other people and of

interhuman relations. Thus "social percep- in the preceding chapter, there is another

tion" in this context designates "percep- distinction which is equally important for a

tion" in the strict psychological sense. It full clarification of the problems discussed in

also designates images, conceptions, and this study. It is the distinction between the

other more vague and undefined forms of collectively and the individually perceivable

awareness which, as a rule, are permeated by data of our common-sense experience. This

emotional factors. As indicated, the objects distinction again is, in a way, quite obvious

of social perception are not only other per- but is among those facts which are over-

sons but also relations between them. Con- looked because they are so obvious. A great

sequently, we are aware in terms of social deal of confusion in social psychology would

perception not only of the attitudes and have been avoided if social psychologists

motives and characteristics of the person A had not been blinded to these obvious facts.

and B and C. We are also aware of, let us All data (contents) of our common-sense

say, the relation of dependence of A on B, or experience are characterized by the fact that

the power relation between C and D, or even they are either the object of collective or the

of the hypocrisy permeating a given society. object of individual perception. For in-

The existence of social perception, of course, stance, the desk on which I am writing these

does not imply that this perception is neces- words is perceived by me, with certainty, as

sarily correct. Social perception is some- something which belongs to the realm of the

times correct, and sometimes it is false. collectively perceivable world. This means

Now, this social perception does not oper- not only that this desk possesses such char-

ate in a vacuum. Its mechanisms face cer- acteristics as color, shape, etc., but also that

tain data which they interpret, or misinter- it can be perceived, as this specific desk, by

pret, as symbols or signs of personalities- anyone, As a rule, all data of visual and

their characteristics, motives, attitudes- tactile perception belong definitely to the

and as signs and symbols of certain social re- area of the collectively perceivable world.

lations. Let us call those data which are in- The counterpart of the collectively per-

terpreted and misinterpreted by mecha- ceivable world is the world of our individual

nisms of social perception the "raw materi- (private) experiences. The desk on which I

al" of social perception. The nature of this am writing is an object which can be per-

"raw material" and its basic elements, as ceived by myself, by you, and by anyone

related to the image of personality, is the else, as something which is "located" in the

main subject matter of this chapter. In pro- interpersonal, collective world. By contrast,

ceeding with our analysis, we shall "dis- my feeling of being happy, or my conviction

cover" the "obvious" fact that already our of being right, is perceived and can be di-

perceptual world is organized in terms of a rectly perceived, as this particular feeling or

sociopsychological structure and that hu- conviction, only by me. Other people may

man personality has a definite place in this experience feelings of being happy or convic-

structure. It is this structure which forms tions of being right which, in their content,

I2

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 "VISIBLE" AND "INVISIBLE" ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY

are similar to mine. They may know that I defined as individually perceivable (private

feel happy or that I am convinced that I am world), the data of smeLL or taste can be per-

right. Their happiness and mine may be ceived either way. They constitute an am-

evoked by the very same event which oc- biguous, neutral material which lends itself

to being perceived in both directions. Thus,

curred in the collective world. Still, my feel-

ing of being happy or my conviction of being a particular flower is "the same" for every-

one who looks at it, that is, who perceives it

right and their feeling of being happy or

in terms of visual perception. On the other

their conviction of being right belong ines-

hand, the odor radiated by the flower, de-

capably to two different and separated uni-

pending on the attitudes of the perceiving

verses of perceptual experience. Thus, al-

individual, can be perceived and interpreted

ways in terms of the common-sense experi-

either as a characteristic of an object in the

ence, the collectively perceivable world is

collective world or as a subjective sensation.

definitely and unambiguously "the same"

for all of us; the world of our individual In the latter case the experience would be a

experience is unique to each of us. part of the private world of the individual.

In the light of this phenomenological Further analysis suggests that our com-

mon-sense distinction between "objective"

analysis all data of our common-sense ex-

perience have certain implicit characteris- and "subjective" is closely related to the dis-

tics by which they are defined for us as "be- tinction between data which are collectively

longing" either to the collectively, to the and data which are individually perceivable.

individually, or, finally, to the ambiguous The collectively perceivable world is thus an

"objective world"; the individually per-

world (discussed in the next paragraph). Al-

though peculiarly nonexplicit, these charac- ceivable, the private world, is simultaneous-

teristics are as inherent in the content of our ly a "subjective world." However, we do not

wish to press our phenomenological analysis

perceptual world as the characteristics of

further than necessary for this context.

space, time, color, sound, etc. Their non-

Summing up the results of the preceding

explicit nature is closely related to their

"obvious" character. It is difficult "to put discussion, we can say that even our per-

one's finger" on them. Yet one reacts to ceptual world, rather in contradiction to our

their presence and does so largely automati- conventional conceptions, is in its very

structure permeated and organized in terms

cally and unconsciously.

of certain sociological (sociopsychological)

As mentioned above, in addition, and in

a way "between" the collectively and the factors. Not only our ideas and representa-

tions, as Durkheim believed, but even our

individually perceivable worlds, there is a

perceptions are characterized either as col-

third, intermediary world which is ambigu-

ous as to its collective, or individual, per- lective or as individual contents of experi-

ence.
ceptibility. TIhe data which lie in this am-

Here,,however, the reader may raise the

biguous zone are being experienced either in

question: What do all these phenomenologi-

terms of collective or in terms of individual

perceptions or else remain undefined. In cal subtleties and semantic distinctions have

which way we experience them depends on to do with the subject matter of this study,

the operation of certain personal and situa- that is, with why people misunderstand each

other? The answer to this question is quite

tional factors which determine their inter-

simple. We cannot discuss properly the

pretation. In other words, the transition

problems of personality, of the image of per-

from the collectively to the individually per-

sonality, of interpersonal relations, their

ceivable world is not sudden and abrupt but

structure and dynamics, without having

instead is fluid and gradual. While, for in-

first of all established an adequate frame of

stance, the visual world is definitely and un-

reference defining the place of personality in

ambiguously defined as collectively perceiv-

the total structure of our perceptual world.

able, and the world of emotions is similarly

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 14 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS

The aim of our preceding analysis was to assumption-then no communication and

define this frame of reference. no social contact between human beings

What, then, is the "place" of human per- would take place. There would be no collec-

sonality in the structure of our perceptual tive medium in which and through which.

world? Here we again have to perform an interhuman relations could operate. Lan-

"obvious" clarification. It is that human guage and the whole of human culture could

personality is characterized by the basic fact never have come into being. Each individual

that it belongs with certain of its aspects to would actually approximate a kind of

the collectively, and with other of its aspects Leibnizian "monad without windows." If,

to the individually, perceivable world. With- on the other hand-this is our second imagi-

out an explicit awareness of this fundamen- nary assumption-human personality con-

tal state of affairs, neither the problems of sisted only of elements collectively perceiv-

personality nor the problems of interper- able, then no mediating communication be-

sonal relations can be properly stated and tween personalities would be necessary.

defined. Then personalities would interpenetrate

Thus each individual is in certain aspects each other directly. They would be open to

of his total personality collectively perceiv- each other without any communication, and

able, we have said, "visible," and in certain there would be nothing private to be re-

aspects of his total personality nonperceiv- vealed. Therewould not obtain anymeaning-

able, that is, "invisible." As already noted, ful distinction between "inner" and "exter-

the "visible" aspects are much more exposed nal" personality, and one personality would

to social pressure and control. The invisible be practically the duplicate of another.

are left more isolated and unsocialized. What a dull world it would be!

Whether or not a person is wearing clothes Since, however-we are returning now

at all, or what kind he wears, is collectively from our imaginary excursion to our real

perceivable and thus subject easily to con- world-human personality is partly visible

trol; what he thinks of his neighbor or the and partly invisible, since it is partly rooted

policeman who exercises that control is a in the collectively perceivable area and be-

matter of private experience. And indeed longs with other parts to the world collec-

what he thinks may be very "unsocialized"! tively nonperceivable, communication has

In the light of a sociopsychological ap- to take place. In communication the inner

proach, to our mind the only correct ap- personality of one individual interacts with

proach to the problems of personality, one the inner personality of another but does so

could go even further and suggest the replac- indirectly in the medium of the collective

ing of the traditional distinction between universe. It follows that the raw material of

"mind" and "body" by the distinction be- social perception, that is, the data which

tween the socially visible and the socially in- serve as a basis of those interpretations and

visible aspects of personality. "Inner person- misinterpretations shaping the image of per-

ality" is constituted by those characteristics sonality, belongs altogether to the collec-

which are, in their very nature, socially not tively perceivable world.

visible; "external personality," by those The nature of this raw material of social

characteristics which are visible. perception as related to the distinction be-

In order to clarify the issue and acquire tween expression and impression needs now

further background for understanding an to be discussed. As a matter of fact, in doing

important aspect of interhuman relations as so, we actually are discussing only a new

they operate in reality, let us consider briefly aspect of the basic expression-impression re-

two imaginary assumptions concerning the lation.

nature of interhuman communications. If It might be assumed that there is an iden-

human personality consisted only of ele- tity between the raw material of social per-

ments belonging to the individually per- ception and what might be called the raw

ceivable world-this is our first imaginary material of expression. This latter term desig-

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 "VISIBLE" AND "INVISIBLE" ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY

nates all those elements of the collectively discrepancy between raw material of expres-

sion and raw material of social perception.

perceivable world in which expressive tend-

This arises when certain factors do function

encies of personality manifest themselves.

as raw material of social perception without

Such an assumption is entirely fallacious.

being actually material of personality ex-

The raw material of social perception,

namely, that from which the image of the pression. A good example in point is offered

other man is shaped, has to be defined not in by certain situational factors which function

as "signs of personality" or, to put it an-

terms of expression but in terms of impres-

sion. The fact, therefore, that a given per- other way, which get interpreted by the

sonality expresses itself in a certain material mechanisms of social perception as "expres-

sions of personality" without being so in

does not mean that these expressive mani-

fact. For instance, our apartment, the way

festations will necessarily function as raw

material of social perception. As a matter of it is furnished and arranged, is usually inter-

fact, there are two different reasons for the preted, consciously or unconsciously, as an

discrepancy between the raw material of so- expression of the personality of its inhabit-

ants. This is done in a similar way as, let us

cial perception and the raw material of per-

say, the style in art gets interpreted as an

sonality expression. There are, on the one

expression of the "spirit" of a people or of a

hand, certain factors which do function as

historical epoch. Now, it may very well

raw material of personality expression but

happen that in a particular case the choice

do not enter the field of social perception. On

of the apartment and its furnishings is deter-

the other hand, there are factors which do

mined not by the expressive tendency of its

not function as raw material of personality

inhabitants but simply by their socioeco-

expression but do enter the field of social

perception. As we shall show in the following nomic conditions. The apartment and its

contents were actually imposed upon the in-

paragraphs, the expressive material contains

in some respects more, and in some other re- dividual from without. In such a case the

situational factors (apartment, etc.) do

spects less, than the material of social per-

ception. function as elements in the raw material of

social perception. Obviously, they play an

Let us consider first the situation in which

a material actually having an expressive important role in the way the image of the

meaning does not enter the field of social given personality is shaped by the mecha-

perception. If somebody is embarrassed and nisms of social perception. However, we

have to be well aware that they play this

blushes, this type of expression is, or at least

function of a material of social perception

might be, within the range of social percep-

tion. On the other hand, if the embarrass- without being in fact elements of real expres-

ment of this same person were to express it- sion. To put it another way, they have an

self not in blushing but only in inward dis- impressive but do not have any correspond-

turbances, then this kind of manifestation, ing expressive function. They are, therefore,

a source of illusions and misinterpretations.'

not being collectively perceivable, would

obviously not function as material of social Another example of factors which are ele-

ments in the raw material of social percep-

perception. Thus, repeating, whether some-

thing is, or is not, material of social percep- tion without being material of expressive

tion has to be decided not in terms of the manifestations of personality "itself" is of-

expressive but in terms of the impressive fered by certain communications of other

people about a particular personality. Again

function of the particular manifestation.

Our current development of the lie detector

I It is interesting to note that, as far as the style

is an attempt to bring certain otherwise only

in art is concerned, a similar controversy about inter-

expressive material into the socially per-

preting style either in terms of expression or in

ceivable level, thus giving it a quasi-impres-

terms of situational factors played an important role

sive value.

in the aesthetic theory of the nineteenth as well as

Equally important is the second kind of the twentieth century.

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS

a strikingly obvious but frequently neglect-

basic forms of awareness (consciousness).

ed fact. The socially accepted image of the

The image of the other man is the content

personality of X is significantly shaped by

of this awareness, the object of which is the

what A, B, and C are saying about X. The other man "himself." The image can be cor-

gossip of A, B, or C is an important factor in

rect, distorted, false, or quite imaginary. To

the composition of the raw material of social

discover and understand the mechanisms of

perception as related to X, but, obviously, it social perception which shape the image of

is not a real element in the expressive raw

the other man and are at the bottom of all

material of the personality of X. It functions

interhuman relations is the main subject

not within the transmitting station but matter of this study.

within the receiving station.

Now, someone may argue that our con-

We see, therefore, that there are impor-

cept of the raw material of social perception

tant discrepancies between the material of

is misleading, for it is the mechanisms of

social perception (the material of the image

social perception which define and select

of the other man) and the material of per-

what is raw material and what is not. In

sonality expression and that in any adequate

other words, the impressive values of the

frame of reference these discrepancies must

data of the raw material are themselves cre-

be taken into account as significant facts. ations of social perception and of its mecha-

By now the reader probably feels, as did nisms. If not creations, they are, then, at

the author, the need to achieve some degree least reflections. The symbolic meaning of

of order in the rather confused area of the the appearance of an individual, for in-

raw material of social perception. To accom- stance, can be determined and understood

plish this, we are suggesting the following only in the light of the reaction of other

classifications of its data: people toward it. Or, specifically, the gossip

of people about John Jones will or will not

i. The impressive characteristics of personal

become "raw material," depending on

appearance, both natural (physique) and artifi-

whether the social perception of those who

cial (hairdressing, etc.); this might be called the

listen will accept and use the content of the

"static appearance" of personality or the static

gossip in shaping the image of John Jones in

elements in the image of personality.

their minds.

2. The impressive characteristics of behavior

In anticipating this criticism, we wish to

(energetic, cautious, perplexed, serious, etc.)

which might be called the "dynamic appear- declare that it would be valid only if we fail

ance" or the dynamic elements in the image of

to realize that it is actually the social percep-

personality.

tion and its mechanisms which are the "real

3. Situational factors which lend themselves

thing" in the dynamics of image formation.

to being interpreted as impressive signs of a

As a matter of fact, however, the present

given personality (such as residence, compan-

approach is based upon the assumption that

ions, occupation, etc.).

social perception and its mechanisms con-

4. Communications of other people about the

stitute the core of the whole problem. There

particular individual (ranging from highly ac-

is, therefore, no real disagreement between

curate to completely false).

the author of this study and the possible

5. Communications of this individual about

critics of the concept of the "raw material"

himself (similarly ranging from highly accurate

of social perception, for the author, too,

to completely false).

considers the mechanisms and not the raw

It seems well to emphasize here, in order material as the decisive factors. Thus under-

to avoid any misunderstanding, that the stood, the term "raw material of social per-

concept of social perception and the concept ception" can be a useful tool.

of the image of the other man are obviously

correlative. Social perception, as stated on Before closing this chapter, we wish to

the first page of this chapter, is one of the add some remarks on the function of visibili-

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 "VISIBLE" AND "INVISIBLE" ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY

ty in our conception of "social reality." which constitutes the basis of social identifi-

Again, in doing it, we are merely making ex- cation. This can be shown very well by the

plicit certain obvious facts which are being following reflection. Suppose Jane Doe

neglected because they are so obvious. would change all her inner personality char-

The point we wish to make is that in the acteristics, such as her attitudes, opinions,

world of common sense in which, after all, tendencies, character, temperament, and

we are emotionally at home, it is the visible whatever else. At the same time suppose she

aspects of social relations which impress us would retain unchanged her bodily appear-

as "social reality." Coercion, for instance, is ance. Then, obviously, she would continue

usually recognized as coercion by those who to be considered and identified as "the same

are not directly involved (by the "neutral person." Other people would probably say

spectators") only when it takes the visible that Jane Doe has radically changed, but it

form of outright violence. Consequently, the would be still Jane who has changed. If, on

neutral spectators ("public opinion") tend, the other hand, Jane would maintain all her

by and large, to consider visible coercion in basic inner personality characteristics but

human relations as more objectionable than would by some miracle altogether change

invisible coercion. The first impresses them

her bodily appearance so that she would

as being "more real" than the latter. This look like Susan Smith, then she would cease,

peculiar nature of social perception which in terms of social reality, to be "the same

makes us interpret the visible aspects of so- person." People would then, obviously, con-

cial relations as being more real than those sider and identify Jane as being Susan, and

aspects which cannot be directly perceived they would probably wonder why Susan

constitutes a fact which has always played a talks and behaves like Jane.

paramount role in political psychology. ITe recognition of the role of visibility in

Shrewd ruling groups have always been very social perception makes possible the expla-

eager to replace visible forms of coercion by nation of very important aspects in the dy-

invisible forms, knowing very well that this namics of human relations. It explains, for

procedure creates the peculiar social illusion instance, why in case of a clash between the

that there is no coercion operating in the image of a person presented in terms of visu-

given social system. Historical experience al perception and the image of this same per-

shows it to be possible for a long period of son presented in terms of nonvisual contacts

time to conceal, or even to deny, the exist- (by letter or by telephone) it is the visual

ence of such social realities as coercion, ex- image which as a rule prevails over what

ploitation, and oppression. They can be might be called the "remote" or "abstract"

concealed, at least from the awareness of image. This is also one of the reasons why

neutral observers, as long as these realities people who are present are usually "right."

can be kept below the threshold of social As a matter of particular note, the visibility

"visibility." Historical experience shows in social perception is of paramount impor-

also that it is scarcely possible to question, tance in the social psychology of race rela-

or even to deny, the existence of these condi- tions.3

tions once they have reached the threshold Having analyzed in this chapter the

of social "visibility."; sociopsychological structure of our percep-

tual world and the place of personality in

The role of visibility in our conception of

social reality reveals itself also in the para- that world, we shall now turn our attention

mount importance of our bodily appearance to the main problem of this study: the

in the structure of the personality image. It analysis and theory of the dynamics of so-

is the visible appearance of an individual cial perception.

2 See my article, "Fear of Violence and Fear of 3 Cf. my article, "Sociopsychological and Cultur-

Fraud," Sociometry, VII, No. 4 (November, I944), al Factors in Race Relations," American Journal of

376-83. Sociology, LIV (March, I949), 395-40I.

This content downloaded from 129.96.252.188 on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 21:46:07 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 CHAPTER III
THE NATURE AND THE MODES OF PERSONALITY
INTERPRETATIONS

W E STARTED this study with the secondary interpretations. Let us now ex-
statement that the psychologically amine these categories in turn.
naive, unreflectiveperson, the "hero"of our i. Conscious vs. unconscious interpreta-
study, lives and acts under the silent as- tions.-We deal with the first when, in in-
sumption that he perceivesother people in a terpreting the impressive characteristics of
factual, objective way. We observedthat he another man and thus developing his con-
is not aware of certain interpretativemecha- ception of the man, the observer is fully
nisms at work within himself which distort aware that he is not only "taking cogni-
and falsify his perception, observation, and zance" of certain facts but is also performing
interpretation of other people. certain other more or less complicatedmen-
In this chapter we are approaching the tal operations. In doing so, it is the ob-
problemof definingthe nature of personality server's intention to understand the other
interpretations and are attempting to clas- person by being objective and possibly even
sify the basic modes in which these inter- by being "scientific." A judge who is con-
pretations (and misinterpretations)operate. sciously gauging the reliability of a witness
This is to say that we shall try to determine on the basis of what he as a judge knows
the way in which the mechanisms of social about the psychology of testimony is an ex-
perception shape and misshape the image of ample of this conscious mode. A teacher,
other people in the frameworkof human re- trained in abnormal psychology, who tries
lations. The interpretative mechanisms can to understand the strange behavior of one
be defined as those processes, reactions, or of his students by interpretingit in the light
mental "manipulations" which transform of psychoanalytical mechanisms is another
the raw material of social perception into example. The layman who, in trying to un-
meaningful, more or less well-integrated, derstand other people, is aware that under-
images of personality. These images form standing means not only registeringbut also
the basis of all interhuman relations. We interpretingfacts-he, too, has to be classi-
wish to emphasizehere that we are examin- fied as performingconsciousinterpretations.
ing in this chapter not the types but rather To characterizea mode of interpretation as
the modes of interpretations and misinter- "conscious," of course, does not mean that
pretations of personality,a distinction which this interpretation is necessarily correct.
will become clear as we proceed. This mode is characterizednot by the cor-
We shall analyze and discuss the follow- rectness and validity of its results but rather
ing classifications of these modes of inter- by the intention and the awareness of its
pretations (and misinterpretations) of per- procedure.
sonality all of which operate in interhuman The unconscious interpretations operate
relations of everyday life: (i) conscious vs. on a much deeper level of social perception
unconscious interpretations; (2) "original" than the conscious. Even though they exert
vs. culturally transformed interpretations; a powerful influence upon the processes
(3) collective vs. individual interpretations; within our social perception, we are not
(4) interpretations "in principle" vs. inter- aware of their operation. Their functioning
pretations "in fact"; and (5) primary vs. reveals itself only in their effects, that is, in
i8

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MODES OF PERSONALITY INTERPRETATIONS
the way the image of other people is formed. nisms function in the shaping of the images
We tend to become aware that they do oper- of personality in all human relations of ev-
ate in our minds only when, and if, we are eryday life and thus very largely determine
confrontedwith an unexpectedshock of hav- the all-permeating sociopsychological at-
ing committed a gross misinterpretation or mosphere by which we are surrounded.
if we have experienced a still more trau- In addition, the predominantimportance
matic shock of having been deceived by of unconsciousand unintentional interpreta-
somebody in whom we had full confidence. tions (and misinterpretations) is not only
Only after somethinglike that has happened extensive but also intensive in character. It
do we begin to realize that something more is the image of personality as shaped by
than merely taking cognizance of facts is those unconscious interpretations which
going on in our perceiving and observing of nearly always functions as the collectively
other people. Thus we may come to under- accepted reality. By contrast, our concep-
stand that what we were confronted with tions about other people developed on the
was not the other man "himself"but rather basis of conscious interpretations, even
his image, which must have been distorted though often more correct, are nevertheless
by mechanisms operating unconsciously lackingin the suggestiveandcompellingchar-
within our minds. acter of that primary "reality."We could go
Another experienceout of which we often even a step further and say that very fre-
become aware of the operation of these quently the conscious interpretations oper-
unconscious interpretative mechanisms is ate on the basis of an image of personality
familiar to all of us, namely, meeting for the which was already preformedby the uncon-
first time a person about whom we have had scious mechanisms. Thus, they are not nec-
some previous knowledge. How frequently essarily as objective and as rational as they
do we experiencedistinct mental shock at re- appear, or pretend, to be. Witness the class-
alizing the extent or kind of expectations we room teacher who prides himself on his ob-
have built up about the characteristics of jective tests and examinations. Yet his final
this person-often far beyond any concrete grades clearly reflect to the impartial ob-
or consciously received evidence. In surprise server the influence of personal factors not
we find ourselves saying, "Gee, I expected coveredat all in his tests or, for that matter,
you to be tall! Why, I don't know," or "I involved in the actual achievement of his
had you pictured as a snob. How I got the students.
idea I am at a loss to say," or similar com- In the light of this discussion it becomes
ments. Reflection will sometimes reveal the evident that the lawyer X, the dentist Y,
clues we evidently employed in reaching and the foremanZ, for example, are not the
these expectations-sometimes not. Of the men whose personality would, and could, be
process of interpretation or its mechanisms defined in terms of objective psychological
we have remained totally unconscious. Ac- interpretations.They are rather individuals
tually these unconscious interpretative who evoke certain responses, interpreta-
mechanismsplay a part in the formation of tions, and evaluations in other people, and
all our images of other persons. It is only who therefore impress them in a certain
easier to recognizetheir functioning in some way. It is these impressive images of those
such dramatic experience as these we have men which are the "real thing" in terms of
cited. interhuman relations of everyday life and
Which plays the more important role in not those men "themselves." Here again is
interhuman relations, the conscious or the an obvious fact which rationalistically
unconsciousinterpretations?Obviously, the mindedpsychologists,and other social scien-
unconscious. As indicated above, the con- tists, not to mention laymen, seldom take
scious interpretationsremain restricted to a into account. The politicians probably
rather limited area; the unconsciousmecha- know it best.

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
20 MISUNDERSTANDINGSIN HUMAN RELATIONS
Summing up, we may say that uncon- tion, the fact is that certain of our interpre-
scious interpretationsof personality,as over tative reactions are closer to "original na-
against the conscious, are predominant in ture" than are others. Our interpretativere-
several respects. They are more extensive in actions to bodily appearances of health, to
scope; they are at the bottom of that image certain forms of aesthetic appearance as
of men which is collectively accepted as symbols of certain "inner personality" val-
valid in everyday life relations; and they in- ues, to certain gestures as expressionsof an-
fluence also, directly and indirectly, the ger, even if probably modified by cultural
more conscious and rational interpretations. factors, are somehow closer to "original
The problems and dilemmas of freeing nature" than, for instance, interpretative
our perceptionsand conceptionsabout other reactions to a certain kind of dress as a sign
people from the predominant influence of of a social status or to certain manners as
these unconscious interpretations we shall signs of a certainsocial background.In other
discuss later on. Concludingthe present dis- words, even though we are not directly con-
cussion, we call attention to the fact that the cerned with the problem of hereditary fac-
distinction between conscious and uncon- tors, we cannot entirely ignore the fact that
scious interpretations should not be con- different mechanisms of social perception
fused with the distinction between the "orig- operate on different levels of human per-
inal" and the "culturally transformed"in- sonality, that is, that they are more or less
terpretations examined in the next section. deep-seated. This means, after all, that
The "culturally transformed" interpreta- somehow they are either closer to "original
tions themselves can be as unconscious and nature" or closer to "culture."
operate as automatically as the "original." It is of importance to note that through-
2. "Original" vs. culturally transformed out the whole history of the theory of ex-
interpretations.-Use here of the somewhat pression-which, by the way, in conse-
ambiguous term "original"is a symptom of quence of the confusion between "expres-
a dilemma which the author faces at this sion" and "impression"was never able to
point. He is trying to present a certain dis- state its own problems correctly-attention
tinction between two modes of personality was focused mainly upon the "original"
interpretations, the nature of which might mechanisms, at the expense of the non-
get us involved in a discussion of the intri- original, less original, or definitely cultural.
cate problem of the role of innate and ac- Questionswere asked and answeredconcern-
quired factors in our reaction to other ing such basic phenomena as laughing, cry-
people. ing, expressing anger, etc., which are all
Recall that the subject of this study is the close to "original nature." The problem of
dynamics of social perception, that is, the the complicated system of expressive and
analysis of those mechanisms which shape impressivesigns and symbols in human rela-
and misshape the image of personality in tions under differingcultural conditions was
everyday life relations. Thus, in this study left to be definednot by theorists of "expres-
we are not interested in the problems of sion" but by social psychologists, anthro-
genetics as such. Admittedly, we intend to pologists, and certain semanticists.
avoid as far as possible the controversialis- Yet, obviously, those "rather original"
sue as to whether our reactions to certain expressive and impressive phenomena con-
impressive characteristics, and the under- stitute only a part, and even a ratherlimited
standing (or misunderstanding) of their part, of the mechanisms operating within
meaning, are innate or acquired (in terms of social perceptionand controllingvery funda-
a disposition).Yet there remaincertainques- mental aspects of human relations. Symbol-
tions which we cannot altogether avoid but isms which are related to cultural patterns
must discuss. and social systems play in human relationsa
Whatever the developmental explana- role which is often much more important

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MODES OF PERSONALITY INTERPRETATIONS 2I

than the role of the symbolisms which are 3. Individual vs. collectiveinterpretations.
most closely related to "original nature." -As "individual" we shall designate those
We have only to reflecton the following con- mechanisms which operate on the basis of
trasting examples of communicationto real- certain specific dispositions, attitudes, and
ize the truth of this evaluation. Imagine first experiencesof the given individual. For in-
the type and limitations of interaction which stance, an individual, in consequenceof spe-
can and do go on between a mother and her cific experienceshe has met with in his life,
small baby. Smiles, bodily movements, tone has developeda suspicious turn of mind. He
of voice, variations in the cry of the baby, observes,interprets,and misinterpretsother
etc., are the only symbols possible. And how people in the light of his suspicious expecta-
often do we hear her say, "Oh, if he could tions, thus demonstratingan interpretative
only tell me what he wants!" Contrast with mechanismwhich is individual in character.
this the breadth and depth of intercom- Aspects of the image of A, as constituted in
munication which goes on between two the mind of such a person, and correlatedto
sophisticated adults employing all the direct the specific individual mechanisms operat-
symbols of language plus all such indirect ing within the social perception of that per-
techniques as innuendoes, provisos, silence, son, do "exist" and are valid, obviously,
irony, etc. only for him and do not "exist" and are not
That this is a sociopsychologicalstudy is valid for others, whose social perceptions
evident in two respects. First, because it function differently. The image of A in the
deals with personality problems in the light mind of C, D, or E has different character-
of interhuman relations, that is, with per- istics.
sonality as a sociopsychological phenome- We are remindedhere of the observations
non. Second, our study is sociopsychological of a particularresearchworkersupervisinga
also because we are mainly, even though not study of opinions of youth. He noted con-
exclusively, interestedin those aspects of the sistent differencesin the general tone of an-
image of the other man, in those mechan- swers recorded by two of his interviewers
isms of social perception, which predomi- working in the same territory. After a care-
nantly are socially and/or culturally deter- ful check he was able to establish the fact
mined. The emphasis of our study will be- that the characteristicpessimism of the one
come even more clear after the analysis of and the optimism of the other were resulting
the differenttypes of misinterpretationshas in consistently different interpretations of
been presented in the next chapter. answers-a clear example of the individual
We are weLlaware that our distinction interpretative mechanismsat work.
between the natural and cultural elements From those individual mechanisms we
in the various interpretations and misinter- have to distinguishother mechanismswhich
pretations of personality lacks precision and are collective in nature, and which, there-
is unsatisfactory in some respects. Further fore, operate in the social perception of all
clarification will be offered later. Still, we individuals who are members of a certain
believe that our distinction even as it stands social or culturalgroup. Those aspects of the
now is basically valid and helpful in desig- image of A which are the reflection of the
nating what is most important in this con- operationof these collective mechanismsnot
text." only exist and are valid for B but are equally
so for C, D, and E. They are, therefore,as it
I Unfortunately, there is a great deal of confusion
in most discussions concerning the role of "natural"
and "cultural" factors in human relations, a confu- ral," or that it is "only artificial," or that it can be
sion which very frequently has an ideological back- easily changed, or that it ought to be changed, or
ground. We wish, therefore, to make clear that, in that what is "natural" is good and what is "cultural"
stating that something is "cultural," we by no is bad, or that biological facts are the "reality" and
means imply that it is not "as real" as what is "natu- cultural facts only a social "superstructure."

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
22 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
were, "objective." Objective, to be sure, with little or no regardfor his actual qualifi-
only in the sense that they do possess a col- cations for the role.
lectively accepted validity. Examples are Here we are dealing, obviously, with a pe-
easily seen if one examines the traditional culiar illusion of social perception which, in
patterns of expectations concerningthe roles its psychological structure,reveals a strange
of men and women in our society. Men are similarity with the much better-knownopti-
supposedto be dominant, masterful,head of cal illusions. Both the illusions of social per-
the house, the breadwinner,etc. Women are ception and the optical illusions are char-
seen as more emotional, more talkative, acterized by a specific kind of tenacity. The
more intuitive, etc. The personality of any collectively valid prestige of a person, in-
particularman or woman is perceivedin and herent in its image, persists in spite of our
through these collectively accepted beliefs, critical knowledge, by which it is refuted. It
usually in high disregardas to whether the persists in the same way as does the illusion
particularman and woman actually has any of the stick which continues to look broken
or all of the expected characteristics. when put in water, in spite of our knowledge
From this discussion it follows that our that it is not broken.
image of the other man contains impressive We shall return to this strange and per-
characteristicswhich belong to the two cate- plexing state of affairs in this study again
gories: on the one hand, characteristics and again. Its full implications will become
which are individually valid and, on the more and more evident as we proceed with
other hand, those which are collectively our analysis. We shall come to understand
valid. The collectively valid and accepted that fundamentally human relations are
image of personality is a part of the social based on social perception which is ines-
reality we are confronted with, and which capably split within itself. And that, there-
we are, somehow, bound to accept as "ob- fore, we are bound to live in a social world
jective" (a fact which was considered as which is basically split into "reality" and
being of basic importance by Durkheim and "something else."
his school). 4. Interpretations"in principle"vs. inter-
The existence of these two categories of pretations"in fact."-About any state of af-
characteristicsin the makeup of the image fairs we may have either a view "in prin-
of personality explains a very perplexing ciple" or a view "in fact." In making this
type of social experiencewhich, without this distinction, we are facing another pair of
distinction, appears incomprehensible. All modes of personality interpretations. This
social phenomenawhich possess the peculiar distinction refers both to "views" and to
index of collective validity impress us as "interpretations."
reality and continue to do so even if our The views, or interpretations, "in prin-
critical knowledge tells us they are not real. ciple" are those we hold, or perform, about
This is a fact that can neither be ignorednor social facts and issues in a generalized,so to
denied. A good example is seen in the im- speak, "philosophical"way, that is, as long
pressive values of the collectively founded as we are not faced by any necessity for doing
and accepted prestige of a famous person. It something about those facts and issues in a
persists almost unimpaired even if on the responsible way. Our views and our inter-
level of our individualand critical experience pretations "in principle"are like a game the
we find out and become fully aware that the results of which do not carry any serious im-
implied qualities are imaginary. Something plications for ourselves. They reveal only
is presented symbolically which simply is how we think we would act, or how we think
not there. Related to this is the well-known we ought to act, when confrontedby certain
"halo effect" of prestige. An example comes situations or issues, but they do not reveal
easily to mind: the famous and popular gen- how we would really act.
eral proclaimedas candidatefor President- Our views and interpretations "in fact,"

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MODES OF PERSONALITY INTERPRETATIONS 23

on the other hand, are those which actually tions "in fact." It would be equally mistaken
determine our actions and reactions when to assume that our views and interpretations
confronted by certain situations and issues. "in fact" are simply applications, or implica-
An example will best illustrate the mean- tions, of what we think "in principle." We
ing of the distinction. An individual sin- have rather to recognizethat both modes in
cerely asserts that he does not understand question are controlled by differentpsycho-
how an intelligent man can take such things logical laws and that each has its own valid-
as titles, or similar social distinctions, seri- ity in its own psychological area, independ-
ously. At the same time he takes very seri- ently of the other.
ously being praised by a particular person We need also to be careful not to confuse
who enjoys prestige because of some title or the distinction discussed here with the dis-
some other distinction, even though this per- tinction between attitudes and motives, on
son obviously does not know anything about the one hand, and overt behavior, on the
what he is praising.And, still, this individual other; or, again, between convictions as to
who behaves as according to his own prin- how we ought to behave, on the one hand,
ciples no intelligent person can behave con- and our actual behavior, on the other. Our
siders himself to be a very intelligent man. present distinction does not refer to contra-
Now, it would be very poor psychology to dictions between certain inner factors (mo-
resolve the contradictionbetween these two tives) and certain overt forms of behavior
modes of views and interpretations,both re- but to contradictionswhich obtain, or might
ferringto the same state of affairs,by saying obtain, within the area of inner factors. The
that the views "in principle" of our man are following applicationsof this distinction will
artificial and false and that only his views serve further to clarify the meaning.
"in fact" are genuine and true. This may be Since what we call "ideologies" are sys-
so but need not be. Such an explanation of tematized assumptions, interpretations,and
the striking contradiction would obviously views accepted in a given group, we are jus-
oversimplify, or even distort, the nature of tified in saying that most people have two
the dilemma. As a matter of fact, both kinds of ideologies:ideologies "in principle"
views, or interpretations, can be equally and ideologies "in fact." This is a highly im-
genuine and sincere, each in its own domain. portant distinction which, unfortunately, is
This does not mean, of course, that the in- widely ignored, especially in the social psy-
terpretations "in principle"might not func- chology of collective behavior. Thus social
tion at times as rationalization, in which scientists, particularly those who are influ-
case they are really spurious. But it is not enced by the Marxian psychology, often are
always this way. not fully aware that what they describeand
Most people do not know what views analyze is only the ideology "in principle"of
they hold "in fact," that is, what views the masses. Class consciousnesswas and is-
would determine their actions in a concrete two world wars have shown it beyond any
situation. If they reflect, or are asked to re- doubt-in many respects only an ideology
flect, about their views and interpretations, "inprinciple."Nationalism was and is in our
they grasp unwittingly and pay attention age the ideology "in fact." It is this nation-
only to what they find in the dimension of alistic ideology "in fact" which uses the
views and interpretations "in principle." ideology "in principle" (democracy, for in-
They remain largely unawarethat there are stance) only as a smoke screen to disguise
two levels, so to speak. the real motives and goals of collective
Between these two modes there obtains a actions.
very complicatedinterrelation.It would be a The difference between the interpreta-
great mistake to assume that the views and tions "in principle" and the interpretations
interpretations "in principle" are simply "in fact" becomes increasingly clear when
generalizationsof our views and interpreta- we considerproblems of nationalism from a

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 24 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
slightly differentpoint of view, namely, the these primary mechanisms, there are others
problem of ethnocentrism (what the author which operate indirectly in and through the
has elsewhere defined as "unconscious na- already existing or primary images. These
tionalism"). It is one thing to know "in secondary mechanismshave the function of
principle" about ethnocentrism as a char- preventing us from perceiving the obvious
acteristic of collective attitudes, and it is fact that we are victims of certain illusions
quite another story to be specifically aware operating within our social perception. The
of our own ethnocentrismin its concretefea- result is further strengthening and preserv-
tures. Of ethnocentrism "in fact" we are ing of the false or distorted images we may
much too often unaware. A good case in have acquired. We shall enlarge upon these
point appears in the otherwise excellent ar- concepts of primary and secondaryinterpre-
ticle by Clyde Kluckhohn on the "Concept tations in another context in the following
of Culture."2 After having analyzed "in chapter. Hence mere identification of them
principle" in the most penetrating way the is presented here.
hidden presuppositions and distorted per-
spectives which members of one cultural We have provided ourselves in this chap-
group have with reference to members of ter with conceptual tools which, we hope,
another cultural group, Kluckhohn still ar- will help us to carry out the analysis of the
rives "in fact" at the conclusion that some- main types of personalitymisinterpretations
thing is basically wrong with the culture of in a clear and understandableway. Let us
the enemies. always keep in mind that this is not a study
It is important to note that the collective in social perception but in false social per-
forms of our own bias reveal themselves ception. Consequently, we are selecting al-
most definitely in the concrete examples we ways those factors and aspects of social per-
choose to prove our point. Thus, membersof ception which distort our images of other
two anatagonistic national groups may people. This explains why the whole area of
easily agree with each other "in principle" understandingother people remains here in
about the dangers of nationalism. However, the background-not understanding but
as a rule, each will exemplify these dangers misunderstandingis our point of attention.
by calling attention to the facts which show The material of this chapter offers a par-
the nationalism of the other, for, of their tial answer to the question which perhaps
own, both are unaware "in fact."3 the readeris already asking. Ourbasic thesis
5. Primary vs. secondaryinterpretations. assumes not only the existence of misinter-
Primary mechanismsare those that directly pretations functioning within our social per-
shape and misshape our perceptions, obser- ception but also their tendency to persist in
vations, and judgments about other people. spite of experienceswhich apparently ought
They lead to primary interpretations and to disprove and refute them. Our assump-
misinterpretationsand thus to primary im- tion being correct, the question we have in
ages of the persons observed. In addition to mind here is: How can these misinterpreta-
tions, these irrational mechanisms, remain
2In TheScienceof Man in the WorldCrisis,ed.
Ralph Linton (New York: Columbia University
effective in spite of such contradicting ex-
Press, I945), pp. 78-I06. periences?
3 What Myrdal calls the "American Creed" is, in
We have already touched upon this ques-
our opinion, only the American creed "in principle," tion, clearly of basic significance to our
not the American creed "in fact." Myrdal, therefore, whole study, and shall have occasion to re-
does not clarify but rather confuses the real issue. turn to it. Here, however, the following
For the basic split, and thus the basic dilemma, is comments seem in order.
not between the "creed" and the "practices." The
real split lies within the creed (Gunnar Myrdal, An First of all, let us keep well in mind the
A merican Dilemma [2 vols.; New York: Harper & "obvious" fact that our conceptions about
Bros., I944]). social reality are determinedby two sets of

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MODES OF PERSONALITY INTERPRETATIONS 25

factors: on the one hand, by the individual does not have any illusions as to the ration-
experienceswe have in the courseof our lives ality of men, it is not surprisingthat false
(which experiences,by the way, are actually images can and do tenaciously persist in
not so individual as they might appear); spite of a wealth of contradicting experi-
and, on the other hand, by ideas which we ences by which those images "ought" to be
simply take over from other people in imi- disproved. Not only is it not surprising;one
tating them or learningfrom them. In prag- ought even to expect it to be the case.
matic terms of survival values, it is in many We compared on one of the preceding
situations more imperative for an individual pages the illusions of social perceptionswith
to have, or at least to pretend to have, ideas optical illusions. We might use now another
which coincide with false but collectively ac- simile and compare the collective misinter-
cepted ideas of his group than to hold ideas pretations of personality operating within a
which, even though objectively true, are not social group, or within a culture, in their
accepted, or are even rejected, by his group. psychological structure with paranoias, or,
It is, therefore,by no means surprisingthat more cautiously, with paranoid conditions.
false images of personalities may persist in Here, as there, we have to deal with certain
spite of contradicting experiencesas long as unshakable, fairly well systematized false
they do coincide with the operation of col- conceptions, which are "impermeableto ex-
lective mechanismsof interpretingpeople in perience."The only differencebetween them
a given group. is that in the field of sociopsychologicalillu-
Second, not only our ideas and concep- sions and misinterpretationswe have to deal
tions but even our perceptions and experi- not with an individual but with a collective
ences are influencedby culturalpatterns and paranoia (paranoid condition). The practi-
social frames of reference. We perceive, we cal consequences of this difference are, of
"experience,"often only those facts, or only course, enormous,for, whereasa person who
those aspects of social reality, which fit into is possessedby an individualparanoiais con-
the schemeof our socially and culturallypre- sidered insane, the person who shares a col-
formedand prepareddispositions of perceiv- lective paranoia is considered to be normal
ing (or not-perceiving),, of having (or not within his group. It is the man rather who
having) certain experiences. What lies out- does not share the collective paranoia of his
side or beyond this preformedand prepared group, or of his culture, or of his epoch who
scheme often does not penetrate the field of is in danger of being considered, or even of
our potential experiences. How this "im- really becoming, insane.4
permeabilityto experience,"to use a term of
4 An excellent discussion of this problem is found
Levy-Briihl, operates within the social per-
in Robert E. L. Faris and H. Warren Dunham, Men-
ception will be shown in detail in the next tal Disorders in Urban Areas (Chicago: University of
chapter. Suffice it to say again that, in the Chicago Press, I939), esp. chap. x, "Mind and
light of a realistic social psychology which Society."

This content downloaded from 144.122.201.150 on Sat, 26 Dec 2015 20:17:15 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND TYPOLOGY OF PERSONALITY
MISINTERPRETATIONS
EVERYTHING we have said so far has site fallacy of talking about fairly general
been, in a way, preliminaryin nature. characteristics and types of behavior as if
Our first step consisted in definingour prob- they were peculiar to a certain social group,
lem by clarifying the basic ambiguity of culture, or historical period.r
"expressive" factors in interhuman rela- In trying to avoid both fallacies in this
tions. After having completed this task in study, we wish to make it clear that our
the first chapter by introducing the distinc- analysis refers primarily to the misinterpre-
tion between expressionand impression, we tations of personality as observed in our cut-
made explicit in the second chapter the ture, our society, our age. Some of the mis-
sociopsychological structure of our percep- interpretations,even though in all probabil-
tual world, a structure which forms the ity not completely specific to our culture,
framework and background of all inter- society, or epoch, do appear in them in an
human relations. Finally, in the third chap- aggravated form. This would apply, for in-
ter, we described and analyzed the basic stance, to the tendency to evaluate people
modes of interpretationsand misinterpreta- accordingto success and failure. Other mis-
tions of personality. interpretations are, in all probability, really
Now, having completed this preliminary specific, or near-specific,to our culture. Still
work, we are able to attack our main prob- others are not specific but fairly universal,
lem: the types and the dynamics of per- since they are rooted in certain basic condi-
sonality misinterpretationsas they operate tions of all human relations. Whenever ad-
in human relations. visable, we shall identify to which of these
In defining the subject matter of this groups the different types of personality
study as misinterpretationsof personality in misinterpretations belong as we discuss
everyday life, we seem silently to imply that them on the following pages.
we are studying these misinterpretationsin The various types of misinterpretations
our culture, in our society, in our epoch. being discussed are in many respects inter-
This silent assumption requires explicit dependent and in some respects even over-
clarification. lapping in character. Some of them are so
In analyzing and discussing certain "ob- closely related to each other that perhaps
vious" sociopsychologicalfacts by which we they would be as well consideredonly as dif-
are confronted in everyday life, we have to ferent manifestations of the same basic
be very carefulto avoid two opposite errors. mechanism. Whether this interdependence
On the one hand, there is always some dan-
ger that in describingthe social psychology I It seems to us that, e.g., Margaret Mead suc-
cumbs to this second fallacy in her book And Keep
of the everyday life we may easily forget Your Powder Dry when she discusses certain psycho-
that what we describeis not social psychol- logical characteristics of Americans as if they were
ogy of everyday life in general. It is rather specifically American while they are by no means
social psychology of human relations in our nationally specific. On the other hand, she ignores
culture, in our society, in our epoch. Psy- certain really specific American national characteris-
tics, especially those related to the radically prag-
chology to date has heavily sinned in this matic philosophy of life (Margaret Mead, And Keep
respect. On the other hand, however, there Your Powder Dry: An AnthropologistLooks at Ameri-
is also danger of succumbing to the oppo- ca [New York: W. Morrow & Co., I942]).
26

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 27

is so close that all misinterpretations we attempted questions on the part of his men,
shall discuss should be consideredas parts of listens to no excuses or explanations, and is
a more or less coherent system, or whether downright rude. Now, confronted by this
they might be reduced to some few more type of behavior, we are not, as a rule, in-
fundamental, underlying mechanisms, are clined to say to ourselvesor to others, "This
questions we wish to leave open. However, man is performing certain social functions
we do wish to mention that the various mis- defined by the context of military regula-
interpretationsare not of equal importance. tions and standards.He is behaving in a way
Some of them are more central, some more which correspondsto expected and stereo-
peripheral, in their significance. Although typed norms of behavior in this type of so-
not too certain and decidedin the choice, we cial role." Rather, we tend to react in a way
are inclined to consider two of the mecha- which, on the verbal level, would sound
nisms as the most fundamental:the mecha- something like this: "The man is rude," or
nism whichshall be discussedunderthe name "The man has such-and-such personality
"limits of insight" and "the tendency to characteristics which make him behave in
overestimate the personal and to underesti- this way."
mate the situational factors" in the dynam- A second example: A teacher complains
ics of personality misinterpretations. Thus to a mother that her boy behaves in an in-
we are saying that we in the main misinter- tolerable way and continually disturbs the
pret and misunderstand each other in two class. The mother retorts angrily that this
ways. First, we are different and are not cannot be, for of her several children this
aware in what respect, to what degree, and particularboy is the nicest child one can im-
why we are different.Second, we are all of us agine. The teacher thinks, "Something is
acting and reacting in a framework of dif- wrong with this mother; she is either blind
ferent situations, and we fail to realize or are or she feels that she has to defend her child
even blinded to the full implications of this even though she knows that what she says is
part of the nature of human relations. It is, not true." The mother thinks, "Something
incidentally, this tendency to underestimate is wrong with the teacher; he is obviously
the role of situational factors in which the prejudiced, and this bias distorts his judg-
ideological background and social function ment." As a matter of fact, both the teacher
of personality misinterpretations become and the mother are victims of an uncon-
most strikingly apparent.2 scious misinterpretative assumption which
prevents for each of them a correct under-
I. THE TENDENCY TO OVERESTIMATE standing of the situation. Their false as-
THE UNITY OF PERSONALITY sumption is related to the tendency to over-
The following three examples will serve estimate the unity of personality. This tend-
as illustrationsof the mechanismswhich fall ency blinds mother and teacher to the "ob-
under this category: vious" fact that the boy has, as do many
We are passing by the army barracksand other people, two or more "characters,"
see how a sergeant is handling his subordi- each coming to the surface, depending on
nates. He barkshis commands,snaps at any the situation in which he finds himself, and
also that there might exist a very compli-
2 As far as dynamics of personality are concerned,
cated under-the-surfaceconnection between
we are more in agreement with, let us say, Kurt
Lewin's field-theoretical approach than with the the- these "characters"which cannot be defined
ories of orthodox psychoanalysis. However, we wish in a too simple manner.
to emphasize as strongly as possible that what we are A third example: A man is under sus-
interested in in this study is not the dynamics of picion of murder. During the investigation
motivations per se but rather the discrepancy be-
tween personality motivations, on the one hand, and
certain definite abnormalities of his sexual
personality interpretations as operating in interhu- behavior come to light, even though there is
man relations, on the other. no evidence that they are related in any way

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
28 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
to the committed murder. Again, the fre- how we can remain so unaware of them. It
quent reactionin many people, if verbalized, is as if we were not awareof what we ought to
would read something like this: "This man be aware. To explain this seeming paradox,
whose sexual life deviates so strangely from we must return to the concept of "second-
the norm can also be expected to deviate ary mechanisms" introduced in chapter iii.
from other social norms in any other re- These mechanismsveil and prevent us from
spect." However, here again the overestima- seeing our "obvious" misconceptions as, for
tion of personality unity has probably mis- example, the overestimating of the unity of
led their interpretative reaction. The sexual personality. The followihg discussion dem-
behavior might function in an individual ac- onstratesthe chief ways in which the second-
cording to a very specific sexual dynamics, ary mechanisms operate in thus preventing
either not affecting other areas of behavior the recognition and correction of our mis-
or aiffectingthem, but in a much more com- conceptions.
plicated way than simply in terms of an as- a) Once the image of another person,
sumed interdependencebetween sex devia- shaped by primary mechanisms of one kind
tions and propensity toward criminal be- or another, is fixed in our minds, we tend
havior. Thus, again, the tendency to over- either to overlook all factors in the other
estimate the unity of personality might op- person which do not fit into our precon-
erate as a source of misinterpretations and ceived scheme; or, else, we misinterpret all
misevaluations. unexpectedly emerging factors in order
If the mechanismswhich control our per- to preserve our preformed misconceptions.
ception of other people would function In the teacher-mother example presented
simply in terms of registering only certain above, the expectations and interpretations
ways of behavior, then, in the case of the both of the mother and of the teacher were
sergeant mentioned in our first example, we dominated by the misconception that the
would say only that he behaved in a certain aspect of personality of the boy which they
situation, at a certain time, in a certain way. had the opportunity to observe is identical
This, however, is not the way in which our with his total personality or, at least, that
social perception and its mechanisms ac- this aspect representshis "real"personality
tually do operate. Rather, they function so as comparedwith which all other aspects are
as to transcend in many ways and many di- either superficial, or insignificant, or arti-
rections the pure raw material and to con- ficial, or have even the outright characterof
struct out of this material a more or less a simulation. Thus, in order to prevent the
well-organizedand integrated image of the disintegration of our preconceived image
given personality. This image construction under the impact of contradicting experi-
is usually endowed in our minds with only ences, we ascribe to one aspect of personal-
those alleged characteristics which promise ity the character of "reality," to other as-
to help us explain, as a manifestation of the pects the character of superficial, or arti-
underlying personality, the behavior with ficial, "roles."
which we are confronted.In other words, we b) As a rule, we meet and enter into per-
have the tendency to consider a partial sonal relations with other people in certain
structureof personalitywhich happens to be more or less definite situations, playing cer-
visible to us as if this partial structure were tain more or less definite roles. Even though
the total personality "itself." we often are not aware of it, we ourselvesare
Here we are faced with an obvious distor- a very important factor in the total situa-
tion in our social perception. Additional tion which determines and evokes the type
ones will be pointed out as we proceed in the of behavior the other person is expected to
consideration of other types of personality play in the given relation. The father, as a
misinterpretations. Many of these distor- rule, sees his son in this latter's role as a
tions appear so obvious that one must ask "son," for his (the father's) mere presence

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 29

usually is bound to evoke this aspect of his your entering it always through the same
son's personality and to eliminate, or to sup- door. You would probablybe extremelyper-
press, any other aspect. The employer sees, plexed as to how it is possible for other
as a rule, his employee in -the role of an people who enter the room by other doors to
"employee," that is, behaving as one is ex- be so thoroughly foolish, or ignorant, or dis-
pected to behave toward the boss. The honest, as to declare that the room is not
teacher sees his pupils in the role of "pu- green but red or blue. Endless arguments
pils"; and similar examples. It is our own might ensue as to who is right. Is the room
presence which either evokes or suppresses "really" red, or "really" blue, or "really"
the manifestations of certain personality as- green? Only someone who knows the secret
pects of other people. Quite frequently we of the various doors would be able to under-
remain completely ignorant as to how they stand and to explain why different people
behave, or how they would behave, without are seeing the same room "in a different
our being present. To gauge correctly what light."
in the observedbehavior of other people has It is a similar story with the different as-
to be interpreted as reaction to ourselves pects of personality of other people, each of
and to our own characteristicsis one of the which is, unwittingly, evoked as reaction to
most essential conditions of having psycho- our and other's behavior.3 Many disagree-
logical insight. ments about interpreting and evaluating
Now, if we happen to see a person whom other people could be resolved easily if we
we believe we know very well acting in a would realize that those disagreements are
mannerwhich is at variance with our expec- simply the result of our not being awarethat
tations, either we are quite shocked and con- we ourselves are "switching on" different
fused or we try to save our own false concep- aspects of other people's personalitiesby the
tion by declaring,"Somethingis wrong with mere fact of our presence.
the person." It does not frequently occur to c) There is still a third factor which, act-
us that something might be wrong with our ing as a secondarymechanism,helps to per-
own assumptions and interpretations. petuate our distorted images about other
We can well illustrate the peculiar situa- people, in spite of the illusory character of
tion we confront here by using a metaphor. those images. It is the tendency of other
Let us imagine a room with several doors for people, whether consciously or unconscious-
entrance. When closed, the room is dark. ly, to anticipate and to adjust their behavior
Each door, when opened, automatically in some degree to the expectations and im-
switches on a different kind of light. De- ages we hold in our minds about their per-
pending on whether you enter the room sonalities. Consequently,the images we hold
through the first, the second, or the third of other people are not only mirrors which
door, you will find yourself placed in a reflect, whether correctly or not, their per-
"red,"or "blue," or "green"room. Now, let sonalities, but they are also dynamic factors
us assume that you would enter, or would which control the behavior of those people.
even be expected to enter, the room always As a matter of fact, the images turn out of-
through the same, let us say, through the ten to be stronger than the realities which
third door. What would be the consequence they represent.In case of a discrepancybe-
of this kind of procedurefor your conception tween the socially accepted image of per-
about the room? You would, obviously, 3 This metaphor was used by the author in his
come to believe that the room is always il- article, "Die Uberschaitzung der Einheit der Per-
lumined by a green light, and you might sonlichkeit als Taiuschungsquelle," Zeitschrift fur
even be inclined to call the room "the green angewandtePsychologie, XXXIII (I929), 273-87. In
discussing a similar type of problem, Gerard L.
room." The fact would remain concealed DeGre in his monograph Ideology and Society (New
from you that the room is not always green York: Columbia University Press, I943) is using a
and that its green illumination is caused by graphic presentation which follows a similar pattern.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
30 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
sonality and the personality "itself," it is personality as a source of misinterpretations
often the personality itself which has to ad- and wish to mention here one characteristic
just to its distorted reflection in the "mir- "disunity" in the personality makeup of the
ror." Thus, in human relations the image modem man. We have in mind the disunity
often gets taken as the "real thing," and and tension between the private and the oc-
frequently the individuals concerned are cupational aspects of our personalities.As a
forced to play the roles assigned to them by result of several historical developments,
the perplexing reflections in the mirrors of particularly as a result of the specialization
social perception. and depersonalization of our occupational
The ex-convict is frequently one of these. activities, the tension and disunity between
Although he may return to his community these two aspects of our personalities have
with a new view of himself and a determina- dangerously increased. This state of affairs
tion to become a good citizen, the opinions is symbolized in spatial terms by living in
the people of the communityhold of him and one place and working in another. The split
ex-convicts in general often prevent his ac- is an important source of many conflictsand
complishing his good aims. Instead, in bit- dilemmas in our modern life. The more de-
terness and resentment, he often gives up personalizedour occupational activities are
the struggle and becomes what the commu- growing, the more urgently do we feel the
nity expected-a hardened criminal. Some- need to save the threateneddeepermeanings
times, too, the situation is reversed.The ex- and values of life by findinga home for them
convict comes back hardened, embittered, in the area of our private relations.
and with his worst characteristics empha- An important question relative to the fact
sized. Some one or several persons take an of disunity in a personality might be raised
interest in him, play up his better qualities, at this point. It is the question: Which of the
and through encouragementhe comes to be partial "sides," or "aspects," or "roles" of
what they see him as-a good citizen. In the disunited personality should be consid-
either case, although other factors are also ered as something like its "core"?Or, to put
involved, the ex-convict has found himself it another way, which characteristicsof an
impelled to live up to an image of himself individual constitute his "real" personality
held by others. as over against the "roles"he is only "play-
d) Finally, in closing this discussion of ing"? Does it or does it not make any sense
secondary mechanisms making possible the to ask this kind of question?
perpetuatingof our misconceptions,we note Our answer is that it does make sense to
that sometimes our experiences with other ask this question, provided we approachthe
people turn out to be so totally at variance problem from different angles. Thus, first,
with our preconceived images about their we might ask with which "aspects," or
personality, and consequently with our ex- "sides," or "parts"of his personality has the
pectations as to their behavior, that it is individual identified himself. If we ask this
utterly impossible to maintain our images first question, the answer has to be given in
which have been based on misinterpreta- terms of the conception of the individual
tions operatingwithin our social perception. about himself. Second, we might ask, in
Thus, eventually we might be compelled to terms of a sociopsychol\ogical approach,
give up our illusory construction.Even then which aspects or roles played by a given in-
the change will frequently be restricted to dividual are considered by other people as
our consciousinterpretations"in principle," representinghis "realself." Again, we might
leaving the more deep-seatedinterpretations ask, in terms of personality dynamics, in
"in fact" unaffectedby the occurringtrans- which parts or roles the greatest amount
formations. of the psychological energy of the given in-
We return now to further consideration dividual is involved.
of the tendency to overestimatethe unity of This means that the question as to which

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 3I

aspects, parts, or roles have to be considered doing so, we are not aware that our inter-
as the "core of personality" of an individual pretations and evaluations operate under
can be answered only in terms of one of the false assumptionas to the real conditions
these three or other significantperspectives. of social success.
It means also that it cannot be answered in In order to understand the problem this
any absolute terms. In other words, it does behavior presents, we have to consider the
not make any sense to ask questions about following facts. Success of an individual in
the "coreof personality," or about the "real the social space depends obviously partly on
self," without having in advance defined ex- his personal and partly on situational fac-
plicitly the point of view from which the tors or, more precisely, on the interaction
question is being asked. Otherwise, we are between these two sets of factors. We shall
not facing a meaningfulproblem but rather call the first set P-factors,the second S-fac-
a pseudo-problem which we cannot solve. tors. The P-factors, in turn, have to be sub-
divided into two groups: P' and P". The
II. SUCCESS AND FAILURE AS SOURCES P'-factors are those personal success-pro-
OF MISINTERPRETATIONS ducing factors which are not only actually
Factors associated with success and fail- success-producingbut also valuable accord-
ure constitute anothervery importantsource ing to our accepted social and moral stand-
of personality misinterpretations. They are ards. Examples would be, on the intellectual
probably more closely related to the pattern side, abilities, intelligence, and skills; and,
of our particular culture than the misinter- on the emotional side, helpfulness,kindness,
pretations discussed in the preceding sec- fair play, and the like. P"-factors, on the
tion, especially in the extreme form of the other hand, are also success-producing if
success mythology in modern society (in the shrewdly applied; but, if recognized for
Americansociety probably still more so than what they are, they are disapprovedor con-
in the European). Since the author of this demned in accordance with our social and
study dedicateda whole seriesof his publica- moral standards,at least in the dimensionof
tions to a systematic analysis of the role of our evaluation "in principle." To these P"-
success ideology in modern society, and factors belong such traits and ways of be-
since we shall examine certainaspects of this havior as craftiness, recklessness,ability to
problemin the last chapter,in the section on exploit weaknesses of other people, and a
"Ideology of Success and the Dilemma of whole host of more or less surreptitioustech-
Education," we shall limit ourselveshere to niques of manipulating other people. It is
the discussion of those facts which are di- clear that, whereasthe P'-factors operate in
rectly related to our main problem.4 a definitely overt way, P"-factors are effec-
We often deceive ourselves into believing tive only if, and in so far, as they are
that we interpret and evaluate other people properly disguised.
according to the merits of their personal In addition to P'- and P"-factors, success
characteristics. As a matter of fact, how- depends also on S-factors. These S-factors
ever, we interpret and evaluate other people include all objective conditions of success,
(and even ourselves),whether consciouslyor such as privileges, economic opportunities,
unconsciously, not according to their real favorable start, social connections, and the
characteristics but rather according to the like. The evaluative attitudes toward the
consequences of their actions. Largely this significanceof S-factors as conditions of suc-
means according to success and failure. In cess in our culture are somewhat ambiguous,
depending on different circumstances.
4 See especially my little monograph, Kritik des
Applying this conceptual framework to
Erfolges: Eine soziologische Untersuchung (Leipzig:
C. L. Hirschfeld, I930), and my article, "Einige
our problem, we can say that social success,
typische Deutungen der Erfolgstatsachen," Kolner that is, making money, advancing in one's
Vierteljahrsheftef4r Soziologie, X (I93 I), 5 I-66. career, getting a job which has a higher

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
32 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
status, becoming famous, etc., depends on preciated not simply because he is successful
three groups of factors: the S-factors, which but rather because his success is coUectively
have nothing whatsoever to do with any interpretedas a sign and result of those per-
personality characteristics; the P'-factors, sonality characteristicswhich are valued in
which are valuable accordingto our own ac- our culture. As happens so frequently in hu-
cepted standards;and the P"-factors, which, man relations, here, too, moral misevalua-
in spite of being condemned "in principle," tions are based on factual misinterpreta-
prove very frequently, if shrewdlydisguised, tions.
to possess a positive efficacyas far as success Summing up, we may say that the at-
is concerned. tributing of "merit" and "fault," of ap-
This is, in general outlines, the actual proval and rejection, in our society on the
state of affairs concerning the real condi- basis of success and failure is largely irra-
tions of success. If, therefore, we were to tional in character. It operates under the
base our evaluation of individuals on objec- assumption of an interdependencebetween
tive and factual criteria, it would be neces- certain specific personality characteristics
sary, first of all, to ascertain to what extent and chances of success, which assumption
success and failure in a given case depended does not have a valid foundation in facts.
upon the operationof the factors P', P", and This misinterpretationis a source of one of
S, respectively. Yet, obviously, we are fol- the basic social illusions and has a tremen-
lowing in everyday life a very differentpro- dous importance for the whole fabric of our
cedure in interpretingand evaluating other society.
people. Since we do not have either time, or A characteristic, but by no means most
opportunity, or even inclination to pene- important, consequence of our tendency to
trate into the complexities of the conditions interpret and evaluate each other and our-
of success and the subtleties of success-pro- selves in terms of success and failure can be
ducing personality characteristics, we tend observed in people's habit of "keeping smil-
on the level of the all-important, uncon- ing" or of maintaining other pretenses of
scious interpretations "in fact" to ascribe "being fine." This habit, by the way, mani-
the "whole" success of an individual to his fests itself in a much more pronouncedman-
real or supposed P'-characteristics,in disre- ner in America than in Europe.
gard of the function of P"- and S-factors in If we would make explicit the silent inter-
determiningthe chancesof success.We react pretations which are implied in this type of
as if success depended exclusively on the happy, or rather happy-looking, behavior,
operation of P'-factors, and as if P"- and they would sound something like this: "If
S-factors simply did not exist. you are the right kind of fellow, you are, of
Thus, even though we often know "in course, successful; if you are successful, you
principle" the realistic conditions under are happy; and, if you are happy, it is only
which successis actually obtained, neverthe- natural that you smile. If, on the other
less "in fact" we continue to evaluate other hand, you do not smile, this, dear friend, is
people (and often even ourselves) on the a sign that you are not happy; and why, if I
basis of a factual misinterpretation;and our may ask you, are you not happy? We know
critical knowledge "in principle" remains -we know it very well. You are not happy
submergedand ineffective. Instead of realiz- because you are not successful. And why
ing that we tend to consider those who are (I hope you will not mind my indiscreet
successful as, allegedly, possessing certain inquiry), are you not successful? Come
valued characteristics, we reverse the real on, my friend, do not fool yourself. Face the
interdependenceand say that these valued facts as they are: Everybody knows very
characteristics are the all-important and well that you are not successful because
sufficientconditions of being successful. something is wrongwith you. Otherwiseyou
It is important,however, to be aware that would be smiling."
the successfulindividual in our society is ap- By this rather simple, effectively operat-

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 33
ing, compulsive sociopsychological mecha- with an opportunity for not facing realisti-
nism the collective illusion is being main- cally certain disturbing facts. Instead of
tained that everybody is happy and satisfied realizing that the so-called "prejudices"in
with the existing state of affairs. As is well a heterogeneoussociety are an inevitable re-
known, this mechanism in a most extreme sult of the existence of different subgroups
form operates with referenceto the Negroes, living among one another; instead of ad-
especially in the South: The Negroes are mitting that people are actually differentin
expected to look happy and cheerful; other- various respects and by various reasons and
wise they are in dangerof being suspected of that they are, therefore, bound to develop
being "subversive." different ideologies, different cultural pat-
Levy-Briihl reports, in one of his books terns, and different forms of Weltanschau-
dealing with the primitive mentality, that ung; instead of understanding that each
membersof a certain tribe in Central Africa group simply defendsits own beliefs in order
hold the belief that crocodiles devour only to maintain the integrity of its collective
those men who have committed some evil life, unrealistic social scientists are evading
act. Thus, whenever a member of this tribe the real issue by declaring that "people are
falls victim to a crocodile, not one but two prejudiced." This is as revealing as to say
unpleasant things happen to him simul- that people could easily get along with one
taneously. First, he is eaten up; that is, he is another if they were not antagonistictoward
destroyedphysically; second,he is destroyed one another.
also morally, for the crocodilehas eaten him Be that as it may, we have at any rate to
"because" he did (or thought) some evil. recognize that stereotyped classifications of
Consequently, "It served him right," is the individuals are only one segment in the
reaction of his fellow-men. much more complicated, vast fabric of per-
It would be indeed a naivete not to recog- sonality misinterpretationsoperating in our
nize the similarity between this primitive society. These misinterpretationshave to be
belief of the "savages" and the silent pre- analyzed and functionally understoodin the
suppositionsand interpretationsupon which frameworkof a comprehensivetheory of so-
our "civilized" ideology of success is based. cial perception. However, we shall not ex-
Essentially, they are alike. And both serve amine the problem of so-called "prejudices"
the same social function, namely, the func- as such here but in the next section, where
tion of concealingcertain disturbingrealities accordingto our point of view it more prop-
of life and maintaining the respectable ap- erly belongs.
pearance that the individual "gets what he By social, or rather sociopsychological,
deserves."Thus, the existing moral order of stereotyped classification, we mean in this
our life appears to be justified. context the tendency to perceive and to
evaluate other people not as individuals but
III. STEREOTYPEDCLASSIFICATIONSAS as specimens of a social type ("categoric
SOURCESOF MISINTERPRETATIONS contacts"). This mechanism, according to
It is this particulartype of misinterpreta- GeorgSimmel,is one of the absolutely essen-
tions which, underthe name of "prejudices" tial preconditionsof the existence of any so-
or "stereotypes," became one of the pre- ciety and is therefore in itself not related to
dilected objects of researchand discussion in any specific social system, although its con-
American social science, especially in social tent varies, of course, from society to so-
psychology. The author of this study is defi- ciety.
nitely convinced that the silent presupposi- We shall discuss with relation to this
tions on which the current theory of preju- mechanism three basic questions. First, in
dices is based are essentially incorrect. It is what does "classifying," as a sociopsycho-
even very probable that they function, un- logical mechanism, consist? Second, why,
consciously, as a kind of escape mecha- and in what way, do we select among many
nism whiclhprovides some social scientists possible classifications of an individual a

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
34 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
specific one, and apply it in a given situa- be applied in this particular case, we are
tion, when it is obvious that each individual mostly very perplexedand do not know how
can be classifiedin differentways, according to meet the situation. An author made re-
to different criteria?Third, in what respect cently the penetrating remark that one of
and to what degreedoes the sociopsychologi- the causes of the suspicionabout the Jews is
cal stereotyped classification imply mis- the fact that they cannot be classifiedalong
interpretationsand misevaluations? the customary lines of racial, ethnic, or cul-
In analyzing classification as a sociopsy- tural identification and that they are, in a
chological mechanism operating within the way, a "mystery" which cannot be solved.5
social perception, we have to distinguish Before turning to the analysis of the sec-
several steps, or phases, of the process tak- ond step in the process of classifyingpeople,
ing place. The first step consists in consider- we wish to mention that these preformed
ing a particularindividual not as an individ- stereotyped images about other people are
ual but as a representativeof a social group certainly among the most important factors
or as a bearerof a social position (function). in the system of "collective representations"
The second step, more or less implied in the necessary to guarantee a minimum of con-
first, consists in endowing the image of the sensus for a group. Thus they should not be
classified individual with the traits really or lightly dismissed as "prejudices."
allegedly characteristicof the respective so- Each individual is obviously a memberof
cial group or function. In this second step or several, often of many, groups and performs
phase is initiated, as a rule, the third step several, often many, social functions. How,
whiclh goes beyond the mere classification then, do we know how to classify individ-
and contains factors of evaluation. To be uals? How does it happen and how is it pos-
more specific,the first step consists in classi- sible that even though an individual we face
fying other people as, let us say, Frenchmen, might be at the same time an Englishman,a
employers,conservatives or radicals,men or Protestant, a physician, a conservative, and
women, and the like; the second step, in en- what not, by and large, we do not have to
dowing the image of those people with the reflect how, that is, according to which
assumed characteristicsof Frenchmen, em- among several group memberships, posi-
ployers, conservatives or radicals, etc.; the tions, or functions, we have to classify him?
third, in evaluating them according to the Rather, the choice is made in most cases
status values of those groupswhich they rep- without any specific reflection,automatical-
resent or functions which they perform.It is ly as it were,'andthe whole processoperates
of no importance whether we shall consider fairly smoothly in a definite direction. What
these three factors as three phases in the are the mechanisms which control the
process of social perception or as three ele- "switchboard" performing, consciously or
ments involved simultaneouslyin the act of unconsciously, these classifications?
social perception. The choice we make among differentpos-
The whole processof classifying could not sibilities in classifying an individual in one
function as it does if we did not have pre- particular way and not in another is moti-
pared in our minds a whole system of more vated by two factors: by the attitude of the
or less well-definedimages ("stereotypes") person performingthe classificatoryact and
which we apply in the particular cases as by the situation in which this act is being
they come along. What we are interested in performed.However, as a rule, the situation
here is not the origin of these stereotyped seems to be the dominant factor.
images but the way they function and the If Mr. Allen, being ill, calls at the officeof
consequencesthey have in human relations.
5 Carl Mayer, "Religious and Political Aspects of
If we meet someone whom we are unable Anti-Judaism," in Jews in a Gentile World, ed.
to classify becausewe do not find any stereo- Isacque Graeber and Steuart H. Britt (New York:
typed image ready in our mind which could Macmillan Co., I942), pp. 3II-28.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 35
the physician, Dr. Jones, then Mr. Allen's will always be inclined to characterizethose
and Dr. Jones's attitudes and mutual ex- types of behavior which are dominated not
pectations and roles are clearly defined by by "reason"but by passions (which he does
the situation in which they meet. The choice not like) as "pathological."The social scien-
of the classificatorytype to be applied in this tist, on the other hand, who is fully aware of
situation is performed promptly and with- fundamentalirrationalitiesin human behav-
out any possible hesitation: Allen is consid- ior, will be much more cautious in this re-
ered by Jones as a "patient," Jones by spect. It will not be out of place to insert a
Allen as a "doctor." If, on the other hand, few remarks here about this matter with
the same men happen to meet each other at referenceto our main problem of misunder-
a political rally, then Allen will probably standings in human relations.
classify Jones not as a "doctor"but as, let us In analyzing and discussing the different
say, a "radical,"and Jones will classify Al- types of misinterpretations (illusions) as
len not as one of his patients but as one of they operate in everyday life, we have to
his conservative opponents. If, however, the keep in mind that the issue of the ultimate
two, being, let us say, both Englishmen, meaning and function of those misinterpre-
were to come across each other traveling in tations (illusions) remains undecided. It
Italy, they might classify each other not as would be certainly a too hasty and too ex-
doctor, patient, radical, or conservative, but treme conclusionto declarethat all illusions
simply as "Englishmen"in contrast to those in human relations have to be considered
around them whom they would classify simply as a form of social and psychological
simply as Italians. pathology. The issue is mdLchmore compli-
Even though, as a rule, the situation cated than that, for it is highly probable
evokes automatically the appropriate atti- that certain illusionspossess a positive func-
tude and thus controlsthe selection of classi- tion and value. It remains a question
ficatory types applied in concretehuman re- whether all human relations would always
lations, sometimes it is the attitude which operate more smoothly or with greatersatis-
prevails over the situation. The classifica- faction if they were altogether freed from
tory process operates then, so to speak, out illusions. Perhapssome degreeof illusion is a
of tune with the situation. In politically ex- necessary as well as an inescapable element
cited periods, for instance, ideological atti- in the complexities of our life. People who
tudes might become so paramount that they wish to reformthe world by trying to eradi-
control the classificatory mechanisms in cate all irrationalities of life are perhaps
complete disregardof the situations in which nothing but faithful, even though somewhat
they function. A radical, then, might see in transformed,followers of Don Quixote. The
his doctor, even in a definite doctor-patient only reasonable thing we can do about the
situation, not the "doctor" but his "con- illusions and misinterpretations which are
servative enemy" and might finally go to deeply rooted in the nature of our human
another doctor. Such functioning of classifi- existence is to neutralizetheir too disturbing
catory acts out of tune with situations in effects by increasingawarenessof when and
which they take place and, under disregard how they are persistently operating within
of the roles by which they are defined,poses our social perception.
a question. Are we to considerthis as a kind We have so far discussed only certain
of.social disorganization?It is a question not ways in which classificatory mechanisms
easily answered objectively. Certainly the function psychologically,without examining
answer depends upon our definitionof social their possibly misinterpretative character.
disorganization. As an author rightly said, Let it be said, first of all, that current re-
"Social 'disorganization'is often the kind of searchand theory of "prejudices"sometimes
social organization which we do not like." takes for granted that stereotypes are al-
The rationalistically minded social scientist ways and in every respect entirely false.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
36 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
Th-is is indeed a very exaggerated concep- personality characteristics ("occupational
tion. A more detached and less-influenced- personality") underthe persistent impact of
by-missionary-zeal approach will proceed their occupational activities as well as their
under the assumption that classificatory occupational ideologies.
types contain both elements of truth and We recognize, of course, that by classi-
elements of falsehood. We shall examine fying people in terms of occupational dif-
now, using an example, the question as to ferentiation, we actually are able to grasp
whetherthere is a kind of sociopsychological one aspect of personality, often even an im-
probability that stereotyped classifications portant aspect of the given individual, and
include often certain elements of misinter- that thereforethe classificationhas a certain
pretations. We are, however, fully aware valid psychologicalfoundation. Yet, we still
that the following analysis could not be ap- have to insist that social perception which
plied, without some important qualifica- follows blindly the lines indicated by clas-
tions, to other types of stereotyped classifi- sificatory mechanisms is permeated by im-
cations such as cultural, ethnic, racial, etc. portant elements of misinterpretations.
We are selecting as an illustration a clas- In much the same way that we cannot
sification which is based on the occupational understand the nature of the complicated
role of the individual. The importance of relations between a husband and his wife
this classification reveals itself in the fact underthe simple assumptionthat, since they
that in asking the question, "Who is John are married and continue to be married to
Doe?" we often, though not always, expect each other, they are happy with each other,
as an answer the naming of his occupational we would also be unable to understandreal-
status. In doing so, we silently assume that, istically the involved psychologicalrelations
knowingthe occupationalstatus of Mr. Doe, between total personality and occupational
we learn something significantabout his per- personality without taking into account the
sonality structure. The question is: Is this widespread ambivalent attitudes of many
silent assumption correct?6 people toward their own occupations. Psy-
Let us first recognizethat the assumption chologically, "doctors" are not only "doc-
that, if we know the occupation of an indi- tors". but simultaneously often also "anti-
vidual, we know important aspects of his doctors"; "teachers" are not only "teach-
personality (and not only his social status) ers" but also "anti-teachers,"and the like.
is not entirely imaginarybecause occupation Thus, in being classified in terms of their
does actually shapepersonality to a substan- occupational personality, they will often
tial degree. Even if people are not choosing have the feeling of being misclassified and
their occupations according to any inner even misunderstood.By the way, this might
predispositionwhich points in the direction be one of the reasons why fathers often wish
of the particularoccupation, but are simply their sons to choose another occupationthan
pushed into it by sheer necessity, even then, their own. Here again, as elsewhere, the
eventually they will develop certain specific source of the misinterpretations is to be
found in the mistakenly oversimplified as-
6 The objection might be raised that the most im- sumption concerning the relation between
portant classifications are those which are so obvious the inner personality and the social role
that we do not have even to ask the question, "Who played by the individual.7
is John Doe?" for they revealthemselves,such as clas-
sifications concerning sex, age, and race, which we Even if the performed classification,in a
can read from the bodily appearance; or those clas- given case, would be appropriatein so far as
sifications which refer to the ethnic background, or it would help to graspand to define the occu-
cultural background of the individual, and which re- pational personality of an individual cor-
veal themselves through language or manners. This
objection would be valid. We have, therefore, to ad- 7 See my article, "On Some Psychological Con-
mit that our discussion on these pages has only a flicts in Occupational Life," OccupationalPsychology
limited validity. (London), XIV (I940), I07-II.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 37
rectly, it would still grasp and define only ject matter with which we are here con-
one aspect of his total personality. The total cerned. In other words, we shall examine
configurationwould still remain beyond the those peculiar misinterpretationsin human
range of social perception, and hence a kind relations which emerge and distort our so-
of misinterpretation often is taking place. cial perception, if and when we do not un-
Finally, we have to admit that occupa- derstand that we do not understand other
tional stereotypes and images are, to some people who, in one way or another, are dif-
degree, really either false or at least dis- ferent from ourselves. Our following discus-
torted conceptions. This is another, and sion of this most perplexingproblemwill ar-
some people would probably say the most rive at the very Socratic conclusion that, if
important, source of misinterpretationsand people who do not understandeach other at
misunderstandingsin this area of interhu- least understand that they do not under-
man relations. Perhaps the following joke is stand each other, then they understandeach
as good an illustration of the distorted con- other better than when, not understanding
ceptions inherent in our stereotypes of occu- each other, they do not even understand
pational personality as any we might offer: that they do not understandeach other.
Two friends were crossing the ocean on a The need, the desire, to "understand"
passengerliner. On a windy afternoon while other people has two roots. They are: our
on deck, they fell to discussing their fellow- pragmatic need to be able to anticipate and
passengers. One of the friends prided him- to control happenings which affect our own
self on being able to tell the occupation of welfare, that is, in this case the behavior of
persons just by looking at them. Noticing a other people; and our expressive desire to
particularlady standing over by the rail, he communicate with our fellow-men and to
offered to bet his friend ten dollars that she reach out for their sympathetic response.
was a schoolteacher.The friend asked what Not to understandis, then, a disturbingand
made him so sure. He replied, "Oh, I don't perplexing experience because it frustrates
know. She just looks like one." When the these two basic needs and desires of ours.
bets were placed, they decided to settle the In approaching the problem under im-
matter by asking the lady herself. They in- mediate attention, we have to take the fol-
troduced themselves, and the second friend lowing facts into consideration:First, people
said, "Pardon us, but will you settle a are differentboth as individuals and, collec-
friendly little wager for us? My friend here tively, as members of different groups. Sec-
has bet me ten do[larsthat you are a school- ond, our potentialities for understanding
teacher. Are you?" The lady smilingly re- people who are different from ourselves,
plied, "No, I am just seasick. That's why I whether more or less comprehensive, have
look this way!" Actually, of course, as the always certain inevitable limits and limita-
reader will be quick to recognize, the joke tions, which we are unabte to transcend.
has a dual thrust, but that distorted concep- And, third, as mentioned already above,
tions are involved will not be questioned. meeting and dealing with people whose per-
sonality structure and whose motives of be-
IV. LIMITS OF INSIGHT AS SOURCES havior are beyond the range of our compre-
OF MISINTERPRETATIONS
hension, and with whom therefore we are
The title of this section indicates less ade- unable to communicate adequately, is a
quately than is desirable the nature of its very perplexing and disturbing experience.
content. However, we were unable to find The last is especially true, if we have in
another one which would serve any better. common with them problems which require
Not the limits of insight themselves, as a some kind of co-operation,so that we cannot
source of misinterpretations,but rather the escape the emergingdilemma by the simple
psychological consequences of the lack of technique of avoiding them. A very typical,
awarenessof those limits constitute the sub- mostly unconscious,reactionto this disturb-

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
38 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
ing and perplexing experience consists in retreat who (like Mannheim himself and
trying to recover the threatened peace of also the author of this study) find the pres-
mind by performinga pseudo-understanding ent "civilization of busybodies" pretty un-
through misinterpretations and thus pre- bearable. To the activistic extrovert, on the
venting the achievement of a genuine under- other hand, the contemplative introvert of-
standing. ten looks like an irresponsibledreamerwho
To be more specific, we have to realize conceals from himself his inability for re-
that other personalities may lie beyond the sponsible action by indulging in an attitude
range of our insight either because they be- which "does not lead anywhere." The con-
long to another psychological type, or be- templative introvert wishes to understand
cause they belong to another cultural type, why people feel and think and behave as
or because they belong to another "situa- they do; the extroverted-activistic person
tional" type. Let us now examine these wishes "to do something about it."
three main obstacles to an understandingof Both the introvert and the extrovert tend
people who are substantially different from obviously to misunderstand each other be-
ourselves. cause the difference in the meaning of life
In discussingfirst the sourcesof misinter- and the related inner motivations of the op-
pretations which originate in the differences posite type are beyond the range of their re-
between psychologicaltypes, it is interesting spective psychological insight. Such insight
to note that we possess a much richerlitera- could be obtained only if, first of all, they
ture about the problem of differentpsycho- would start to understand that they do not
logical types as sach, and their various clas- understand each other. And this, in turn,
sifications, than about the problem of inter- would presuppose a full realization of the
personal relations between individuals who fact that people are differentand that conse-
belong to differenttypes. Why so important quently we are bound to misinterpret those
and fascinating a problem has been rela- who are basically differentin their personal-
tively so neglected is something of a mys- ity structureas being "wrong"in one way or
tery. another as long as we do not accept the fact
A good example of misunderstandings with its full implications that it is an in-
rooted in the differences of psychological evitable fate of men to see the world differ-
types is to be seen in the tendency of intro- ently and to develop differentmeanings and
verted (contemplative) and extroverted (ac- values of life.
tivistic) personalities to misinterpret and Another, equally illuminating, example
misevaluate each other, because they are can be taken from the field of political psy-
unable to understand that they are moti- chology. There can be little doubt that dif-
vated by different meanings of life. The in- ferences of personality type play an impor-
troverted-contemplative person, therefore, tant, even though certainly not an all-im-
will look frequently upon the extroverted- portant, role in motivating differencesof po-
activistic as upon a busybody who conceals litical attitudes and ideologies. The conser-
from himself his inner emptiness by releas- vative is not necessarily conservative only
ing his restlessness in various meaningless because he simply defends the status quo
pseudo-activities. This attitude of a con- from which he, or his group, derives some
templative-introverted personality finds a important benefits.It is just as possible that
very clearexpressionin a dictum by Anatole he is conservative because certain tradi-
France that Napoleon would not have tional values of life constitute for him the
wasted his time in conquering Europe if he deepest and most genuine meaning of life or
had been only half as intelligent as Spinoza. because he has come (like Edmund Burke,
Or, again, in a suggestion made recently by for instance) to the conviction that social
Karl Mannheim for the creation of a kind of life is essentially based on certain traditional
modern monastery to which people could mechanisms,which cannot be changed even

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 39
by the most radical revolutions. But to un- selves by declaring that those others, in
derstand this is beyond the limits of the consequence of some basic intellectual and
psychological comprehensionof the genuine moral defect, are unable to see the things
radical. To him the conservative is inevi- "as they really are" and to react to them "in
tably and always nothing but an evil "re- a normal way." We thus imply, of course,
actionary" who either fools himself by ra- that things are in fact as we see them and
tionalizing his motives or is fooling others by that our ways are the normal ways. Instead
disguisinghis real goals, aimed at oppression of understanding that something is wrong
and exploitation, by pretending that he de- with his own insight, our "normal man"
fends certain alleged values of life. Admit- declares that something is wrong with the
tedly, the radical's judgment is often right. others.
However, it is by no means always so. The Here perhaps more than at any other
radical and, of course, also his conservative place the Socraticwisdomholds true accord-
counterpart are unable to understand that ing to which a man who does understandat
possibly they do not understandthe motives least that he does not understand is much
of each other. And they seek to restore their closer to the truth than one who, deceiving
peace of mind in facing political disawgree- himsetf by pseudo-understanding,does not
ments by achieving a pseudo-understanding even understand that he does not under-
through misunderstandingof the real moti- stand. Declaring,for instance, that it is "one
vations of the opponent. We are saying that world" in which we live does not solve but
they restorein this way their peace of mind, rather conceals the real problem. Our dif-
for now they can feel that they themselves ficulties in interculturaland thus also in in-
are "right" and that "something is wrong ternational relations are the consequenceof
with the other,"-to believe which is one of the fact that the "one world," which be-
the most essential conditions of happiness in came "one" through the revolution of com-
life. The more limited the range of our in- munications and transportations,is seen en-
sight, the stronger the tendency to moralize tirely differently by different people. Each
and to denounce those with whom we dis- of them is equally convinced of seeing the
agree but whom we are unable or unwilling one world "as it really is" and of being faced
to understand.The broaderthe range of our by other people who, having a "confused
insight, the strongerthe tendency to replace mind" or being misled by "bad men" and
moralizing by understanding, politics by "wrong ideas," are unable to see the things
psychology and sociology.8 "as they really are."9
Limits of insight with reference to cul- Finally, other people's attitudes, motiva-
tural differencescreate another type of psy- 9 See the essay, "The Jews and Antisemitism," in
chological perplexity and evoke, as one of my Diagnosis of Antisemitism ("Sociometry Mono-
the typical responses,another form of smug graph," No. 8 [Beacon, N.Y.: Beacon Press,
pseudo-understandingby actual misunder- I9461). It might be, incidentally, of interest to
standing. Again, we fail to understandthat note that (native) Americans, even if they are
otherwise sophisticated, in observing the admit-
people whose personalities are shaped by tedly frequent personality distortions and derange-
another culture are psychologically differ- ments among the recent European immigrants, es-
ent-that they see the (social) worldin a dif- pecially the intellectuals, tend often to misinterpret
ferent way and react to it as they see it. In- these difficulties as having their origin in the past
European traumatic experiences, whereas in fact
stead we tend to resolve our perplexity aris- they have their origin rather in the psychological and
ing out of the experience that other people moral dilemmas of adjustment to a new culture.
see the world differently than we see it our- These misunderstandings are intensified and compli-
cated by the fact that the newcomers, in order to
8 Cf.the insightful discussion of basic misunder- survive, have often to hide the real cause of their
standings in nationalistic and ideological conflicts of psychological predicament, this all the more so that
our time in Emery Reves, The Anatomy of Peace sometimes not only cultural but also ideological con-
(New York: Harper & Bros., I945). flicts are involved.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 40 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
tions, and behavior may lie beyond the it. Insisting that people who are differentare
range of our psychological comprehension not different means making propagandafor
because other people are placed in a situa- misunderstandingeach other. Since we are
tion which is radically different from our different,we can only understandeach other
own. A famous exampleof this kind of limits if we admit and are aware in what respects
of insight is offeredby the perplexity of that and why we are different.Prejudicecomes in
French aristocraticlady at the beginning of only if we misinterpret the existing differ-
the French Revolution who could not under- ences in terms of inferiority and the like.
stand why people were so excited about not This ambiguity in the concepts of equal-
having bread to eat, since, obviously, they ity, inequality, and prejudice,this confusion
could easily have satisfied their hunger by of "being different"and "being inferior,"is
eating cakes. This is a social blindness, by probably one of the most characteristicfea-
the way, which finds its most tragic counter- tures of the Americanscene and is highly re-
part in the social blindness of the privileged sponsible for the peculiar confusion of hu-
of our own era, whether they are privileged man relations in this country. In drawing a
individuals, privileged classes, or privileged comparison with Europe (a comparison
nations-but more about it later. which serves only the purpose of illuminat-
As a matter of fact, we have distorted, ing the issue involved and does not imply
and even perverted,in our modernworld not any evaluation), we might say that in the
only the idea of liberty but also the idea of United States the tensions between groups
equality. We are paying a terrible price for which are "different" are less intense but
it, and the end of our self-inflictedsufferings more confused than in Europe. The cul-
is not yet in sight. We have distorted and turally differentEuropeangroupsare identi-
perverted the idea of liberty by calling in- fying each other overtly as being different,
security, amounting in its consequences this all the more that, by and large, they are
sometimes to an outright slavery, "free- citizens of differentcountriesand, with some
dom." Of this first perversion many intelli- few exceptions, are geographically segre-
gent people in our time are well aware. It gated from each other. The intercultural
seems rather doubtful whether there is as tensions, therefore,take in Europe the form
much awareness of the second ideological of open, external, international conflicts,
distortion-the distortion of the idea of whereas in this country the intercultural
equality-for what equality means, or rather (and interracial) tensions operate in the
ought to mean realistically and intelligently, more repressed forms of "prejudice" and
is that people should have equal opportuni- "discrimination."Applying a medical meta-
ties in life in spite of the fact that they are in phor to these two types of tensions, we
many respects different. We tend, however, might say that Europe, as far as intergroup
again and again to confuse and to distort relations are concerned,is sufferingby inter-
this idea by declaring, or silently assuming, mittent, but violent, attacks of pneumonia,
or implying, that "people are alike" and whereas the intergroup tensions in this
that "there are essentially no differencesbe- country might rather be comparedto a mild
tween men." This, of course, is disastrous but chronic tuberculosis.
nonsense. The misinterpretationswhich have their
We have distorted, however, not only the roots in the distortions of both the concept
idea of equality but also its counterpartsand of equality and inequality become clearly
shadows, the concepts of inequality and of visible in the dilemma which the minorities
prejudice. Since people are different,consid- are facing when confronted by a majority
ering people as being differentis not "preju- which is trapped in the maze of this con-
dice." The prejudicedarenot those who insist ceptual confusion. Several possible avenues
that people are different,in various respects of adjustment are open to minority group
and by various reasons, but those who deny members under these circumstances,but no

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 4I

one or several of them offer complete satis- which solution differentmembersof minori-
faction, and all exact a price. ties will be inclined to choose and which
On the one hand, minority membersmay price they will be able to pay.
attempt to escape the situation they are con- It is the perversionof the idea of equality
fronted with by trying to conceal the exist- which prevents us from understanding
ing differencesin appearance,language, be- people who are differentfrom ourselves and
havior, and other significant aspects of per- from being tolerant about their being dif-
sonality. They may do this by propagandiz- ferent. Since we start with the false assump-
ing that "there are no differencesat all," or, tion that "people are essentially alike," and
if there are any, that "they are not sig- then find by experiencethat they are unlike,
nificant," and that to say something else "is we confuse all issues involved and denounce
prejudice." This solution-the history of as well as persecute each other because we
the Jews proves it so conclusively that only are different.
the blind can disregard it-obviously does This apparent paradox that the idea of
not work. It does not work, first, because the equality actually does not engenderthe ex-
existing differencesdo not disappear by the pected "brotherhood of man" but, on the
magicalprocedureof being denied but rather contrary,intoleranceand persecutionshould
remainand sound through all disguises,pre- not arouse in us too great a surprise.In fact,
tenses, and concealments. The majority it is only a modern version of another his-
feels, therefore, that the minority tries to torical paradox, namely, that monotheism,
solve the problem by a kind of deception, in spite of its all-embracingmeaning, turned
which certainly does not improve the situa- out in the past to be one of the most power-
tion. And, second, this solution does not ful sources of intolerance. Both cases are es-
work, because the mimicry has to be paid sentially similar, for in the same way as the
for at the very high psychological price of "one world"is inevitably seen differentlyby
repressing and distorting real personality. differentpeople, each claiming to see it cor-
Hence it becomes true that it is indeed the rectly, so also the "one God" was conceived
most honest and most sensitive members of and imagined by different religions in a dif-
minoritieswho either refuse to pay this price ferent way. Each of them felt called upon to
or, if paying it, are most heavily frustrated fight for the "one God"against infidelswho,
and disturbed by its burden. misled by false prophets, became so thor-
On the other hand, the minorities can try oughly blinded that they were unable to
to solve the dilemmaby admitting being dif- recognize the one God "as he really is."
ferent. Those who are choosing this second Since it is obviously a basic fact that the
way feel that, even if this choice should lead range of our psychological insight is always
to being rejected as a kind of a "stranger," limited in scope; since we tend to misinter-
it is still more honorable to be rejected for pret what we are unable to understandbe-
what one really is than to be accepted for cause it lies beyond the threshold of our
what one really is not. They prefer to pre- comprehension;since we are trying, by an
serve the integrity of their personalities and unconscious defense mechanism, to over-
are willing to pay the price of not being come our perplexity in the face of our dis-
accepted. agreements and to maintain our belief that
There are, of course, many types of in- it is we, and not the others, who see the
termediate solutions or pseudo-solutions things "as they really are," it is clearthat, of
through which membersof minorities might all types of people, the one most likely to
try to adjust, or even partly succeed in ad- avoid this kind of misinterpretation is the
justing, themselves superficially,on the level type of personality which contains within its
of external behavior, still preserving the in- own makeup as many diverse potentialities
tegrity of their inner personalities. It will as possible. In other words, the "born"psy-
depend largely on the personality type chologist, sociologist, anthropologist, is the

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
42 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
"marginalman" who, split within himself, is around the "limits of insight" and the "dis-
fully aware that the world is not as "we" see tortions of the idea of equality," we wish to
it but that "we" see it as we do because we conclude this section with some critical
are as we are. It is simply not true that any- comments concerningthe silent presupposi-
body can be "trained" to be a good psy- tions of this concept. It is our contention
chologist, sociologist, or anthropologist. that the validity of these presuppositionsis
This naive assumption is, unfortunately, at open to serious question. The concept of
the bottom of many striking defects and prejudicetends rather to camouflagethan to
forms of social blindness in our standardized illuminate the essential factors in intergroup
and mechanized social science. Do we wish tensions. It reveals sometimesmore interest-
to cure our sick society which reflects itself ing facts about the bias of the particular so-
in a distorted way in the broken mirrorof a cial scientist than about the attitudes of the
sick social science? If so, we should indeed "prejudiced"commonman who is the object
admit, and even insist, that only a rich per- of the investigation.
sonality, possessing various and contradic- In orderto make our position very clear,
tory psychological, cultural, and situational we are listing in two parallel columns what
experiences,is or can be really equippedwith we consider to be the silent presuppositions
the indispensableinner potentialities to ap- of the current theory of prejudices, on the
proach the job of social analysis. Only such a one hand, and the suggested correctionsfor
personality can have adequate insight into these presuppositions, on the other. We do
the differentforms of motivation, the differ- not contend that in all interpretationsbased
ent cultural patterns, the different types of on the concept of prejudiceall silent presup-
situational dynamics in terms of what they positions listed in the left columnare operat-
mean to those who are directly involved, ing and effective. We insist only that, in all
and not in terms of what they mean, or how interpretations and theories of this sort,
they look, to a spectator who is unaware of some of these presuppositionsare playing an
his own hidden and silent frame of reference important, disturbing, as well as distorting,
dominatingand biasing his social perception. role. We insist also that, once these silent,
Since the concept of prejudice is quite hidden presuppositions are made explicit,
particularly responsible for preventing a their illusory character becomes indispu-
realistic approach to the problems centered tably and obviously clear.

SILENT FALSE ASSUMPTIONS SUGGESTED CORRECTIONS

i. People are essentially alike; to insist that i. People are in important respects, by various
they are different is prejudice. reasons, different, individually and collec-
tively; to deny differenceswhich are actual-
ly there is prejudice.
2. All people can be subdivided into those who 2. All people are prejudiced, in one way or an-
are and those who are not prejudiced. other. To assume that being prejudiced is a
specific characteristic of certain people is
prejudice.
3. "They" are prejudiced, but "we" are not. 3. We perceive the prejudices in others but
fail to perceive them in ourselves.
4. The common man is prejudiced, but the 4. The prejudices of social scientists consist in
social scientist is not. the silent assumptions with which they ap-
proach the problem of "prejudices"-not to
mention many others.
5. The stereotypes concerning characteristics 5. The stereotypes concerning characteristics
of cultural and racial groups are entirely of cultural and racial groups are a combina-
false. tion of truth and falsehood.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 43
6. The prejudices are the main cause of inter- 6. The main thing is that people are different,
group tensions. and identified with differentgroups, and not
that they are "prejudiced."
7. Intergroup tensions which are not based on 7. Intergroup tensions which have their origin
conflicts of economic interests are not in differencesof inner or external personali-
"real"; they are artificial or the result of ty, i.e., cultural and racial tensions, are as
propaganda or "rationalizations." real as tensions which have their roots in
conflicts of interests.
8. Prejudices are acts of aggression. 8. Prejudices are acts of defense by which
people defend the integrity of their own per-
sonality, their own culture, their own group.
9. People are (or ought to be) rational; all ir- 9. There are many meanings and values of life
rational factors are prejudices. which are not rational in the utilitarian
sense of this term. To call all nonrational or
irrational factors prejudices is a prejudice.
Societies without basic irrational beliefs
tend to disintegrate.
io. If our dislikes refer to individual character- io. Our likes and dislikes operate on two levels;
istics of other people, then this is antipathy; we may like or dislike other people either
if they refer to collective characteristics, because of their individual characteristicsor
this is prejudice. because they represent a certain type. This
type may be cultural, racial, or simply psy-
chological.
i i. People are prejudiced against one another ii. To say the least, it works both ways. Very
because they do not know one another well. often the difficulties in human relations de-
If they knew one another better, the preju- velop and are aggravated if people get closer
dices would automatically disappear. acquainted with one another.
i 2. Prejudices are the only, or at least the most 12. There are many other collective distortions
important, form of collective distortions of of social perception; some of them are much
social perception. more important than the so-called preju-
dices.

There are, in all probability, still otheracter. This means that they tend to impose
"silent assumptions" at the bottom of the upon the "reality" which they "represent"
current theory of "prejudices" which will those characteristics which correspond to
requiresome further clarificationand rectifi-their own illusory content. In other words,
cation. Let the reader add to the list if he the relative stability of the personality "it-
can, but in the meantime let us take cog- self" is, partly, only the result of the process
nizance of at least these and of the misinter-
of stabilization of its image in interhuman
pretations and confusions to which they relations. This peculiar interdependencebe-
lead. tween "illusion" and "reality," in which,
paradoxically, the illusion is often the more
V. MECHANISMS OF RIGIDITY
dynamicfactor, has to be kept in mind in the
Under this head we shall discuss two mis- following discussion.
interpretative mechanisms: first, the tend- The tendencyto "stabilize" the image.-
ency to "stabilize"the image of other people This tendency is somewhat akin to the tend-
in our own mind and, second, the tendency ency to overestimate the unity of personal-
to make this image "definite." Especially ity and differs from it mainly by the fact
the first of these two mechanisms, that is, that it operatesin the dimensionof time. We
the tendency to stabilize the image, consti- could even say that we are dealing here
tutes one of those sociopsychological illu- simply with the tendency to overestimate
sions which are essentially dynamic in char- the unity of personality in the life-history of

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
the individual. Still, we believe there is value ate John Smith's declaringsuddenly at sixty
in consideringthe tendency to stabilize the that he has undergone a total transforma-
personality image as a specific mechanism. tion of his personality and that he is not
In consequence of this tendency, which, John Smith any more but someone else.
as we shall see, has its roots in certain re- Even if this were to be perfectly true, that
quirements of human relations, our inter- is, even if John Smith could psychologically
pretations and expectations operate under cease to be John Smith, other people would
the silent assumption that other people do continue to treat him as John Smith and ex-
not change fundamentally, even if actually pect, or even compel, him to behave accord-
they do undergo far-reaching transforma- ingly. This must be the case, for it is in the
tions of their personality structure. Other nature of social relations that their basic as-
people, so we assume, might have changed sumptions and expectations have to be ac-
their views, convictions, attitudes, loyalties, cepted as valid even if at times these are
and sentiments, but essentially they are still much at variance with the facts which they
the same persons. Specifically, John Smith allegedly represent.Otherwise,a predictable
at sixty is "the same" John Smith he was functioning of social relations would not be
when he was, let us say, twelve years of age. possible, and society, as we know it, could
Now, the points we claim here are, first, that not exist."
our tendency to "stabilize" the image of In what way are we justified in consider-
other people's personalities goes often be- ing the tendency toward stabilization of per-
yond what is warrantedby the personalities sonality images as misinterpretative in na-
"themselves"to which this process of stabi- ture? As in the case of some other misinter-
lization refers;and, second, as mentioned al- pretations, what we are dealing with here
ready above, that the relative constancy of are distortions through exaggeration rather
personalities "themselves" is, to a substan- than outright falsifications. Or, to put it an-
tial degree, the result of a conscious or un- other way, the tendency toward stability,
conscious inner adjustment to their images. continuity, and identity of the image goes
This is not to say, of course, that the stabil- beyond the degree of stability, continuity,
ity of the image is the only cause of the sta- and identity which, by and large, we find in
bility and identity of the personality "it- the other persons. This is a state of affairs
self."Io which is complicated, and often obscured,
If we approachthe problem of this image by the fact of the dynamic interaction be-
stabilization from the sociological point of tween the "image" and the "reality" to
view, we realize that mutual expectations of which the "image" not only refers but
a considerable degree of constancy, stabil- which it actually shapes. Again we empha-
ity, and continuity of personalities in the size that images are not only "images" but
dimension of time are among the basic pre- also dynamic factors which control the de-
suppositions of an orderly organization of velopment as well as the behavior of per-
human relations. It is only through the con- sonality.
tinuity and stability of personality that the In spite of these intervening complica-
individual becomes a predictable and re- tions, the fact remains and needs to be rec-
sponsible member of human society and ac- ognized that, in all concrete phases of this
quires the potentiality of being a bearer of dynamic interactionbetween the images and
rights and duties. If society wants to main- "Sociologists like Max Weber insist that pre-
tain itself in terms of an orderly and pre- dictability of behavior is a specific requirement of
dictable organization,it simply cannot toler- modern (capitalist) society, for this society is essen-
tially based on prediction and calculation. If one
IOIn the last section of this chapter we shall in- accepts this theory, then the tendency to stabilize
troduce a conceptual scheme which, we hope, will the personality image would have to be interpreted
clarify what we mean by talking about the person- in the light of this specific social and historical back-
ality "itself," and also its relation to its own image. ground.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 45
the personalitieswhich they represent,there -One of the very significant characteristics
persists very frequently a certain degree of of such personality factors as attitudes, sen-
tension and discrepancybetween the rhythm timents, opinions, and many others is fre-
of the transformations of personalities and quently their vagueness and ambiguity.
the rhythm of the transformations of the Among modem psychologists, men like Wil-
correspondingimages in the minds of other liam James ("streamof consciousness")and
people. The discrepancyis without a doubt William Stern ("Ungestalt") have very
the source of many frustrations and con- strongly emphasized this fact. The psycho-
flicts, for images in the minds of other people analytical concept of ambivalence also re-
which do not change in correspondencewith fers to one aspect of this basic ambiguity of
a transformation of our inner personality, certain personality characteristics.
directly or indirectly, prevent us from being However, again, we find, that common-
ourselves. Hence we have either to adjust sense social perception operates in a way
ourselves to those "lagging" images; or, at which disregards this peculiar nature of
least, we have somehow to take them into many personality factors. We are prone to
account. The depth of these conflicts and attribute and to expect in others a definite-
tensions and the intensity of the possible re- ness of attitudes, sentiments, and views
actions will, of course, depend on the per- which simply is not there. The tendency,
sonality type of the individuals who are in- therefore,to shape the image of other people
volved and on the vicissitudes in the history under the mistaken assumption that they
of their lives. Some of these conflicts, ten- "themselves" do possess characteristics
sions, and reactions will be discussed in the which are definite is again a source of distor-
last section of this chapter.12 tions and misinterpretations,since many of
No one of us entirely escapes the influ- their characteristics are in fact ambiguous
ence of this "lag"between what other people and vague.13
think we still are and what we know we have Analyzing this mechanismfurther, we see
become, but some of us experience it more that the vagueness and ambiguity of certain
vividly and intensely than others. Among personality factors are by no means the re-
those most likely to have the intensified ex- sult, or reflection, of some defect in the in-
perience are persons who grow up in one sight and penetration of the observer. They
class and sectionof ourheterogeneoussociety are rather inherent characteristicsof certain
and as young adults take up a lifework psychologicalphenomena.To ignorethe fact
which moves them into different levels or that certain personality factors are inher-
strata. Resulting conflicts and tensions are ently vague and ambiguous is a fallacy
enhanced when such persons attempt to which leads to misinterpretationsin every-
maintain a high frequency of contacts with day life and to a misstatement of certain
both or all the groups. Often in such cases theoretical problems. On the scientific level
adjustment is made through a splitting of this fallacy can be found, for instance, in the
personality (usually not pathological in de- attitude and opinion researchwhich is often
gree). The person becomes, as it were, two based on the silent assumption that people
or more personalities, each showing itself in do have "definite" attitudes and opinions
the different setting. However, at best such and that it is our scientific task to determine
adjustment is only a compromiseand neces- this "definiteness."As a matter of fact, how-
sarily leaves a residue of uncomfortable, at ever, most people have confused, ambigu-
times almost unbearable, conditions. Mis- ous, indefinite opinions about many things,
interpretation demands its pound of flesh! and their attitudes and sentiments are often
The tendencyto makethe image "definite."
13 Gestalt psychologists would probably interpret
22
Conflicts and tensions of this type are the cen- this tendency in the light of the principle of preg-
tral theme of many novels, short stories, and plays nancy. The author of this study would be quite will-
by Pirandello. ing to accept this interpretation.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 46 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
still more confused. The questionnairesfre- One of the times when we are probably
quently imply, or even impose, a definite- imposing definitenesswhereit actually is not
ness which, to say it once more, is simply not present is when we insist, as so often we do,
there. The result of this situation is that the that our friends and associates "be consist-
findings often are seriously missing the ent." Their very inconsistency of action
point. It is also false always to say with ref- should indicate ambiguity and vagueness in
erence to these facts that if people have in- the related attitudes, beliefs, views, or the
definite and ambiguousopinions this means like. Yet we overlook and ignore this, ex-
either that they are "undecided" or that pecting and often demanding consistency.
they "do not have any opinions at all." This Again, we are shocked when we discover
is true in some cases, but in many it is in- that our friends dislike us even while they
accurate and misleading. We insist that of- also like us. Somehow we have never faced
ten just this ambiguity and this indefinite- that fact and have even acquired the belief
ness are very significant,inherent character- that they have only liking for us. Con-
istics of the opinions, attitudes, and the like. veniently, we have overlooked, or perhaps
However, here as elsewhere in this study, have actually never realized, the ambiguous
what we are primarily (even though not ex- (ambivalent) nature of the affections that
clusively) interested in is not the influence develop among human associates. What is
of misinterpretative mechanisms upon psy- more, we behave in such a way as often to
chological research and theory but rather force our friends and associates not to admit
the way they function in human relations of or show their dislike for us. Our "mirrors"
everyday life. then reflectonly part of our own "real"char-
We do not wish to enlargeupon the other- acteristics, and another distortion is "ef-
wise interesting question as to whether the ficiently" functioning!
"desire for definiteness"controls equally all Summing up, we may say that the two
forms of perception, or whether it is more mechanismsof rigidity are potential sources
pronouncedin the field of social perception. of misinterpretationsin so far as they make
We wish only to make the guess that our de- us expect and assume in other persons cer-
sire for definitenessmight be more intense in tain stable and definite characteristicswhich
facing personsthan in facing things as a kind those persons do not possess. In orderto sat-
of overreaction toward the more indefi- isfy our need for stability and definiteness,
nite, vague, and elusive characteristics of we shape, or rather misshape the image of
the former as compared with the latter. In other people in ascribingto their personality
other words, it might be that the tendency certain characteristicswhich are illusory in
toward definiteness, when confronted by nature.
persons, meets often a stronger resistance
than if confronted by things and that we VI. THE TENDENCY TO OVERESTIMATE THE
might, therefore, more intensely sense our ROLE OF PERSONAL AND TO UNDERESTI-
perplexity and try to escape it unconsciously MATE THE ROLE OF SITUATIONAL FACTORS
by imposing definiteness. However, here,
too, differencesof personality types, as well First, some obvious statements about
as differences in the types of human rela- dynamics of personality. Human behavior is
tions, play in all probability an important always determinedby two sets of factors: by
role. Certaintypes might feel comfortablein personality characteristics, whatever they
the atmosphereof vagueness and indefinite- be (dispositions, attitudes, tendencies, etc.),
ness; others might feel in such an atmos-
phere very disturbed.I4 cussed by many authors in aesthetic theory. The
points they usually make are that those two charac-
14 The fact that vagueness and indefiniteness teristics leave more space for the free play of imagi-
might increase the impressive values of portraits nation in the spectator and that they endow the
(Rembrandt, as the greatest example) has been dis- picture with elements of mystery and depth.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 47
on the one hand, and by situational factors, The impact of this type of misinterpreta-
among which social situations are by far the tions is especially aggravated by a fact the
most important, on the other. Whatever we significance of which can be clearly under-
do, or fail to do, our behavior can never be stood in the light of our analysis of the role
understoodas a manifestation of personality of visibility in social perception (see chap.
characteristicsalone. We can understand it ii). With reference to the problem we are
only if we take into account the structure of discussing here, the important point is that
situations (the "field") in which this be- in perceiving and observing other people we
havior is taking place. Thus the completely do see the spatial situation in which they act
unrealistic character of any, whether com- but, as a rule, we are not in the position to
mon-sense or "scientific,"interpretations of see and to evaluate correctly the dynamic
personality which operate on the basis of the meaning of the social, invisible factors in the
silent assumptions that human actions are total situation controlling the behavior of
nothing but an emanation, or manifestation, those people. This total situation includes
of certain personality characteristics. The such all-important factors as social oppor-
ideological background of this fallacy we tunities and social barriers,relations of de-
shall discuss later on. pendence and expectations of others, the
Now, even though personality and its be- bank account we possess and the hostilities
havior are obviously and decidedly codeter- we meet, which situational factors, as well as
mined by social situations, and even though many others, are in their very nature "in-
we often know "in principle" that this is the visible." Consequently,if other people react
case, our unconscious interpretations "in to certain situations which are to them
fact" do not reckon with this basic state of highly real but are not visible to us from our
affairs and function as if personal traits point of view, we fail to understand why
alone, or at least predominantly, do deter- they behave as they do even though in terms
mine the dynamics of human behavior. We of those invisible factors their behavior is
all have in everyday life the tendency to in- perfectly understandableand "reasonable."
terpretand to evaluate the behavior of other What really happens is that, not being aware
people in terms of specific personality char- of our own social blindness, we misinterpret
acteristics rather than in terms of specific (and usually denounce) their behavior as
social situations in which those people are "unreasonable,"or "abnormal,"or "aggres-
placed. More than that-the whole system sive."
of our sociomoral concepts such as "merit" It is hardly possible to exaggeratethe im-
and "guilt," "success" and "failure," "re- portance of this type of social blindness in
sponsibility," and the like, as accepted and the crisis of our age. The complete, tragic
applied in everyday life, is based on the as- blindness of the privileged concerning the
sumption of a personal rather than situa- life-situation of the underprivileged is the
tional causation of human behavior. In in- result of just this kind of not seeing the in-
terpreting actions as manifestations of per- visible factors in the situations of others.
sonal characteristics,under disregardof the Reaction, revolt against invisible social
all-important role played by social situa- chains, is being misinterpreted by blind
tions, we chronicallymisinterpretthe actual spectators as "aggressive behavior." Many
underlying motivations. Again and again, things which happened between the two
instead of saying that Dan or Tom or Sam world wars would not have happened if
behaved (or did not behave) in a specific social blindness had not prevented the
way because he was placed in a specific situ- privileged from understandingthe predica-
ation, we are prone to believe that he be- ment of those who were living in an invisible
haved (or did not behave) in a certain way jail. It would be good perhapsif our justified
because he possesses (or does not possess) horror about visible concentration camps
certain specific personal characteristics. would not blind us to the horrors of "in-

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
48 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
visible concentrationcamps,"of which there concealed from our awareness. To put it
are a great many in our modern society. another way, the actual conditions and de-
And, also, if our moral revolt against visible terminants of our potentialities ("abilities")
atrocities would not blunt our awareness of reflect themselves in our consciousness in a
the invisible atrocities which insidiously distorted way.
poison and destroy human relations. Final- The inevitable consequence of this illu-
ly, we should try to understand better than sion is that disturbanceswhich occur in the
we do that those who commit visible atroci- field of social situations in which we have to
ties are often only taking revenge for in- act are often misinterpretedas intrinsic de-
visible ones of which they themselves were fects of personal endowments. Hence, the
(invisible) victims. If the author were not a unemployed is ashamed of being unem-
social scientist but a preacher,he would say ployed, even if his being unemployed is ob-
at this place, "Let us pray. ..." viously due to a general economic depres-
Certain clarifications about the concept sion, for he is correctly aware that, on the
of "abilities"will help us understandand to level of the emotionally all-important un-
penetrate the peculiarly involved and con- conscious interpretations "in fact," his mis-
fused relations between "personalitytraits" fortune is being ascribed to him as a mani-
and "social situations." At first glance the festation of his alleged personal defects. Ac-
concept of "abilities" in terms of being able, tually he is often himself a victim of this
or not being able, to do something, appears same illusion.
to be a neutral concept, far removed from The traumatic experienceof being unem-
any complicated distortions and misinter- ployed is intensifiedby the invisibility of the
pretations. However, if we examineit a little situation and its associated conditions. If an
deeper, it becomes clear that this concept individual is drowning in a lake, then other
contains a peculiar ambiguity which is a people present can see that he is drowning,
symptom of an underlying confusion con- and at least some of them will try to help
cerningthe role and function of social situa- him. If, on the other hand, an individual is
tions in motivating human behavior. This "drowning"in the "invisible ocean" of un-
ambiguity and confusion,which do not arise employment, his predicament will not mo-
by chance, consist in ascribing to the indi- bilize in others, even if they are present
viduals certain potentialities for action as spectators, the attitudes of immediate help-
their "own," even though these potentiali- fulness, for they are not aware in terms of an
ties are actually only a concomitant, or cor- effective social perception that a fellow hu-
relate, of certain situational factors. In other man being is drowning.Thus, in a way, the
words, we are confronted here again with situation of the man who is in danger of
one of those basic illusions of social percep- drowningin the "invisible ocean" of unem-
tion which operate both within our percep- ployment is more desperate than the situa-
tion of other people and within our self- tion of a man who is drowning in the real
perception. ocean. (It might be of some interest to men-
As a result of this peculiar illusion of self- tion that the author was discussingthis type
perception, we experience as our "own" of disturbing problems with a well-known
those of our potentialities which we owe, let Americanwoman psychologist shortly after
us say, to money we possess, in the same he arrived in this country and was some-
way as we experience those we owe to in- what surprisedat finding in her a complete
trinsic psychologicaland physical character- and very responsive understanding. A few
istics. The same kind of illusion permeates years later this woman psychologist com-
our perception of other people. These illu- mitted suicide. Possibly, she understoodtoo
sions operate in such a way that the share of much about the factual and moral dilemmas
situational factors in endowing us as well as of our time.)
others with certain potentialities remains The consequences of the illusion that

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 49
minimizes or excludes the role of situational basic psychological presupposition of the
factors are particularly aggravated by the dominant ideology of the nineteenth cen-
fact that, as in other cases discussed pre- tury? From the vantage point of time, it is
viously, the misinterpretative mechanism easy to give the correct answer. This ideol-
not only influencesthe image of personality ogy was obviously based on the silent pre-
but often also influencesthe structure of the supposition that it is the individual and his
personality "itself." Here again the false intrinsic personality characteristics which
image can eventually produce those person- shape his fate in his social world. If he does
ality characteristicswhich it, at first, only possess the requiredvaluable characteristics,
falsely reflected. The unemployed, to take he is bound to succeed. If he does not, he is
up this example again, will often, under the bound to fail. It is he himself, and not the
all-pervading influence of collective misin- social conditions, which determine his fate.
terpretations, come to ascribe to himself the This, at least, was the creed of the dominant
consequencesof his unfortunate conditions group through which it justified its own
as his own fault. This can and does happen dominantposition and was accepted without
even if originallyhe understoodthe true role question even by many of those belonging to
of the situational factors. He will become the groups being dominated.
more and more insecure;the continuous fail- Let us now ask: What were the silent as-
ure to cope with a situation he is unable to sumptions of scientific psychology in the
control will seemingly justify his feeling of same historical era, at least as far as they are
inadequacy.Finally, the destructivepsycho- related to our problem?In answer, we find a
logical process penetrates into the strata of striking-one might even say a suspiciously
his intrinsic abilities; his imposed inactivity striking-similarity between the ideological
not only undermineshis self-confidencebut, presuppositions pervading the personality
through lack of training, actually destroys misinterpretations in everyday life, on the
his abilities "themselves." one hand, and the silent presuppositionsun-
We are here obviously confronted by an derlying the methods and interpretationsas
exceptionallydeep-seatedtype of false social applied in psychological research and the-
perception. In the last section of this chap- ory, on the other hand. We see the experi-
ter we shall present a conceptual framework mental laboratory psychology of the nine-
of our own which, we hope, will enable us to teenth century investigating the individual
replace the misconstruction concerning the as divorced from his all-important social
interrelations between "personality traits" setting and disregarding the role of situa-
and "situational factors" by more adequate tional factors in human behavior. The psy-
and more realistic conceptions. chologist thus, obviously, committed on the
One furtherpoint we want to make before scientific level and in a "sophisticatedway"
ending this section. The tendency to over- the same misinterpretation of personality
estimate the role of personal and to under- which the contemporarycommon man com-
estimate the role of situational factors in hu- mitted, in a more naive way, in his everyday
man motivations and in human behavior life relations.rS
reveals more clearly than any other type of Would it, then, be exaggeratingto follow
misinterpretations the tripartite interde- certain suggestions of the modern sociology
pendence among certain unconscious mis- of knowledgeand to formulate the hypothe-
interpretations operating in human rela- sis that this coincidence between the pre-
tions, their ideological (social, cultural) suppositions of the dominant ideology and
background,and their manifestations in sci-
'5 See GordonW. Allport, "The Psychologist's
entific psychological thought. It is worth
Frame of Reference," Psychological Bulletin,
while to make this hidden interdependence XXXVII (1940), 1-28; also my own article,"Frus-
explicit. trationand Aggressionor Frustrationand Defense?"
Let us consideran example.What was the Journalof GeneralPsychology(in press).

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 50 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
the dominant psychology did not occur by Furthermore, it seems also more than
chance?Would it not be more than plausible plausible that the definite turn toward tak-
to assume that in all probability both the ing into account situational factors in psy-
common man and the scientificpsychologist chology which has become more and more
were, unconsciously of course, influencedby pronouncedin the last two or three decades
the same ideological and cultural back- has not come about as the result only of a
ground, in consequenceof which both devel- purely theoretical development. Rather, it
oped the tendency to underestimatethe role appears probable that this change was
of situational and to overestimate the role of brought about, or at least influenced,by cer-
personal factors in human behavior? This tain transformationsoccurringin the social
would mean, of course, that the psycholo- and ideologicalfield. As long, namely, as this
gist, in spite of being "scientific," has been social and ideological field was more or less
by no means as objective and as free from stable, the paramount importance of situa-
ideological influences as he frequently has tional factors could easily remain hidden.
been inclined to believe. Thus, he misinter- However, in the period after World War I,
preted in the same way and for the same revolutions, deep financial crises, wide-
hidden reasons as did his more modest col- spread unemployment, and other events
league, the common man, who, after all, in have shaken the stability of situational fac-
his own way, is also a "psychologist." As a tors and thus revealed their decisive psycho-
matter of fact, in basic presuppositionsand logical importance.The traditional patterns
interpretations, the difference between the of interpretationcollapsed under the impact
two was not so great as it might look on the of these bewilderingnew experiences.
surface. It is significant that orthodox psy- Thus, again, in our own age we can ob-
choanalysis, too, in spite of its determined serve how the psychologist's frame of refer-
opposition to academic psychology, was ob- ence is undergoinga significantchange in ac-
viously dominated unconsciously by this cordance with the transformations of the
same tendency to overestimate the role of interpretative patterns in the surrounding
personaland underestimatethe role of situa- social and ideological field. The collapse of
tional factors. Many blind spots of psycho- the individualistic nineteenth-centuryideol-
analysis were the consequence of the fact ogy and the apparent inadequacy of inter-
that Freud himself was never "socioana- pretations of human existence in the light of
lyzed" and did not realize the influence of this ideology have induced psychologists
his historical backgroundupon his own the- more and more to restate their basic prob-
ories. Only recently have there arisen within lems and to approach human personality in
psychoanalysisdefiniteeffortsto correctthis terms of the newly emphasizedpersonaland
nonsociological bias (K. Horney, F. Alex- social experience.
ander). This fact that even the antiacademic We do not want to be misunderstood.We
psychoanalysis was influenced by the same by no means contend that the ideological
ideological factors as the "dominant" aca- factors mentioned above were the only ones
demic psychology shows the depth and the which produced a certain one-sidedness in
all-permeating power of the Zeitgeist upon the outlook and approachof psychologiststo
the science in a given era. After all, both their problemsand were responsiblefor their
academic psychology and psychoanalysis, in bli.ndspots with referenceto the psychologi-
spite of all differences,were children of the cal importance of the social situation. Nei-
same age, and the identical ideologicalback- ther do we contend that the transformations
ground left an unmistakable impression
upon the theory of both.'6 Hadley Cantril and Daniel Katz, "Objectivity in
Social Science," in George W. Hartmnannand Theo-
A6In regard to pseudo-objectivity see Robert S. dore Newcomb (eds.), Industrial Conflicts: A Psy-
Lynd, Knowledgefor What? (Princeton: Princeton ckological Interpretation (New York: Cordon Co.,
University Press, I937), esp. pp. IIgff.; cf. also I939), pp. 9-I8.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 5I

which have occurred in the ideological and ing to other people certain characteristics
social field were the only ones which at last which we do, but they actually do not,
have induced the psychologists to grasp the possess.I8
basic importance of certain hitherto neg- The second consists in perceiving certain
lected facts. It is very difficult to ascertain characteristics in others which we do not
in a reliableway how much certain transfor- perceive in ourselves and thus perceiving
mations of the basic psychological presup- those characteristicsas if they were peculiar
positions were due to intrinsic, purely the- traits of the others.
oreticalconsiderations,and how far ideologi- Projection can be, or easily become,
cal influences insinuated themselves into pathological in nature and is one of the
this process of transformation. However, it sources of paranoid developments. The sec-
seems to us in the face of such facts as we ond type is, unfortunately, by no means
have presented that it would show extreme pathological but rather, individually and
lack of perspective not to see the possibility, collectively, almost a universal feature of
or even probability, of the psychologist's human nature. We all tend, therefore, to
frame of reference having been and being perceive (and to denouince)in others certain
deeply influenced by the ideologically, or characteristics, for example, prejudices, or
culturally,conditionedpatterns of interpret- blind spots, or ideologies, or ethnocentrism,
ing personality which permeate any given or aggressiveness,which, strangely enough,
society. Some psychologists are overanxious we ignorein ourselves.This lack of insight is
lest personally conditioned intuitional fac- obviously so widespread that its counter-
tors influencetheir scientific interpretations. part, namely, the ability to perceive in our-
Yet simultaneously they remain blind to selves those characteristicswhich we notice
ideologically or culturally conditioned dis- and disapprove in others, must be consid-
tortions of their whole approach. Such per- ered as a sign of an unusual detachment and
sons are in the position of the man who takes almost "abnormally"keen insight.
careful precautions in order to avoid some Although in both cases we are dealing
slight injury and, at the same time, is with types of false social perception, the dis-
unaware that his whole organism is being tortion, as mentioned above, is in the two
sapped by a virulent disease. cases significantly different. In case of pro-
jection, in the specifiednarrowsense, the re-
VII. THE MOTE-BEAM-MECHANISM'7
sulting falsification refers to the content of
We shall analyze and clarify this final the perception. If A, being suspicious him-
mechanismby comparingit with the mecha- self, instead of being aware of it, believes
nism of projectionwith which it is often con- that it is he who is suspected (observed,per-
fused. Both mechanisms have in common secuted) by B, this means that he misper-
that their operationresults in a distortion of ceives certain characteristicsin B as well as
self-perception and perception of other in himself, for actually it is A who is sus-
people, and the two (as Socrates already picious and not B. The projection consists,
knew) are always closely interrelated.How- therefore,in falsely attributing certain char-
ever, the lack of an adequate conceptual dis- acteristics to another person which this per-
tinction makes us overlook a significant son actually does not possess.
difference between the two types of false A8See the definition of "projection" in Psychi-
social perception. atric Dictionary (New York: Oxford University
The first of the two, projection in the spe- Press, I940): "Projection. As used by psychiatrists,
cific, psychiatric sense, consists in attribut- this means the process of throwing out upon another
ideas and impulses that belong to oneself. It is the
I7 This section is a somewhat changed version of act of giving objective and seeming reality to what
my article, "Projection and the Mote-Beam-Mech- is subjective.... The person who blames another for
anism,"Journalof Abnormaland SocialPsychology, his own mistakes is using the projection mecha-
XLII (I947), I3I-33. nism."

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
52 MISUNDERSTANDINGSIN HUMAN RELATIONS
In the case of the second mechanismwith udiced as all other people including our-
which we are dealing, the content of the per- selves, although the content of their preju-
ception, that is, the perception of certain dices seems to be somewhat different."
characteristics in other persons, is correct. Once the distinction between projection
The prejudice, the ideology, the ethnocen- and this second type of false social percep-
trism, are not "projected"by us but are ac- tion is made explicit, it must become clear
tually there in the other person who is the that in terms of interpersonal and inter-
object of the given perception.And the falsi- group relations of everyday life this second
fication consists only in the silent assump- type plays a role incomparablymore impor-
tion that those characteristicsare particular tant than the mechanismof projectionin the
to the other person or persons and that specific sense of this word. Especially in
we ourselves are free of them. times as confused as ours, the tendency to
Now, it might be argued that the second perceive in others as something peculiar to
type of false perception does not involve a them certain characteristics which we are
distorted perception of other people but unable (or unwilling) to perceive in our-
only a distorted self-perception. However, selves assumes truly gigantic proportions.
such an interpretation would not be correct The author of this study is under the im-
and would miss an essential element in our pression that research and theory of inter-
distinction. ActuaUy,the distortion involves human antagonismstend at present to exag-
not only the self-perceptionbut also the per- gerate the role of such mechanisms as pro-
ception of others, and it is just this falsifica- jection, displacement, and frustration-ag-
tion of social perception in which we are at gression and to neglect or even to ignore the
present mainly interested. highly disturbing role of the mechanism
If a member of a certain group declares which we discuss in this section. In order to
that the members of a second group are have a name for it, let us call it the mote-
prejudiced,and overlooksor ignoresthat the beam-mechanism.
members of other similar groups, including It follows from what we have said that
his own, have the same characteristics,this projection in the specific sense of "throwing
means that he ascribesto the membersof the out upon another the ideas and impulses
second group "being prejudiced" as their that belong to one's self" is mainly a prob-
particularcharacteristic.Thus, even though lem of abnormal psychology. The mote-
the content of his perception is correct in so beam-mechanism, on the other hand, is a
far as this characteristicis actually there in problem of social psychology and sociology
the members of the second group, the im- of knowledge. Since the mechanism of pro-
plied interpretation is false. If we use here jection, under the predominantinfluence of
the conceptual framework of the sociology psychoanalysis, is actuaLlyat present in the
of knowledge, we would say that in such a focus of scientific attention, the mote-beam-
case the membersof the first group perceive mechanismis the main victim of the lack of
certain characteristicsof the membersof the an adequate conceptual distinction. This
second group in a "false perspective." means that we either ignore its operation in
Consequently,if the membersof the first many cases where it actually occurs or mis-
group would (and could) be made aware of interpretits nature in terms of projective (or
the nature of their false perception, the other) mechanisms.
change would involve not only a transfor- The approach of psychological and so-
mation of the self-perception but also a ciological researchand theory to such collec-
transformation of the perception of the tive phenomena as stereotypes, prejudices,
membersof the second group. On the verbal ideologies, aggressiveness, is seriously viti-
level this change would reveal itself in re- ated by the fact that the personal and social
placing the statement, "Look how preju- conditions of perceiving those phenomena
diced they are" by, "Look, they are as prej- are, naively, not taken into account. And,

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 53
still, this is actually the crux of the problem. others. Rather, our distinction is something
Not only the common man but also the so- very different. We shall call certain person-
cial scientist is not enough aware that, as a ality characteristics"real"not because they
rule, he notices only those stereotypes, prej- are more effective or more important than
udices, etc., which, by one reason or an- others but because, by and large, they are
other, he does not shareand that he does not perceived as what they really are. On the
see those stereotypes, prejudices, etc., in other hand, we shall call certain characteris-
which he himself is deeply involved. The tics "pseudo" or "sham" not because they
more deep-seatedthey are, the more does he are necessarily less effective or less impor-
take them for granted. It would be better for tant than the "real" ones but because they
theory as well as for practice if we were more are perceived and interpreted not as what
aware of this fact than we usually are and they really are but as "somethingelse." The
would realize more keenly than we fre- following analysis will make the somewhat
quently do that this kind of sociopsychologi- mysterious meaning of these statements
cal blindness is one of the most important clear.
causes of the intellectual and moral con- The "real" characteristics, according to
fusion of our age. the classification offered, are those person-
ality characteristicswhich belong to the in-
We wish to conclude this chapter by pre- trinsic equipment of the individual inde-
senting a new classification of personality pendently, or nearly independently, of the
characteristics. Even though we are fully situation in which he is placed. Of course,
aware that this classification has its short- this does not mean either that they are un-
comings, we believe that it will be helpful in changeableor that their actualization is not
disentangling a conceptual confusion which conditioned by opportunities or lack of op-
prevents us from developing an adequate portunities. It means only that, as a psycho-
and realistic conception about total per- logical disposition, they exist in a way which
sonality.119 is (nearly) independentof any definite situa-
In place of the vague, confused, undiffer- tion.
entiated concept of personality "traits," or Here are some examples to clarify our
personality "characteristics," which con- meaning. Considermusical or mathematical
sciously or unconsciously is applied both by capacities. The developmentof these capaci-
popular and by scientificpsychology, we are ties depends, of course, on environmental
introducing this new classification. It is opportunities. However, these capacities as
made from a sociopsychological point of intrinsic potentialities, or the form and de-
view and distinguishes three categories gree they have reached, are not related
which, taken together, compose total per- dynamicallyto any specificsituation. Again,
sonality. These categories we are designat- certain urges and needs, as, for example, the
ing as the "real," the "pseudo," and the urge to dominate,are intrinsicallypart of an
"sham" personality characteristics. individual's makeup. The actualization or
To avoid any misunderstanding,we wish gratification of such urges is, of course, con-
to make clear at once that in designating
ditioned, or related, to different environ-
certain characteristics as "real," others as mental factors. However, the urges and
"pseudo" and "sham," we do not mean to needs as dispositions are there as intrinsic
imply that the "real" play a more effective characteristicsof the given personality.They
and more important role in the formation or are more or less at the generaldisposal of the
functioning of personality than do the individual undermanyandvarious setsof cir-
i' This new classificationof personalitycharac-
cumstances and are not simply correlatedto
teristicswas publishedfor the firsttimein the Socio- certain fairly definite situations. This situa-
logical Review (Warsaw), IV (I936), 48-59, and
again,in a modifiedform,in Character
andPersonali- tional independence of the "real" personal-
ty, IX (I94I), 2I8-26. ity characteristicswill become clearer after

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 54 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
the two other groups of characteristicshave from any such valid classification?Our an-
been identified. The main contribution of swer is that there are very importantreasons
our classification is not the defining of the for considering "sham" characteristics, in
nature of the "real" characteristicsas such. spite of being sham, as essential parts in the
It is, rather, the clarifying of a certain basic makeup of the total personality.
confusionthat makes us considerthe "pseu- Even though the "sham" characteristics
do" and "sham" characteristics as if they exist primarily only in the minds of other
were "real," that is, as if they, too, were a people, they are bound to play an extremely
part of the intrinsic personality makeup important role in the personality structure.
rather than closely related to the structure They will have some effectno matter whether
of particular situations. the individual adjusts himself to the image
Even though the "pseudo" characteris- of his own personality in the minds of other
tics are functionally closerto the "real"than people, whether he interiorizesthis image in
the "sham" characteristics-for they, too, his own mind, whetherhe revolts against the
are in a way "at the disposal"of the individ- image as a distortion and falsification of his
ual-we shall considerfirst not the "pseudo" true self, or whether he succeeds in develop-
but the "sham" characteristics. These, in ing more subtle mechanisms of self-defense
their very nature, are the opposite of the (like irony, for instance). In any case the
"real"ones. We are choosing this procedure "sham" characteristics, in spite of being
not only because the striking differencebe- sham, must be taken into account as part of
tween the two facilitates the clarificationof the makeup of the total personality, even
the respective distinction. We are doing it though, admittedly, they might belong to it
also because it then becomes easier to dis- only indirectly and in a highly peculiar way.
cover the "pseudo" characteristics which What we call "personality"is actually a
operate, as it were, between these two construction. Now, obviously, the "sham"
groups. As a matter of fact, the discovery characteristicsare an integral and function-
and definition of the "pseudo" characteris- ing part of this construction as it occurs in
tics is a chief purpose in offeringthis three- everyday life. Until they are demonstrated
fold classification. as "sham" or false, they are consideredand
The "sham" characteristics are those reacted to as parts of the particularperson-
which are attributed to an individual from ality. Even when "discovered," they leave
the point of view of other people. They an effect on the nature of the ensuing image
might, or might not, reflect themselves in of the personality. Hence they must be in-
his own conception about himself. They can cluded in any adequate analysis of total
originate entirely through misinterpreta- personality.
tions by others without his participation, or "Sham" characteristics, or at least most
he can directly or indirectly share the re- of them, even though they are sham, do not
sponsibility for their development through arise by chance. They arise inevitably be-
pretending to have the characteristics.The cause certain misinterpretationsare operat-
given individual does not "possess" these ing within the social perception. Since these
"sham" characteristics but only seems to misinterpretations giving meaning to what
possess them. Hence, their name. we termed "raw material of social percep-
If, according to our own definition, the tion" function automatically in a definite
"sham" characteristicsdo not belong to the way, they have a certain sociopsychological
real, intrinsic makeup of a given personality reality of their own. Some sort of "rawmate-
but only seem to belong to it, why include rial" is there and gets interpreted as these
them in a classificationof personality char- characteristics. "Sham" characteristicsare,
acteristics? Would it not be logical, having thus again, a part of personality and cannot
defined the true nature of "sham" char- be ignored.It is necessaryto include them in
acteristics, to exclude them once and for all our classificatory scheme.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY MISINTERPRETATIONS 55
The contrast between "real"and "sham" arrangementsand can be taken away from
characteristics is sufficiently clear and ex- him at any time by other arrangements.We
treme so that there is little dangerof confus- call these characteristics "pseudo" and not
ing these two groups. As a matter of fact, we "real" because they are only correlates of
are applying constantly in everyday life this certain definite social situations. Yet, for the
conceptual dichotomy, when we say about time being, they function as if they were
other people that they seem to be this but real. As a matter of fact, the functional effec-
they actually are that! While identifying the tiveness of "pseudo"characteristicsis often
"real" and "sham" characteristics is rela- much greater than that of the "real" char-
tively easy, it is much more difficult to dis- acteristics. To realize this, we need only to
tinguish the third group of personality char- rememberhow much wider is the range of a
acteristics. As mentioned already above, the man's potentialities for action which he
discovery of the "pseudo" characteristics owes to his position or money than the
constitutes the main contribution of our usually modest range of another man who
classification. It is to this third, psychologi- has nothing but his "real" characteristics
cally most "mysterious,"group that we now like intelligence, abilities, and so on, at his
turn our attention. disposal.20
The "pseudo" characteristics differ, on However, not only from the point of view
the one hand, from the "real"characteristics of their functional effectiveness but also in
in this respect, that they do not, as the terms of our self-perception, the "pseu-
"real" do, exist and function independently do" characteristics are experienced often,
of the situations in which the individual is strangely enough, as if they were real, and
placed; on the contrary, they are definitely even as if they weremuch more real than the
related to certain situations. They are, as it "real" ones. In other words, the individual
were, only "lent" to the individual by the misperceiveshis "pseudo"characteristicsas
society, and they disintegrate, or simply dis- if they were intrinsicallypart of his person-
appear,as soon as the social "powerstation" ality structure.He tends to become aware of
with which they are connected is exhausted, their borrowednature only when, in conse-
or ceases to function, for one reason or quence of a suddenloss of the respective sit-
another. uations (position, status, money, power) on
On the other hand, "pseudo"characteris- which they depend, these "pseudo" char-
tics cannot be identified with "sham" char- acteristics literally melt away from him,
acteristics, for they do not exist only, or thereby revealing their true nature. This
chiefly, in the minds of other people but are means that for the ordinaryperson the dis-
actually "at the disposal" of the individual covery of the "pseudo" characteristics for
to whom they "belong."This means that, as what they are takes place only in case of
long as this individual is actually connected their being lost. Here is another example of
with the respective "power station," they the fact that for the most part we tend ex-
function as if they were "real" characteris- plicitly to notice the significance of only
tics. Hence, to repeat it once more, the pe- those things which we do not now possess
culiar nature of "pseudo" characteristics is but either have possessed or, at least, would
best defined by stressing the fact that they like to possess.
are borrowed characteristics. Let us make With our identificationof "real,""sham,"
clear through an example what we mean by and "pseudo" characteristicsmade, the fol-
making this statement. lowing sketch of a personality will illustrate
An individual is able to do certain things their differencesand also give an opportu-
because of the position he holds or the 20
It is significant to note that in French pouvoir
money he possesses. He is powerful, thanks means both "to be able" and "to have power"; in
to certain personality characteristicswhich German Vermilgen means both "ability" ("facul-
have been lent to him by particular social ty") and "wealth" ("property").

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
56 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
nity for examiningbriefly their interdepend- teristics which are rooted in his position.
ence. "A professor of mathematics who is a And, finally, ironically, even his real char-
well-to-do man enjoys not only a high pro- acteristics-knowledge and skill-are in
fessional reputation but also the reputation danger, by lack of opportunity, of deterio-
of moral integrity. Secretly, however, he is rating. The important role which this man's
addicted to gambling. He has a run of bad pseudo and sham characteristicswere play-
luck, loses his money, and signs a check ing in the image his associates got of him,
which is not covered. The truth comes to and the drastic effects their loss had, further
light. He is asked to resign and is not suc- demonstrates our contention that these
cessful in securing another appointment in characteristicsare indeed part of total per-
his scientific specialty." sonality. Hence, their identification and dif-
It is apparent that the relationship went ferentiation seem to us essential steps in
something like this: After our man lost his comprehendingany given personality.
money (pseudo characteristics), he had to In conclusion, then, we consider that the
sign an uncoveredcheckhopingthat with this main value of our threefold classification
money (pseudo-pseudo characteristics) he consists in the fact that it explodes the
would, by gambling again, regain his situa- mythological conception of a self-contained
tion. However, his action comes to light, and personality, allegedly equipped with certain
he loses his reputation for moral integrity, characteristicsinherent in its structure, and
that is, his sham characteristics. In conse- that it replaces it by a more realistic, socio-
quenceof this loss of his sham characteristics psychological, and in some respects even
he loses also his position as professorof math- sociological conception of human personal-
ematics and thus the related pseudo charac- ity.

This content downloaded from 137.189.170.231 on Sun, 13 Dec 2015 10:19:30 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 CHAPTER V
INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE

T HIS last chaptercontainsthreeessays b) How does this relation look from the
which will help to clarify and to illus- point of view of B? What is its significance
trate some further aspects of misunder- for him? How does it present itself to his
standingsin human relations. The first essay mind?
clarifies the complicated interplay between c) How does this relation look to an out-
images and attitudes which, in our opinion, side observerif he comparesthe way it looks
is frequently and fundamentally misunder- to A with the way it looks to B? The con-
stood by many social psychologists. The gruence or incongruence of those two as-
second analyzes the consequences of one pects has a decisive effect upon the whole
particular misinterpretation in the area of dynamics of a given relation and upon its
education, namely, the tendency to evaluate various conflicts and transformations. The
individuals accordingto success and failure. following example will clarify and illustrate
The third and last discusses the predica- these facts.
ment of the "forgotten inner man" in our Let us, then, assume that A, motivated
modernsociety where we are more and more either by his own suspicious characteror by
estranged from one another because we are the influenceof his suspicious wife, Mrs. A,
always "playing roles" and "performing believes mistakenly that his colleague B is
functions" and are having less and less op- intriguing against him in his office. Being a
portunity of "being ourselves."' somewhat easygoing, timid man, he does
not react with aggressivenesstoward B. He
I. IMAGESAND ATTITUDESIN
prefers to solve the emerging conflict situa-
HU1MANRELATIONS
tion by avoiding so far as possible all con-
Three "aspects"of human relations.-We tacts with B. On his part, B, whose inferior-
can understandthe structure and dynamics ity feeling has been aggravated by his read-
of human relationsonly if we approachthem ing of some "helpful"articles about "how to
with a defined perspective. Every human fight inferiority feelings successfully," mis-
relation offers three aspects. Consequently, interprets the reserved attitude of A as an
we have always to ask three kinds of ques- expressionof A's looking-downon him; and
tions in analyzing interpersonal and inter- he, too, becomes reserved.
group relations. If, now, we approachthe relation obtain-
Let us assume that we are investigating ing between A and B in terms of the three
the relationship between an individual A aspects we have identified, we may charac-
and an individual B. We have then to ask terize this relation as follows:
the three following sets of questions: a) The content and meaning of the rela-
a) How does this relation look from the tion as it looks to A is "defensiveattitude on
point of view of A? What is its significance his part, including avoidance of all contacts
for him? How does it reflect itself in his with B, as a reaction (so it looks to him)
mind? against the intrigues of B."
I All three essays were publishedpreviously,in b) The content and meaning of the same
somewhatdifferentversions.The firstin the Amer- relation as it looks to B is "defensive atti-
can SociologicalReview,VIII (I943), 302-5; the sec- tude on his part, as reaction against the im-
ond in Ethics, LIII (I943), I37-4I; the third in
Archiv far angewandteSoziologie (Berlin), III pudent tendency of A to look down on him
(I93I), 252-59. (B)."
57

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
c) The content and meaning of the same hand, is concerned.But if the subject matter
relation in objective terms, that is, if we of our analysis is the interpersonalrelation
confront each of the aspects with the other, betweenA and B, then such statement re-
is "misunderstanding,arising out of mutual mains empty, or even misleading, as long as
misinterpretations." we have not determinedwhat kind of images
On the basis of this three-dimensional they have in their minds about each other.
diagnosis, we may risk the prognosis that The interpersonalsignificanceof an attitude
this relation, distorted as it is by misunder- always depends on the content of the image
standings, will in all probability, unless about the other person to which it refers.
clarification of the original distortion is Thus, if we wish to understand realistically
achieved, lead to ever increasing misinter- the dynamics of interpersonal (and inter-
pretations. It is an important fact of social group) relations, we have always to take
psychology that misinterpretationsand mis- both attitudes and images into account.
understandings, once arisen, tend to mul- Between attitudes and images in human
tiply and to increase, unless the initial dis- relations there exists a very complicated in-
harmony is rectified. As shown in previous terdependence.For instance, A may have a
chapters, misinterpretationsin human rela- distorted image of B, because his attitude
tions are by no means an exception. Human toward B is dominated by envy. In this case
relations are always and essentially the re- it is the attitude which determines the con-
sult of a complicated interplay of under- tent of the image. However, also the oppo-
standing, nonunderstanding,and misunder- site may be true. A may envy B because, by
standing. some external reason like, for instance, gos-
Attitudes and images as basic elementsin sip, his image about B is distorted. What A
human relations.-The concept of attitudes envies in not B "himself" but the image of
has attained in modern social psychology a B which he has in his own mind. In this case,
place of great importance. This prominence the image is the dynamic factor, and the
may have come about because social psy- attitude is only its result.
chologists, mainly concernedwith the prob- The situation here under discussion is
lems of the socialization of the individual, still more complicated by different types of
on the one hand, and with differentforms of rationalizations and self-deceptions which
collective behavior, on the other, tend often are operative in this field. So, for instance,
to neglect the dynamics of interpersonal the "enemy" must be conceived as a "bad
relations. man." Otherwise,we could not have a good
Yet, to approach and to analyze inter- conscience in trying to destroy him. How-
personal (intergroup)relations only in tenns ever, as will be shown below, we should be
of attitudes means to misunderstand their cautious not to succumb to the fallacy of
very nature. This, too, may be an obvious interpreting all such behavior in terms of
fact; but again one which seems never to "rationalization." By doing so, we would
have been grasped in its far-reachingimpli- badly underestimate the amount of other
cations. Witness the many isolated attitudes types of illusions and errors of judgment
tests mnadeand being made in studying ma- which permeatethe field of human relations.
jority-minority relations in our society. Thus, again, if we wish to understand
To define the attitudes which two indi- structure and dynamics of interpersonalre-
viduals (or two groups) take with regard to lations and intergrouprelations, we have al-
each other is meaninglessif we do not define ways to know both the attitudes and the im-
simultaneously the images which they have ages which are involved on both sides. Un-
in their minds about each other. To state, fortunately, social psychology sins heavily
for instance, that A and B hate or admire at present against this principle. This, in
each other may be in itself very significant turn, leads to various, often most fundamen-
as far as the psychology of the personality of tal, misinterpretationsof the relevant facts.
A, on the one hand, and of B, on the other So, for instance, many conflicts in inter-

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE 59
personal (and intergroup) relations are not, tions, then by so doing he merelyproves how
as it is often supposed, the result of hostile thoroughly he is blinded to the role played
("aggressive") attitudes with reference to by different types of illusions, false images,
each other. Rather they are the result of dis- and misunderstandingsin human relations.
torted images which the individuals or the Certainly, an individual who commits an
groups have about each other. Each believes act of aggression may often rationalize and
that he only "defends"himself and that it is deceive himself into believing that he was
the other who is the "aggressor."Certainly, "actually" motivated by the necessity of
very often distorted images and misinter- self-defense.The same may be true about a
pretations are the consequenceof conscious group. However, it is equally possible that
and unconscioushostilities. But also the op- sometimes the opposite may happen: an act
posite is often true: many hostilities are not of real self-defensemay be misinterpretedby
the cause but the consequence of distorted the opponentas an act of aggression,and the
images and misinterpretations. It is worth real motivation brought into disrepute by
while to note at this place that, even though saying that it is only a "rationalization."
this may be shocking and disturbing, we Realistic social psychology must be on guard
have to realize as social psychologists that not to fall victim to the second error in
very frequently, if not always, people who trying to escape the first one.
are persecuting others are not aware that Frameworkof images in human relations.
they are persecuting, for, in the light of the -It is not enough to realize that always
images which they have in their minds, it both attitudes and images constitute essen-
looks to them that they are "fighting for a tial elements in all interpersonal(and inter-
worthy cause" or are "liberating the world group) relations and that it is futile to char-
from an evil thing." acterize the attitudes involved without
A social psychologist who, according to characterizingsimultaneously the images to
his own frame of referenceof which he is not which they refer. We have, furthermore,to
aware, interprets certain actions as "aggres- realize that there exists always a whole
sion" or "persecution" in cases like those framework of images and that each image
referred to above imputes motives which (or each groupof images) has a definiteplace
actually do not exist. He commits a mis- and function in this framework.
interpretation because he has failed to take The following tabulation will be helpful
into account that those whom he interprets in clarifying this complex of images. It
act on the basis of images which radically should, however, not be taken too rigidly.
differ from his own. If, however, our psy- The tabulation contains six parallel ques-
chologist would persist in maintaining that tions which one should always ask in ana-
the "real" motive was "aggression," and lyzing the frameworkof images underlying
those other motives are only rationaliza- any interhumanrelation.
INDIVIDUAL A (OR GROUP) INDIVIDUAL B (OR GROUP)
i. Image a' i. Image b'
How does A see himself with reference to his How does B see himself with reference to his
relation to B? relation to A?
2. Image a" 2. Image b"
How does A believe himself to be seen (ap- How does B believe himself to be seen (ap-
preciated, etc.) by B? preciated, etc.) by A?
3. Image a"' 3. Image b"'f
How does A see B or some facts related to B? How does B see A or some facts related to A?

The functioning of a given interpersonal cies between the images themselves, or the
relation depends on how these different images and the facts to which they refer,
images are attuned to one another and to the tend to produce different kinds of tensions
facts to which they refer.Various discrepan- and disturbances in the given relation.

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 6o MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
Thus, for instance, the relation between A attain success, when, and under which con-
and B may be disturbedeither because A (or ditions. As a matter of fact, these normsand
B) does not see himself as he really is; or standards of success constitute the core of
because A(B) does not see himself as he is the ideology of any particular society.
seen by B(A); or because A(B) is not aware Closely interrelated with these norms are
that he is not seen by B(A) as he sees him- the approved conceptions about "social or-
self; or because A(B), or both, have a dis- der" and "social justice." Society is con-
torted image about each other; etc. sidered to be "in order" and justice is con-
It is a grave misconception to assume sidered "to be done" when those individ-
that tensions in interpersonal relations uals, in general, attain success who "de-
which arise as a result of distorted images in serve" it, in accordance with the existing
the minds of the interacting individuals are norms. If this does not happen, then people
being normally readjustedthrough a rectifi- feel that "there is no justice" or that some-
cation of those distorted images. Sometimes, thing is basically wrong.
of course, this may happen. But very often Under more or less stable conditions,
the processof "readjustment"is achieved by members of any society tend to take their
entirely different mechanisms: not the im- own normsand standardsfor granted. If the
ages are rectified according to the facts to norms and standards are completely inte-
which they referbut rather the persons con- riorized, as is mostly the case, they are like
cerned adapt themselves to the distorted the air which permeates everything but is
images-either to the image in the mind of not explicitly noticed.
the other person or to the image which they Now, the question arises: What are, or
have in their own minds. rather what were, the generally accepted
The readjustment, to be sure, is often norms of success in the Western world in the
only an external one and does not embrace past several centuries?How did they define
deeper strata of the personality. Either A or who "ought"to attain social success,whether
B has to pay a certain psychologicalprice in this success consists in making money, ac-
order to maintain on this basis the relation quiring status, advancing in the career,or in
in a working condition. Whether, and under anything else? It is, indeed, not too difficult
which condition, this psychological price is to answerthis question. Two basic principles
worth being paid constitutes a problem be- or criteria are, or were (for these principles
yond the scope of these remarkson the func- and criteria are at present in a process of
tion of images and attitudes in interhuman transformation),actually involved. The ac-
relations. cepted ideology of success demanded, first,
that competent, and, second, that worthy
II. IDEOLOGY OF SUCCESS AND THE
people should be successful. They "should"
DILEMMA OF EDUCATION
have, therefore, the degree of success which
"corresponds"to the level of their compe-
Modern society (roughly, since the Amer- tence and worthiness. Society is "just" and
ican and French revolutions) is based upon "in order" only if competent and worthy
the ideology of success. This means that our people possess actually those chances of suc-
beliefs, attitudes, emotional reactions, goals, cess which they "deserve." On the other
interpretations, and evaluations of individ- hand, something is "wrong"if this is not the
uals are essentially focused upon success case or if, indeed, the opposite state of
(and failure). In order to understand these affairs prevails.
facts and the associated problems, we need The concept of competencecan be defined
three basic concepts. in the light of the various activities and
Norms of success.-Every society has cer- achievements which are recognizedas valu-
tain, to a large extent only implicit, norms able in our society. To be competent means
and standards which define who ought to to possess personal characteristicswhich en-

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE
able us to make valuable contributions in ing discrepanciesbetween the normsand the
different fields. conditions of success. The device to achieve
The concept of "worthiness"as applied in this aim in our society is simple and sur-
everyday life is more vague but can be de- prisingly effective: success itself is made into
fined, nevertheless. Worthinessimplies such a criterionof interpretingand evaluating in-
characteristicsas kindness, helpfulness, con- dividuals. Successful people, therefore, are
sideration of others, reliability, fair play; in endowed in the imagination of their fellow-
other words, altruistic virtues. All opposite men with all those wonderful characteris-
traits, on the other hand, are "unworthy." tics, abilities, and virtues which they
Summing up, we may say that norms of "ought" to possess if conditions of success
success in our society demand that those in- would in reality correspondto the norms of
dividuals "ought" to attain success who are success.
competent and worthy and, conversely, that These, then, are our basic concepts and
the incompetent and unworthy should be some of their interrelations. With them in
denied success. It might even be added that mind, let us examine further the problems
the positive emphasis is laid on competence, arising out of the success mythology of our
whereasa more negative emphasis is applied civilization.
to worthiness:one should be competent and The discrepancybetweenthe normsand the
one should not be unworthy. conditions of success becomesvisible.-The
Conditionsof success.-From the norms of ideology of success was, as a matter of fact,
success which definewho "ought" to be suc- already in the nineteenth century only a
cessful, we have to distinguish the condi- myth. Even then its dogmas did not cor-
tions under which success is actually at- respond to the social reality. However, so-
tained. Now, obviously, success depends cial trends in the nineteenth century made
partly on certain personal, partly on certain the conditions of success at least appear to
situational, factors (see our discussionof this approximate closer and closer to the ideal
problem in chap. iv). Among those personal expressed in the norms of success. Reality,
as well as situational factors which condition indeed, did not coincide with this ideal.
success are many which operate and are Still, the chasm between the two seemed to
effective in full contradictionto the accepted be getting less and less. Furthermore, the
norms of success. Consequently, many misinterpretations of personality based on
people are successfulwho "should"fail, and success were still effective and convincing
many fail who "should" be successful. The enough to veil the fundamental characterof
degreeof the discrepancybetween the norms contradictions between what is and what
of success and the conditions of success ought to be.
seems to be a fairly reliable index of the However, in the period after World War
moral disorganizationof a given society. I, certain changes took place which intensi-
Interpretationsof success and their social fied the contradictions between the norms
function.-No society can merely exist. and the conditions of success to an extraor-
Rather, every society develops certain ide- dinary degree. One of the consequences of
ologies and mythologies which have the this unexpectedly increasing discrepancy
function of justifying the existing social or- was the disintegrationof the effectivenessof
der. Since there is always a certain amount personality interpretationsbased on success,
of discrepancybetween what "ought to be" and, finally, their collapse as a technique of
and what "reallyis," in every society certain bridging over the gap between ideology and
misinterpretations(rationalizations)are op- reality.
erating which veil the existing contradic- Without going into details, we wish to
tions. More specifically,the function of mis- mention two highly importantdevelopments
interpretations concerning success is to which undermined and finally exploded in
cover up and to make invisible the prevail- the consciousnessof the masses the belief in

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
62 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
the success-producingpower of competence Thus in the period after World War I,
and worthiness and made the previous- the discrepancy between the norms of suc-
ly concealed contradiction between what cess and the conditions of success became
"ought to be" and what "reallyis" apparent definitely apparent. The crisis of modernso-
in an unmistakable way. These two trau- ciety has one of its main roots in this dis-
matic experiences were the widespread un- crepancy and its present acute disclosure.2
employment and the deep national as well The conflict of modern society centered
as private financial crises, especially infla- around the problems of success reflectsitself
tion as it affected everyone. very clearly in certain characteristiccontra-
A deeply intrenched ideology of a par- dictions and dilemmas of the "idealistic"
ticular society never disintegratesby merely and the "realistic"education. We are plead-
rational considerationsor purely intellectual ing neither for the one nor for the other. We
criticism. The disintegration takes place are rathertrying to analyze certain unavoid-
only when certain immediately felt, hard- able consequences of idealistic and realistic
hitting experiences shatter the hopes and education and to indicate the discrepancy
expectations of the masses and impressupon between the intentions and actual results of
them that what they have believed and each of these types of education. (We are
taken for granted is in reality an illusion. consideringthem in terms of "ideal types";
Even in this event it is still possible that actual educational practice is permeated by
certain reinterpretationswill emerge, for in- both idealistic and realistic factors.)
stance, that the conflict is but temporary Nature and consequencesof idealistic edu-
and by no means fundamental and per- cation.-Idealistic education is based on the
manent. However, the contradiction will two following assumptions, whether these
have been revealed as a basic problem and assumptions are explicitly stated or not.
probably will never again remain entirely The first assumption: Certain personal
hidden. traits, attitudes, and modes of behavior are
The mythology of success which made "good"; certain others are "bad." It is the
people believe that success follows auto- main task of education to develop and en-
matically, as "reward," from competence couragethe good characteristicsand to elim-
of the individualwas thus undermined.With inate, suppress,or at least to modify the bad
mnillionsof people suffering the shocks of characteristics. The second assumption: If
continued unemployment, with business this main goal is achieved, that is, if the
failures one after the other, banks closing, "good" personal characteristics are devel-
etc., it was vividly revealed to the man in oped and strengthened, whereas the "bad"
the street that he was not, as he had been led ones are eliminated or made innocuous, ev-
to believe, the master of his fate, because erything in the life of the individual thus
clearly his fate depended upon forces over educated will automatically and inevitably
which he had no control. turn out right. He will be happy and success-
With this psychological crisis of the belief ful. Or, rather, he witl be happy because he
in the success-producingpower of compe- will be successful.
tence was associated a crisis of the belief in As a consequence of this implicit or ex-
the success-producingpower of worthiness.
The latter was caused by such factors as dis-
2
These last remarks apply in a much more defi-
nite way to Europe than to America. However,
integration of traditional patterns of con- Robert S. and Helen M. Lynd in Middletown in
duct, depersonalization of working condi- Transition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.,
tions, intensification of competition, which I937) show clearly that, as far as these problems are

in turn was responsible for a decadence of concerned, there is no fundamental difference be-
tween the development in Europe and in America.
fair play, and, last but not least, the growing The Lynds have formulated the basic conflict in a
skepticism as to the moral integrity of the way very similar to the author's Kritik des Erfolges
new social and political elites. (see chap. iv, n. 4).

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE 63
plicit educational atmosphere young people early ideals, and they throw them overboard
tend to develop an attitude toward life as surplus baggage. If they have retained
which is permeated by the expectation that any need for intellectual reflection, they
one needs only to possess those desirable may develop a deep skepticismas to the pos-
characteristics and all one's day on earth sibilities of any moral education and in any
will be blessed. "The good are rewarded;the case are likely to be highly cynical about all
evil are punished." virtues.
Now, if we confront the expectations A third group are more or less dishonest
emerging from this type of education with with themselves. They adapt themselves in
the hard experiences which everyone is their actions to the "requirementsof real-
bound to meet later in his life, then there is ity" but deceive themselves into believing
but one conclusion. The idealistic education that they still adhereto their originalideals.
systematically misinforms and confuses the A familiar member of this group is the per-
young about certain basic realities of human son about whom we say, "Oh,yes he goes to
existence. The question arises: What are the church on Sunday, but you would never
consequencesof this situation for the inner know it the rest of the week."
development of the individual in his later A fourth group overtly revolts, in one
life? Do we perhaps have here the source of way or another.
some of our far too numerous disorganized Finally, there is also a more or less nu-
personalities? merous group of people who are naive
The idealistic education creates obviously enough not to be aware of the existence, or
a fundamentalconflict between expectations the fundamental character, of the conflict
and realizations and calls forth, therefore, permeating our culture and society. Those
inevitably some kind of self-defensive reac- who belong to this last group may have only
tion on the part of the individual. The na- a vague, uneasy feeling that "something is
ture of this reaction will, of course, depend somehow wrong."
on the personality type and will accordingly In conclusion, we may say that the ideal-
differ from individual to individual. istic education inculcates in each young gen-
One type of individual turns neurotic. eration attitudes and expectations contra-
The personality ideal inculcated by the dictory to reality, and these illusions are,
idealistic education is so deeply rooted in his therefore, bound to be shattered by the ex-
personality structure that it prevents any periences of later life. Modern man, this
adequate adaptation to reality. The neces- problematicalcombinationof neurosis,cyni-
sary adjustment-so far as being successful cism, fatalism, emotional isolation, aspira-
is taken as criterionof a "good adjustment" tion, and revolt, is an inevitable product of
-cannot be achieved, because this behavior an education which is not aware of the im-
would imply the sacrifice of certain basic plications of its own actions.
personality values. These values constitute These now are the nature and conse-
a system of inhabitions ("inhibitions,"to be quences of the idealistic form of education,
sure, only from the point of view of a success viewed as an ideal type. What of the "realis-
ethics) which prevent a conduct adapted to tic" education?Does it offermore satisfying
reality. answers to the needs of men in the modern
Another group becomes cynical. Individ- situation? Again our discussionis in terms of
uals in this group dismiss the ideals and atti- an "ideal type."
tudes inculcated by education, since they Nature and consequencesof a realisticedu-
see that they cannot be applied in practice if cation.-A realistic education would be a
one wishes to succeed. They start to behave system unconcernedwith any abstract prin-
according to the "requirementsof reality"; ciples and ideals. The only recognized goal
they accept and comply with the conditions would be success in life. This type of educa-
of success. They no longerbother about their tion would not inculcate any ideal standards

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
64 MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN HUMAN RELATIONS
according to which we ought to behave but helpless because its whole traditional ap-
would rather teach techniques of adapting proach is unsociological in nature. It has
one's self to the conditions of success. And, almost always tried to shape the individual
again, we have to ask what would be the only in his role as "actor," neglecting the
consequencesof such an education upon the social function of the individual in his role as
formation (and deformation) of personal- "spectator." Still, the sociopsychologicalin-
ity? terdependencebetween "actors" and "spec-
It is obvious that a consistent, nothing tators" constitutes a fact which cannot be
but "realistic,"education would also get in- overestimatedin its basic importancefor the
volved in dilemmas and contradictions educational process.3
which it would be unable to solve. It, too, In approachingthe individual in his role
would lead to consequences in no way cor- as actor, education is attempting to incul-
respondingto its own intentions, for no edu- cate certain emotions, attitudes, and modes
cation can operate under the assumption of behavior; to develop certain "good"
that its only task consists in preparing traits and eliminate "bad" ones in accord-
young people for their later life as adults. It ance with the accepted standardsand ideals.
has also to take into account the needs and At the same time, however, education tends
aspirations of the youthful personality in its to neglect the individuals in their role as
various stages. Youth is not only a "step" or spectators, forgetting this phase of their
a "phase"in the development of personality function in social life. Yet, this amounts to
on its way to adulthood but has meaning in ignoring part of the very essence of the
and of itself. To ignorethe specificemotional problem.
needs of the young generation by consider- It is again an obvious fact that our basic
ing them only in terms of what they mean desires for response and recognition depend
for the future is also unrealistic, although for their fulfilment on the correspondingre-
not "idealistic." There is deep meaning un- actions of spectators, that is, of course, the
derlying the fact that young people live in a reactions of those of us who in the particular
"worldof illusions." Education would be in situation are playing the part of spectators.
danger of destroying the essential emotional Now, the reactions of these spectators on
foundations of personality if it took over which the gratification of our desires for re-
the function of a systematic disillusionment sponse and recognition depend, are subject
of the youth instead of leaving this task to to, and distorted by, the misinterpretations
the hard experiencesof later life. Certainly, of success which we have analyzed above.
an excess of illusions has as its consequence Individuals in their roles as actors deal not
the inability to cope with the basic realities with unbiased and detached spectators by
of human existence. Yet, to instil a complete whom they would be judged according to
lack of illusions from the very beginning their real merit but rather with spectators
would result in a personality type stunted whose judgments and evaluations are sub-
and dried up. merged in the mythology of success.
It appearsevident, therefore,that neither What are the consequencesof this situa-
an idealistic nor a realistic education can tion? They are indeed obvious. As long as we
adequately meet the dilemmas and contra- ourselves, as spectators, continue to judge
dictions centered around the problems aris- and evaluate other people according to
ing out of the modernsuccess ideology. As a whether they are successes or failures, we
result the existing difficultiesare frequently shall exert a silent but neverthelesspowerful
being "solved," or rather covered up, by an pressure upon one another to strive after
incredibleeducational confusion. success, by one means or another. Things
Education of "actors" and education of 3 As to the role of "actors"and "spectators"in
"spectators."-In facing all these dilemmas social life see Alfred Vierkandt, Gesellschaftslehre
and contradictions, education is often so (2d ed.; Stuttgart: F. Enke, I928), pp. 405-I2.

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE 65
being as they are, success provides us not world. One of the results of this develop-
only with material comforts which we all ment is an inevitable split in the structureof
desire but also, in consequence of these col- our social environment.It is not consciously
lectively operating misinterpretations, with intended, nor are most of us able to define
social appreciationand moral approval after and deal with it. Yet no one of us can escape
which we all are striving. its profound consequences.On the following
Since the sociopsychologicalinterdepend- pages we shall attempt to trace out the rela-
ence between "actors"and "spectators"is a tions which obtain between the specializa-
basic fact of social life, the moral level of our tion and differentiationof our occupational
social actions will always dependon the level activities, the split in the structure of our
as well as adequacy of the judgments, evalu- social environment, and the isolation of the
ations, and reactions of our fellow-men in individual in the modern world.
their role as spectators. We cannot free our- In analyzing these interrelations, it be-
selves from our inner dependence on these comes evident that there are two sets of
responses. facts and problems to be considered.On the
The implications of our analysis for the one hand, we are confronted by the con-
theory as well as for the practice of educa- tinually increasing tension between the in-
tion are perfectly clear. Education is wasting ner personality of the individual and the
its effort if it limits itself to the attempt to social role (or roles) he is expected to play.
change attitudes and modes of behavior in On the other hand are certain sociopsycho-
"actors," without trying simultaneously to logical mechanismswhich operate in human
change the judgments and reactions in relations in such a way that we disregard
''spectators" on whom the actors depend more and more the innerpersonality of indi-
emotionally in so basic a way. The individ- viduals and take into account only the ex-
ual as "spectator"would, first of all, have to ternal roles they are bound to play. Let us
be set free from those misinterpretations begin our discussion with the first of these.
based on success which distort and falsify Notwithstanding the considerableatten-
his evaluations of other people. Then, and tion and reformspresently being directedto-
only then, the individual as "actor" might ward offsetting this effect, specializationand
be set free from those collective pressures differentiationin our job activities offer less
which distort his personality and misdirect and less opportunity for a spontaneous self-
his reactions and judgments. This could be expression in work. Like machines, most of
true because then he would be able to attain us are performing certain required func-
social response and moral appreciation by tions, many of which represent only a min-
appealing to adequate and correct evalua- ute contribution to a total product or serv-
tions of his fellow-men on the basis of real ice. Even on professional and supervisory
merits and not, as at present, by striving levels so much specializationis requiredthat
blindly for success by one means or another. perspective of the whole is impossible, and
we operate too nearly as automatons. We
III. ISOLATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL
are able to continue only at the price of sup-
IN THE MODERN SOCIETY
pressing vital parts of our total personality.
The differentiation, specialization, and As long as we, the man-machines, operate
dehumanizationof all our activities centered smoothly and produce the expected job re-
around our jobs continue and increase, We sults, few care how we feel about what we
seem driven by an insatiable lust for in- are doing. It is production alone which is
creased productivity of material goods and registered and counted.
the correlated mechanisms of competition Specialization of work, the loss of the
and efficiency. Too many of us still are meaning of work as an intrinsicallyvaluable
blindly taking all this for granted as the way of life and not alone as a way of making
natural way and goal of life in our Western money, blocking of self-expression,difficulty

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 66 MISUNDERSTANDINGSIN HUMAN RELATIONS
of developing a genuine pride in workman- not music but, let us say, financial news. A
ship-all these factors and many others pre- politician, disgusted with the manipulations
vent a genuine identification of the individ- of political life, might feel that he is only
ual with his occupationally defined social really himself in his family circle; his public
role. The individual cannot help playing this life is only sham and masquerade.Not per-
assigned role but is often unable and unwill- ceiving this, other people continue to see in
ing to accept it as a genuine expressionof his him primarily the "politician," and this of-
personality. There is, thus, a growing es- ten determines to a frustrating degree the
trangement between inner personality and nature and the content of his social rela-
the major social role. This is one of the basic tions. In both cases estrangementand isola-
aspects of the sociopsychologicalsituation of tion of the real self are the inevitable result.
the modern man. Further analysis reveals Summing up, we can say that the socio-
the presence of another equally imnportant psychological mechanisms operate in our
one. modern society in such a way that they
It is again one of our now famous "ob- make us neglect, or even ignore, in other
vious" facts that the way interpersonalrela- people their individual, personal, intimate
tions function depends not only on the atti- characteristics and make us perceive and
tudes, tendencies, and characteristicsof the respond too often only to those characteris-
individuals involved but, as much or more, tics which are related to occupational roles.
on the situations and positions within which Hence the vast majority feel, whether in-
the particular relation takes place. Situa- tensely or vaguely, that they are submerged
tions and positions are many times predomi- in an atmosphere of estrangement within
nant factors controlling and directing the which all those personal and intimate fac-
dynamics of interpersonalrelations, whether tors are excluded which constitute in reality
the individuals involved are aware of it or the core of their emotional lives. Being iso-
not. Now, among the various controllingsit- lated and feeling isolated is only an inevi-
uations and positions the occupationally de- table reflection of this atmosphere of es-
fined situations and positions have a very trangementwhich pervades modern human
great importance. It is the occupational role relations.
which functions as one of the most impor- The resulting tensions are at the bottom
tant social symbols in identifying, classi- of various types of psychological conflicts
fying, and evaluating individuals. "What between the inner personality and the im-
does he do?" is one of our very first ques- posed social role. In spite of these tensions,
tions. Often we do not go beyond it.4 the sociopsychological mechanisms which
In consequence of this state of affairs control and direct interpersonal relations
those aspects, or strata, of our personalities continue to operate as if the social roles we
related to our occupational roles most read- are playing were a genuine and spontaneous
ily find preparedand accepted channels for self-expression of personality. Thus, inevi-
self-expression.Very often all other aspects, tably the atmosphere of estrangement and
or strata, of our personalities, significant as emotional isolation to which we refer, and,
they may be, are blocked or condemned to for purposes of this study, another misun-
remain silent in the background. The busi- derstandingis functioning to disturb human
nessman is consideredprimarilya "business- relations.
man" even if, in terms of his inner personal- This atmosphere is, of course, not in all
ity, passion for music means more to him areas of modern life equally intense. As is
than anything else, including business. well known, the modern metropolis offers
Other people, motivated by situational fac- the most propitious soil for the pathological
tors, automatically select as the "proper" development of extreme forms of isolation.
topic for conversation in talking with him It is in the big cities where human relations
4 Cf. chap. iv, pp. 36-37. operate almost exclusively in the medium of

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 INNER PERSONALITY, IMAGE, AND SOCIAL ROLE 67
"social roles." There it is not unusual for might cope with the situation by trying to
people to work together for years and years "minimizetheir activities within the world"
without knowing much, if anything, about (Max Weber). Individuals who belong to
the private, intimate life aspects of one an- this type will tend to keep aloof, in order to
other. It is the tragic split in the whole or- preserve the integrity of their personalities.
ganization of modern life which promotes They are, so to speak, isolated within them-
and imposes upon us this living together in selves and accept by an act of resignation
such a restrained and emotionally starved the estrangement between the inner per-
relationship. sonality and the social role as an inescapable
In some rural areas and small communi- condition of their lives.
ties, the unity and coherence of different The extremneopposite of this type is rep-
spheres of life is still a reality. There the in- resentedby those who are free from any sig-
dividual is still accepted and interpretednot nificant tension between inner personality
only through his social role but immediately and social role. This might be the manifesta-
and directly as a human being. Since people tion of an inner emptiness-that is, there is
are mutually still aware of their private no inner personality which is in revolt
backgrounds,the personal and intimate ele- against the artificial world of "roles"-or it
ments of life continue to permeate all hu- mnightbe a manifestation of an extremely
man relations. rational and purposive personality struc-
In the big city there is no need to "keep" ture. In this latter case, persons accept the
private aspects of life hidden. They remain world of roles as the only valid pattern of
automatically hidden. Deprived of personal- life, relinquishing any desire for a deeper
ized, intimate contents, human relations self-expression.
function in an empty way. There are fleeting There is finally a third type, represented
contacts with hundredsof persons daily, but by those individuals who, in principle, are
they are contacts not of human beings with willing and able to enter the world of social
desires for expression and response but of roles and to accept them as a meaningful
automatons who indifferently or carefully pattern of life, who, however, are neither
perform certain tasks, observe a minimum willing nor able to discard altogether the
of rutesof traffic,each going a separate way, other, deeper meaning of life which consists
exchanging services in an atmosphere of re- not in playing successfullysocial roles but in
ciprocal ignorance of each other. Yet this being one's self. It is this third type of per-
impersonal and reserved way of behaving is sons who are the real victims of the atmos-
too often nothing but a facade which con- phere of estrangement in modern society.
ceals the suffocateddesire for self-expression Individuals who belong to this last type are
and for response. the schizoid personalities of our age. The
Differentpersonality types will, of course, roots of their schizoid personality, however,
react differently to the frustrating experi- are essentially not psychological but socio-
ence of being and feeling isolated. One type logical in nature.

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.28 on Sat, 24 Oct 2015 15:27:21 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions