CHILD & ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT
(Review)

SHANE CARMIE C. SAPERA

College of Social Sciences
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What are we going to cover in our session (this morning)?
01 02 03 04
Child and Adolescent Exceptionalities Piaget’s Cognitive Vygotsky’s
Development and Development Sociocultural
Growth Theory Theory

05 06 07 08
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory on Erikson’s Freud’s
Bioecological Intelligences Psychosocial Psychosexual
Model Theory Theory
 The Child and
Adolescent Learners

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 Childhood and Adolescence
● Childhood is the state or time of being a child;
especially the period from infancy to puberty. It is the
time for innocence, free from responsibility but
vulnerable to outside forces.

● The Convention of the Rights of the Child defines a

child as “every human being below the age of 18
years unless under the law applicable to the child,
majority is attained earlier”.
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 Childhood and Adolescence
● Adolescence is the transitional period of psychological
and social human development following the onset of
puberty during which a young person develops from a
child into an adult (ages 13—19 years old).

● It represents a complex and sometimes disturbing

psychological transition, accompanying the requirement
for the accepted social behavior of the particular adult
and culture.
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 The Rights of Children and
Young Persons
● Presidential Decree No. 603 – Dated December 10, 1974
provides the list of Rights of Children and Young Persons.
It aims at understanding children better and for the
Filipino teacher to be more aware of the children’s rights.
● Article 3: Right of the Child – All children shall be entitled
to the rights herein set forth without distinction as to
legitimacy or illegitimacy, sex, social status, religion,
political antecedents, and other factors.
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 The Rights of Children and
Young Persons
● The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child 1989 (UNCRC) is the most widely ratified
international human rights treaty in its entire existence.
It was adopted by the General Assembly on November
20, 1989 and ratified by the United Kingdom in 1991.

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Physical and Motor
Development of
Children and
Adolescents

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 DevelopmentXGrowth
Development - is the pattern of movement or change
that begins at conception and continues through
the life span. The scientific study of human
development seeks to understand and explain
how or why people change throughout life. This
includes all aspects of human growth, including
physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and
personality development.
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 DevelopmentXGrowth

Growth - refers to quantitative changes in an

individual as he progresses in
chronological age. It may refer to increases
in size, weight, or height.

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 Development
● Development – means the progressive series of changes of an
orderly, coherent type toward the goal of maturity.
● Development is progressive (refers to changes that are
directional, leading forward) as well as orderly and coherent
(there is a definite relationship between each stage and the
next stage in the developmental sequence).
● There are three aspects of development: Anatomic,
Physiologic and Behavioral.

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 Two Principles of Development
● Phylogenetic Principle – States that development
follows an orderly sequence which is predictable and
is true to all members of a certain race.
● Ontogenetic Principle – The rate of development is
unique to every individual. It is brought about by
one’s hereditary as well as environmental influences.

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 Predictable Trends of
Development
1) Cephalocaudal Trend – development proceeds
from head to foot direction.

2) Proximodistal Trend – the parts of the body

nearest the center are the parts which develop
earlier.

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 Causes of Development

Maturation – the development or unfolding of traits

potentially present in the individual from his heredity
endowment.

Learning – The result of the activities of the child

himself.

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 Eight Stages of Development

1) Pre-natal Stage – From conception (when the ovum

is fertilized by the spermatozoon producing a zygote
or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.

2) Infancy or Babyhood – (0-2 years old) Foundation

age when basic behavior patterns are organized and
many ontogenetic skills emerge.

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 Eight Stages of Development
3.) Early Childhood – (2-6 years old) Characterized as
pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language
and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial
socialization is experienced.

4.) Late Childhood – (6-12 years old) Gang age, age of

creativity, development of social, self-help, play and
school skill.
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 Eight Stages of Development
5.) Adolescence – (13-19 years old) Transition age from
childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid
physical development occurs resulting to changes in
way of feeling, thinking and acting.

6.) Early Adulthood – (19-40 years old) Age of

adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as
spouse, parent and bread winner.
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 Eight Stages of Development

7.) Middle Age – (40-retirement years) Transition age

when adjust to initial physical and mental decline are
experienced

8.) Old Age – (Retirement-death) Increasing rapid

physical and mental decline. Psychological as well as
physical illnesses are experienced.

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 Infants’ Reflexes
1.) SUCKING REFLEX allows babies to drink milk and
nourish themselves in the days of life.
2.) HEAD TURNING allows a baby to turn his head if
something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is
blocking his airflow.
3.) ROOTING REFLEX - When babies root, they may
nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s
chest or shoulder.
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 Infants’ Reflexes
4.)GRASPING REFLEX - For the first 3 to 4 months, babies will grasp
anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for
their size.
5.) MORO RESPONSE is another reflex that is present during the
first 6 months of life. A baby with arch her back, flail out, and then
curl up if she feels as although she is being dropped.
6.) TONIC NECK occurs when babies lie awake on their backs with
their heads facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the side of
their body that they’re facing. This reflex may help prepare them for
voluntary reaching later in their environment.
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Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve
the large muscles of the body.
Examples:running, walking, catching and throwing balls

Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use

the smaller muscles in the arms, hands, and fingers
purposefully.
Examples: writing, drawing, holding spoon and fork, buttoning

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 Preschooler’s
Artistic Development
1. SCRIBBLING STAGE 2. PRESCHEMATIC STAGE

3. SCHEMATIC STAGE

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 Stages of Play
(Mildred Parten)

● Unoccupied Play - the child is not engaging in play

● Onlooker Play - occurs when a child watches other

children play. He/she may talk with them but not
enter into play with them.
● Solitary Play - the child plays alone

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 Stages of Play
(Mildred Parten)
● Parallel Play - the child play with toys similar to those
near him, but only plays beside and not with them.
No interaction takes place.
● Associative Play - the child plays with others. It
involves interaction but with no rules and
organization agreed upon.
● Cooperative Play - the child plays with others bound
by agreed rules and roles.
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 Adolescents’ Changes

● Puberty – physical differences that differentiate

males and females. These are either primary
changes (changes in reproductive system itself) or
secondary changes (like changes in the person’s
breasts in females or growth of facial hair for
males).
● Spermarche – first ejaculation of semen for men.
● Menarche – beginning of menstrual cycle for women.
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 Adolescents’ Four Phases in the
Attainment of an Identity
1. IDENTITY FORECLOSURE - a case of an adolescent who is a
follower, finding security in others, not in his/her self.
2. IDENTITY MORATORIUM - a case of an adolescent searcher,
enters a crisis by becoming aware of alternate roles, values
and beliefs.
3. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - this is the point where the
adolescent fully finds himself/herself
4. IDENTITY DIFFUSION - this is the case of the adolescent
failing to find himself/herself
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 Brain Development
● The brain’s ability to change from experience is
known as plasticity. The human brain is especially
plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of
the equation is so important.
● As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several
critical periods, as developmental phase in which the
brain requires certain environmental input or it will
not develop normally.
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 Factors Affecting Development
● Maternal Nutrition - the nutritional status of the
women during adolescent pregnancy and lactation
has a direct impact on the child’s health and
development.
● Child Nutrition - the child’s state of nutritional
balance is crucial in his early developmental age.
● Early Sensory Stimulation - Toys, soothing sounds
and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the
child’s development.
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 Factors Affecting Growth

● Genetic History
● Nutrition
● Medical Conditions
● Exercise
● Sleep
● Emotional Well-Being

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 Exceptional Development
● Physical Disabilities - Persons with physical disabilities
may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor,
or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their
ability to walk, play and learn.
● Physical disabilities are also often defined and
categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of
upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture
and positioning.
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 Exceptional Development

● Sensory Impairment - Persons with physical

disabilities may experience mild to severe
deficiencies of the sensory organs, particularly on
sight and hearing.

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 Sensory Impairments Classes
(For Sight)
● Visual Impairment – any visual problem that calls for
specific modification. It may include visual acuity
problems such as: reduced visual acuity (poor sight),
amblyopia (lazy eye), hyperopia (farsightedness),
myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism (imperfect
vision).

● Blindness – the inability of a person to see anything.

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 Sensory Impairments Classes
(For Hearing)
● According to Onset: congenitally (those born deaf) and
adventitiously (became deaf due to accident or illness).
● According to Language Development: prelingually (lost hearing
before language is developed) and postlingually (lost hearing after
language is developed).
● According to Place of Impairment: conducive (impaired outer ear
hearing), sensory neural (impaired inner ear hearing) and mixed (flat
loss of hearing).

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 Exceptional Development

● Learning Disability – Refers to disorders that

affect broad range of academics and functional
skills, including inability to: listen well, speak,
process information readily, talk, read, write, spell,
add numbers, reason, and organize information.

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 Different Types of
Learning Disabilities
● Dyslexia – Reading
● Dysgraphia – Writing
● Visual Agnosia – Sight
● Motor Aphasia – Speaking
● Dysarthria – Stuttering
● Auditory Agnosia – Hearing
● Olfactory Agnosia – Smelling
● Dyscalculia – Math
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 Exceptional Development
• Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) – is a
neurodevelopmental mental disorder that makes it difficult for
a person to pay attention and control impulsive behaviors. He
or she may also be restless and almost constantly active.

• Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) – this disorder is like ADHD

symptoms but in this disorder is absence of being hyperactive.

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Linguistic and Literacy
Development of
Children and
Adolescents

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 Natural History of
Language Development
● Traditional Learning – language development is based upon
the principle of reinforcement.
● Nativist Approach (Proponent: Noam Chomsky) – it asserts
the children to have an innate Language Acquisition
Device (LAD) that enables them to learn a language early
and quickly.
● Interactionist View – children are biologically prepared for
language but requires experience for adequate
development.
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 The Antecedents of
Language Development

● Pseudodialogues – the give and take conversation

of an infant and an adult.
● Protodeclaratives – the infant’s use of gestures to
make statement on an object.
● Protoimperatives - the infant’s use of gestures to
get someone to do something he wants.

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 Bilingual Language Development

● Bilingualism – Children learn two languages

simultaneously.
● Motherese – the way of understanding the
children’s special words for things.
● Code Switching - mixing of two different languages
back and forth within the sentence.

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 Emergent and Early Literacy

● Fast Mapping – the child’s ability to map the

meaning of a new word onto a coherent after
hearing a word used in context just once.
● Holophrase – a word used to represent of a first
stage of language acquisition.
● Vocabulary Explosion – the rapid addition of new
words into a toddler's vocabulary.

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 Three Stages of Reading
1) Emergent Reading – the purpose of communicative
print is understood by children.
2) Beginning Reading – the children learn the phoneme-
grapheme correspondence and start to decode
words.
3) Fluent Reading – children have learned to read, decode
unfamiliar words and recognize words automatically.

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Cognitive Development
of Children and
Adolescents

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PIAGET’S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Cognitive learning is a style of learning that focuses on

more effective use of the brain. To understand the process of
cognitive learning, it’s important to know the meaning of
cognition. Cognition is the mental process of gaining
knowledge and understanding through the senses,
experience and thought. Cognitive learning theory merges
cognition and learning to explain the different processes
involved in learning effectively.

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 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Piaget believed that children take an

active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add
new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas
to accommodate new information.
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 Cognitive Development Process
● Assimilation: Absorb as part of itself. The individual
acquires information or knowledge by which
experiences are integrated into existing schemes.

● Accommodation: A process of creating a new

scheme by modifying an existing scheme after an
individual’s interaction with the environment.

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 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Basic Concepts:
Schema: cognitive structures (knowledge and
experiences)
Assimilation: fitting a new experience into an
existing schema.
Accommodation: process of creating a new schema
Equilibrium: balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

OBJECT PERMANENCE: ability of the child to know that
an object still exists even when out of sight.

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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
2. The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)
SYMBOLIC FUNCTION: ability to represent objects and
events
EGOCENTRICISM: tendency of the child to only see his
POV and cannot take others’ perspectives.
CENTRATION: tendency of the child to only focus on
one aspect of an object.

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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
2. The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)
IRREVERSIBILITY: inability to reverse their thinking.
ANIMISM: tendency of children to attribute human-like
traits to inanimate objects.
TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING: neither inductive nor
deductive: If A causes B, then B causes A.

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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3. The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
DECENTERING: ability of the child to perceive the
different features of objects and situations.
REVERSIBILITY: certain processes can be done in
reverse
CONSERVATION: determines that a certain quantity will
remain the same despite adjustments
SERIATION: ability to arrange things in series or order
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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
4. Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)
HYPOTHETICAL REASONING: ability to come up with
guesses with bases.
ANALOGICAL REASONING: ability to perceive relationship
in one instance and use it to narrow down possible
answers in same situation.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING: ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or
situation.
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 THE FOUR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
1. Children often play the roles of "mommy", "daddy", "doctor", and
many other characters.
2. Upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his
favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better.
3. A very young infant will believe that the other person or object
has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the
object reappears.
4. To graduate at this high school, a student must have 80 as lowest
grade. Sally’s lowest grade is 85. Therefore, Sally will graduate.

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VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-
CULTURAL THEORY
 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human
development as a socially mediated process in which
children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and
problem-solving strategies through collaborative
dialogues with more knowledgeable members of
society. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts
such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the
Zone of Proximal Development.

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SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

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 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Let us take a look at the three stages of speech development,
according to Vygotsky.
Stage 1 – Social or External Speech
This covers the preverbal stage, usually under the age of
three, when the child is still unable to transcribe his
thoughts in complete thought messages. His thoughts are
pretty simple, and his emotions basic, and there is no
intellectual or thinking exercise involved.

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 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Stage 2 – Egocentric Speech
If, in the first stage, the purpose of the child’s
speech is to control the behavior of other people,
the egocentric speech in the second stage is
spoken as a way for the child to direct his own
behavior.

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 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Stage 3 – Inner Speech
The final speech development stage takes place once the
child becomes older and starts growing toward adulthood,
and he is able to use it to direct both his thinking and the
resulting behavior or action. This does not require his
thoughts to be voiced out loud, with all thinking processes
done in his head.

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BRONFENBRENNER’S
BIOECOLOGICAL
MODEL
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 Individual Differences Theories

● Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

● Bem’s Gender Schema Theory
● Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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 Sternberg’s Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence

● Proponent: Robert J. Sternberg

● The theory by itself was among the first to go
against the psychometric approach to intelligence
and take a more cognitive approach.

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 Sternberg’s Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence
The three meta components are also called triarchic
components:

● Analytical Abilities – power of logical reasoning.

● Creative Abilities – involves imagining and devising
new ways of addressing issues.
● Practical Abilities – involve the use of common sense.

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 Gardner’s
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
● Proponent: Howard Gardner – The theory of
multiple intelligences differentiates human
intelligence into specific ‘modalities’, rather than
seeing intelligence as dominated by a single ability.
● He proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames
of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

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 Nine Multiple Intelligences
1) Musical – This area has to do with sensitivity to
sounds, rhythms, tones, and music.

2) Visual-Spatial – This area deals with spatial judgment

and the ability to visualize.

3) Linguistic – This area display a facility with words and

languages.
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 Nine Multiple Intelligences
4.) Logical-Mathematical – This area has to do with logic,
abstractions, reasoning, and numbers.

5.) Bodily-Kinesthetic – They have control of one's bodily

motions.

6.) Interpersonal – They are characterized by their sensitivity

to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, and motivations.

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 Nine Multiple Intelligences
7.) Intrapersonal – This area has to do with
introspective and self-reflective capacities.

8.) Naturalistic – the individual who is readily able to

recognize flora and fauna.

9.) Existential – rely on the concept of spirituality as

being distinct from religious intelligence.
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 Exceptional Development
● Intellectually Gifted – they were able to learn faster and more
efficiently and process information at a faster pace,
significantly better and different from the rest.
● Children with Intellectual Deficits – they were the children
suffering from the underdevelopment of their cognitive
abilities.
● Down Syndrome – also called Trisomy 21 due to the deviation
of the 21st chromosome, they were characterized by a distinct
physical appearance, and physical and mental retardation.
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 Exceptional Development
● Turner Syndrome – a chromosome abnormality among females
in which the secondary sex characteristics are developed with
the administration of female hormones.
● Klinefelter’s Syndrome – a chromosome abnormality
characterized by feminine characteristics of a male (XXY
chromosome).
● Pervasive Developmental Disorders – a collection of disorders
characterized by gross deficits in many areas of cognitive,
emotional, and social development.
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 Exceptional Development

● Autistic Disorder – a universal disorder characterized by

the inability of the children to communicate and interact
socially.
● Asperger’s Syndrome – a milder version of the Autistic
Disorder where its patient does not suffer from linguistic
and cognitive abilities.

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Social and Emotional
Development of
Children and
Adolescents

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● Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human
Development
● Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
● Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

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 ERIKSON’S
PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY
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 FREUD’S
PSYCHOSEXUAL
THEORY
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STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT

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 Emotional Intelligence

● Proponent: Daniel Goleman

● Emotional intelligence is a type of social

intelligence that affords an individual the ability to
monitor his own and others’ emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use the
information to guide his actions.

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 Major Qualities of
Emotional Intelligence
● Self-awareness – the ability to recognize the feeling
as it happens.

● Mood Management – the ability to change mood

from good to bad and vice versa.

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 Major Qualities of
Emotional Intelligence
● Self-motivation – developing confidence to arrive at
concrete achievement.
● Impulse Control – the ability to delay urge in the
service of the goal.
● People Skills – The ability to feel for the person.

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● Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral
Development
● Elliot Turiel’s Moral Rules
● Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

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KOHLBERG’S THEORY
OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
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 Elliot Turiel’s Moral Rules

● Proponent: Elliot Turiel – maintains that even

young children can distinguish moral rules from
what are dictated by conventions and are
accepted ways of doing things.
● Moral rules manifest a concern for the welfare of
others and are not influenced by opinion.

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 Carol Gilligan’s
Theory of Moral Development

● Proponent: Carol Gilligan – speaks of moral

development as a balance between male-oriented
theories (like Kohlberg’s and Freud’s) and insights
from interviews of females.

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 Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

The moral development in females is traced through

three levels:
● Level One (the primary concern is oneself)

● Level Two (Females equate morality for others)

● Level Three (morality is equated care of both

themselves and others).

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 Three Factors Affecting
Moral and Emotional Development
● Parenting – refers to a way to assist, help, listen and do
something for a child.
● Role Models – parents serve as role models as they provide
influence for their sons’ and daughters’ perceptions of men
and women.
● Peer Groups and Interactions – Peer groups have always been
sources of affection, sympathy, and understanding. Variations
in interactions between parents and siblings with birth order
are also present.
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 Styles of Parenting
(According to Diana Baumrind)
● Authoritative – stresses self-reliance, independence, and
open communication between the parents and the
child.
● Authoritarian – stresses obedience, respect for authority
and traditional values.
● Indulgent – characterized by showing affection but with
little supervision.
● Neglectful – characterized by little warmth, nurturing and
supervision.
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