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 Chapter - 4
Post-Harvest Quality

Authors
Abhinav Dubey (Ph.D.)
Scholar, Division of Agricultural Engineering, ICAR-IARI,
New Delhi, India
Lubna Sadaf Anchal
Assistant Professor (Contract), Department of Natural
Resources Management, College of Horticulture, Kolar,
Karnataka, India

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Page | 52
 Chapter - 4
Post-Harvest Quality
Abhinav Dubey and Lubna Sadaf Anchal

Abstract
Quality is not a single, well-defined attribute, but it includes many
features or properties. The statistical combinations of multiple sensors for
measurements have improved the probability of overall quality prediction.
However, there must be a broad variety of circumstances for sensor testing
and calibration. It is essential to understand what is actually being detected
in order to remove the constraints. of course, there are different requirements
for laboratory and industry applications. Post-harvest loss of quality in fruits
and vegetables occur due to improper harvesting, transportation, storage and
distribution. Post-harvest life of fruits and vegetables is governed by water
content, respiratory rate, ethylene production, endogenous plant hormones,
and exogenous factors such as microbial growth, temperature, relative
humidity and atmospheric compositions. In evaluating food quality, both
sensory and objective techniques are essential and the two techniques
complement each other. For the growth of fresh products, sensory analysis is
crucial, as only customers are primary who can say if the item is acceptable
or not. Objective testing, however, is also essential, particularly for routine
food product quality control. So it can be found that sensory and objective
tests are biologically and mechanically interrelated to each other in order to
determine general quality and acceptability. Although these methods provide
a right image and accurate parameter measurement, they are not suitable for
tiny companies. Only big entrepreneurs and developed countries are
restricted by their greater costs. A few modifications have happened in the
manufacturing and marketing of fresh product with the growth of such a new
method.
Keywords: quality, estimation of quality, non-destructive techniques,
statistical quality control
1. Introduction
Quality can be described as "fitness for purpose." A product's "ideal"
quality is linked to a determined degree of growth or maturation, where the

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structure or mixture of physical characteristics and chemical components has
highest consumer acceptance. A key concept in maintaining quality features
and extending shelf life is the understanding that distinct pieces of fruit and
vegetables are still alive, not only when still connected to the mother plant,
but also after harvest. Quality assessment must be carried out in all sections
as the sector must have understanding of the real value of the item and its
conservation ability based on pre-established norms until commercialization.
Consumers may not accept a product unless it has the demands or required
quality attributes that can have a significant effect on the marketing chain,
particularly on exports. The quality of a product can be assessed, whether
destructive or not, through a sensory panel or using tools [1]. Quality
specifications can be categorized into three categories: sensory, dietary, and
safety, and should be regarded together in order to meet the needs of
customers and public health. The relative significance provided to a
particular quality attribute differs depending on the commodity involved and
the person (producers, consumers and handlers) or market involved with
quality assessment. High returns, excellent looks, easy harvesting and the
capacity to sustain long-distance shipping to markets are significant quality
characteristics for manufacturers. From the point of perspective of wholesale
and retail marketers, appearance, firmness, and shelf life are essential.
Consumers, on the other side, judge on appearance (including ' freshness ') at
the moment of original purchase the quality of new fruits, ornamentals, and
vegetables.
2. Factors affecting post-harvest quality of fruits and vegetable
The most important factors affecting the post-harvest quality of fruits
and vegetables are discussed below [14].
i. Genetic/variety
Varieties with shorter shelf-lives are usually susceptible to increased
losses from post-harvest. Varieties with dense peel, elevated firmness, low
breathing rate and low manufacturing levels of ethylene would normally
have longer storage life. Cultivars that can resist marketing and distribution
rigors will have lower post-harvest losses.
Varieties with low heat resistance and/or decay-causing pathogens can
be stored well with minimal storage losses for longer length. Therefore,
while growing horticultural plants, one must choose such varieties that
inherently have excellent quality and potential for storage in relation to the
potential for elevated yield and pest resistance.

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ii. Light
Light controls several physiological processes such as synthesis of
chlorophyll, phototropism, respiration and stomatal opening. Duration,
intensity and quality of light have an impact on the quality of harvest fruits
and vegetables. Most products require elevated light intensity (3000-8000
F.C.). The carnation and chrysanthemum vase life is longer than small under
elevated light intensity. In tomatoes, fruit leaf shading generated a deeper red
colour during maturation than those subjected to light during maturation.
The fruit side that has been subjected to sun will usually be firmer than the
side that has not been exposed. Generally speaking, the reduced the light
intensity, the reduced the plant tissue ascorbic acid content.
iii. Temperature
Temperature influences all types of physiological and biochemical
processes linked to crop development and yield. During field circumstances,
the greater temperature reduces product life and quality. At high
temperature, stored carbohydrates of fruits, vegetables and flowers are
quickly depleted during respiration and plant respires at the faster rate. For
instance, elevated temperature on and off the plant during the tomato fruiting
season leads to rapid fruit ripening.
Orange cultivated in tropics tends to have greater sugars and TSS than
the sub-tropics grown. Tropical oranges, however, tend to be green and peel
less readily, owing to the reduced diurnal temperature in the tropics.
iv. Humidity
In some horticultural products, elevated moisture during the growing
season outcomes in thin rind and enhanced size, which is more susceptible to
elevated disease incidence during the post-harvest period. Humid
atmosphere can cause fungal and bacterial diseases to develop, causing
damage during storage and transportation. Damaged products rapidly
remove water and emit a higher ethylene concentration than healthy ones. In
crops with thin leaves or leaflets, low humidity can trigger browning of the
leaf surface. High moisture can retain water–in a situation, carried pollutants
can be absorbed more readily through the cuticles or stomata.
v. Mineral nutrition
In order to maintain plant growth and development, balanced application
of all nutrient components is essential. The use of fertilizers on plants affects
their rate of respiration after harvest. Certain elements' excess or deficiency
may influence crop quality and post-harvest life.

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a) Nitrogen: High N fertilization reduces pH life and quality of
anthurium, cut flowers and many horticultural products while
moderate to high K increases. K in water melon application tends to
reduce the post-harvest respiration. High levels on N tend to
decrease flavour, TSS, firmness and colour of the fruit and in stone
fruits it increases physiological disorders and decrease fruit colour.
Generally speaking, plants with elevated nitrogen concentrations
typically have reduced quality keeping than those with reduced
concentrations as. High nitrogen improves fruit breathing, thereby
decreasing their storage life by quicker tissue decay.
b) Phosphorous: Phosphorous application minimizes weight loss,
sprouting and rotting relative to lower implementation in bulb
plants. Phosphorous diet may change some product's post-harvest
physiology by influencing membrane lipid chemistry, membrane
integrity, and breathing metabolism. The respiration rate of low-
phosphorous fruits will be higher than that of high phosphorous
fruits during storage.
c) Potassium: Potassic fertilizers enhance quality; their deficiency can
lead to abnormal fruit and vegetable maturation. Potassium helps to
reduce certain physiological storage illnesses, e.g. orange pitting of
superficial rind
d) Calcium: The fruit's storage capacity depends mainly on the
Calcium level and is linked with the texture of the product. The
greater concentrations of N, P and Mg and low concentrations of K
and Bo result in fruit deficiency in calcium and decrease their
storage life. Reduction in calcium absorption leads to lateral stem
breakage of poinsettia. Treatment with calcium delays maturation,
senescence, decreases sensitivity to chilling injury, increase
firmness and reduces decay subsequent to storage in avocados and
improves the quality.
e) Zn is known to be a vehicle for the transmission of ions across the
tissue and to boost the fruit's Calcium content. Adequate supply of
Bo enhances Calcium's mobility in leaves and fruits and
consequently increases fruit firmness, TSS, organic acids and
reduces drought spot incidence, bitter pit and cracking illnesses.
And it gives resistance to illnesses. The incorporation of 4%
Calcium into the centre lamella proto pectin forms a bond with the
cell wall cellulose and thus delayed fruit softening.

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 Infused Calcium inhibits inner browning, delays breathing, and reduces
endogenous substrates' metabolism. Apple's post-climacteric respiration
reduced as peel calcium increased from 400 ppm to 1300 ppm. Calcium may
reduce the endogenous substrate catabolism by limiting the diffusion of
substrate from vacuole to the respiratory enzymes in the cytoplasm (limited
membrane permeability). Flowers like carnation require 850 to 1200 g of
water to create one gram of dry matter. By and large, <5% of water
assimilated in the plant framework is used for the improvement of various
plant segments. Dampness stress builds the rate of transpiration over the rate
of ingestion and sporadic water system/dampness system leads natural
products/vegetable splitting (potato and pomegranate breaking). More
elevated amount of dampness stress influences both yield and quality by
diminishing cell augmentation.
vi. Water relation and irrigation
Harvests which have higher dampness content by and large have less
fortunate capacity attributes. A case of this is the half and half onions, which
will in general give high return of bulbs with low dry issue content yet which
have just a short storage life. In the event that completely developed banana
reaped not long after precipitation or water system the organic product can
without much of a stretch split during taking care of tasks, permitting
microorganism disease and post-harvest decaying.
In the event that orange is excessively bloated at gather (early morning)
the flavido/oil organ in the skin can be burst during collecting, discharging
phenolic mixes and causes Oleocellosis or oil spotting (green spot on the
yellow/orange hued citrus natural product in the wake of degreening).
Quailing-reaped produce is kept in the container for couple of hours in
the field before being moved to pack house, this will enable the produce to
free little dampness. A few cultivators have routine with regards to reaping
lettuce in the late in the first part of the day/early evening since when they
are too bloated the leaves are delicate more susceptible to damage and decay
during handling and transport.
Mango boiling water treatment is better if there is postponement of 48 h.
among reaps and treatment and came about better proficiency of heated
water in illness control.
For the most part, crops that have higher dampness substance or low dry
issue substance have more poor storage properties.
vii. Canopy manipulation
Fruit thinning: Increases fruit size but reduces total yield. It helps in
obtaining better quality produce

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 Fruit position in the tree: Fruits which are exposed to high light
environment possesses higher TSS, acidity, fruit size, aroma, and shelf life
compared to which lies inside the canopy. Hence better training system
should be practiced to circulate optimum light and air.
E.g.: Grapes, Mango, peaches, kiwifruits Girdling-increases the fruit
size and advance and synchronized fruit maturity in peach and nectarines.
viii. Precipitation
Rainfall influences water supply to the plant and impacts the
composition of the collected plant part. This affects its susceptibility to
mechanical damage and decay during subsequent harvesting and handling
operations. Then again, overabundance water supply to plants brings about
splitting of organic products, for example, fruits, plums, and tomatoes. In the
event that root and bulb yields are gathered during substantial precipitation,
the capacity misfortunes will be higher.
ix. Seasons/day and day length
Occasional change and time at collect will enormously influence the
postharvest nature of the produce. Synthesis of higher amount of
carbohydrates during the day time and its utilization through translocation
and respiration in the night is responsible for the variation in the longevity of
the cut flowers. Roses and tuberose have been found to indicate longer
keeping quality in the winter season under encompassing condition than in
the mid-year seasons. For the most part produce collected promptly toward
the beginning of the day or at night hour’s shows longer Post harvest life
than produce reaped during hot time.
Day length-If long days Onion (mild) developed during brief day
(tropics) condition it prompts exceptionally poor storage quality.
x. Carbon dioxide
Quality planting material, early flowering, more flowering, increased
yield and rapid crop growth and development at higher level of CO 2.
Production of chrysanthemum under green house at 1000-2000 ppm of CO2
showed an increase in stem length, fresh weight, leaf no. and longevity of cut
flowers.
xi. Utilization of agro synthetic chemicals
Pre-harvest use of synthetic chemicals, for example, BA, IAA, GA3,
development retardants like B-9, CCC, A-Rest and Phosphon-D have been
accounted for to improve quality and life span of blooms crops. Use of GA3

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@ 50-100 ppm improves Post harvest nature of roses by anthocyanin
advancement. What's more, it invigorate the collection of N, K, Mg and S.
Pre-harvest treatment with Alar (1500ppm), MH(500ppm), and Cycocel
(500ppm) expanded jar life of Aster. Advantageous impact of leaf
excrement, K and GA3 is found to improve the life span of tuberose blooms.
Utilization of synthetics on the plants to forestall the pathogen will have
direct effect on expanding the postharvest life. For the most part, if produce
has endured a contamination during improvement its storage or attractive life
might be antagonistically influenced. Banana which suffers a severe
infection with diseases such as leaf spot may ripen pre maturely or
abnormally after harvest and in mango it is rapid postharvest loss. Pre
harvest application chemicals like MH on onion filed prevent them from
sprouting during storage.
xii. Pest and diseases
Contamination by parasites, microscopic organisms, vermin and bugs
decreases the life span just as customer acceptability. Tissue damage caused
by them show wilting and produce ethylene leads to early senescence.
Vascular diseases/stem rot /root rot of floral corps hinder the transport,
affects the post-harvest life and quality. The potato tuber moth may infest
tubers during growth if they are exposed above the soil and subsequently in
the storage.
3. Evaluation of quality
3.1 Subjective evaluation
Subjective food assessment may include an assessment that can use one
or more of the distinct exams. Sensory evaluation can be viewed as a link
between research and development, focusing on technical elements of food
and consumer and marketing research, focusing on the behaviour and
psychology of customers. They evaluate the response by analytical and/or
affective trials to stimuli resulting from the use or consumption of a drug.
Analytical tests (discriminative and descriptive) are traditionally conducted
with trained panels, while affective tests are conducted with customers.
It has long been an essential component of the food and beverage sector to d
escribe the sensory features of products. Information acquired from the descr
iption of food and beverage sensory features allows firms to make more infor
med company choices. Sensory evaluation is described as a scientific
method used in perceived products to evoke measurement, analysis and
interpretation of those answers. Smell, touch, taste and hearing through the
senses of vision. Rheology in sensory evaluation is used as an essential

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design instrument in food processing, storage stability and sensory
perception, including texture and mouth feeling, and it can probe the overall
structure as well as the interplay between individual colloidal components.
3.2 Objective evaluation
Objective test measures a specific characteristic of a food rather than the
general product quality. In the case of new product development, the existing
product needs to be changed, so that consumer acceptance is necessary and
only objective testing is not enough, even if it can be reliable. For the food
item being tested, the objective test must be suitable. In other words, a food
attribute that has a significant impact on quality must be measured. The
objective tests results should be correlated with sensory testing of similar
product to make sure that the test is a reliable index of quality of the food.
The findings of objective tests should be associated with comparable product
sensory testing to ensure that the test is a reliable food quality index. Most
objective test used to evaluate empirical food quality is that they do not
measure the food's absolute property. However the results are still
meaningful, as long as instruments are calibrated with materials that have
similar properties to the foods under test.
3.3 Different types of panels
i) Trained panel: Laboratory panels must then be carefully trained
for specific products or purposes. These tests aim at finding
differences in specific quality characteristics between different
stimuli and also direction and or intensity of difference. Periodically
the panel is given training and tests. The number of panel should
vary between 5 to 10.
ii) Discriminative, Communicative or semi trained panels: these panels
are considered of technical people and their families, who are
normally familiar with qualities of different types of food. They are
capable with few preliminary test runs, of following instructions for
given tests, discriminating differences and communicating their
reactions.
iii) Consumer panel: Such panel are made up of untrained people
chosen at random to represent a cross section of the population for
which the product is intended. The greater the number, the greater is
the dependability of the result. A group of not less than 100 is
considered the minimum.

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3.4 Types of tests
Different sensory tests are employed for food evaluation. The tests are
grouped into four types.
i. Difference tests
ii. Rating tests
iii. Sensitivity tests
iv. Descriptive tests
i. Difference test
a) Paired comparison test: several pairs of samples are received by
the panel members. These samples in each couple may be distinct
or the same. Samples are provided in code number at all times. In
each couple there are different samples that differ in the intensity of
one characteristic, e.g. Sweetness, rancidity or bitterness. The
samples with a more or less intense flavour must be picked out in
each couple.
b) Duo trio test: This test employs three samples, two identical and
one different. The panel is given one of the pair of identical samples
called reference samples R and then the other successively in
random order, and asked to match one of these with the first. A
positive answer is required even if it is a guess. The chance of
placing the specimen in a certain order is one half. Trained or
untrained panellists can be used.
c) Triangle test: This test employs three samples, two identical and
one different presented simultaneously to the panel. The judge is
asked to determine which the odd sample of the three is. A positive
answer is required even if it is a guess. Since all three samples are
unknown, the chance probability of placing the samples in a certain
order is one third.
ii. Rating test
These tests give more quantitative data than difference tests and can be
used for the analysis of more than two samples at the same time.
a) Ranking test: The test is used to determine how several samples
differ on the basis of single characteristics. A control need not be
identified. Panellists are presented all samples simultaneously with
code numbers and are asked to rank all samples according to
intensity of the specific characteristics.

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 b) Single sample (monadic) test: This test is useful for testing foods
that have an after taste or flavour carry over which precludes testing
a second sample at the same session. The panellist is asked to
indicate the presence or absence or intensity of particular quality
characteristics.
c) Two sample difference test: This test is a variation of paired
comparison test and measures the amount of difference. Each taster
is served four pairs of samples. Each pair consists of an identified
reference and coded test samples. In two pairs test sample is a
duplicate of the reference sample. In the other two pairs, the test
sample is the test variable.
d) Multiple sample difference test: In this test more than one test
variable can be evaluated per session but with the reduced
reliability. Each panellist is served 3-6 samples depending upon the
number of test variables. One sample is a known standard. One
coded sample is duplicate of the standard.
e) Hedonic rating test is used to measure the consumer acceptability of
food products. From one to four samples are served to the panellists
at one session. He/she is asked to rate the acceptability of the
product on scale of 9 points ranging from like extremely to dislike
extremely.
f) Composite scoring test: The rating scale is defined so that the
specific characteristic products are rated separately. The definition
of rating scale is weighted so that the most important characteristics
will account for a large part of the total score.
iii. Sensitivity test
They are done to access the ability of individual to detect different taste,
odours and feel the presence of specific factors like astringency or hotness.
These tests are used to select and train panel members for evaluating quality
of the products containing spices etc.
a) Sensitivity threshold test: Threshold is defined statistically
determined points on stimulus scale at which transition in the series
of sensations or judgements occur
b) Dilution test: They are designated to establish the smallest amount
of an unknown material, developed if as a substitute for standard
product that can be detected when it is mixed with standard product

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 These subjective techniques vary in their results to higher degree.
People with colds or other health problems temporarily lose their maximum
effectiveness and emotional burdens may influence individual’s ability.
Faculties carry on as integrators in a multivariate and relative manner,
while instruments are portrayed by being separators in a univariate and
supreme way. In any case, in the greater part of the tactile writing there is an
inclination to manage one sense methodology at once, not notwithstanding
responding upon cooperations from different faculties, for example the shade
of an item impacts the recognition. During the historical backdrop of
instrumental advancement, we have seen numerous instruments as
lengthening of the individual detects. The mix of time and mind-boggling
expense related with tactile discernment has roused the improvement and
across the board utilization of experimental mechanical tests which
correspond with tangible impression of nourishment surface.
Table 1: Physico chemical methods for quality estimation

Hydrogen ion concentration PH meter

Salt concentration Digital salt meter
Sugar concentration Refractometer
Quantitative analysis of sugar Polariscope
Butter content of milk Butyrometer

Microscopic examination: Some properties of foods depend on their

structure and valuable information can be obtained by microscopic
examination.
4. Non-destructive quality evaluation techniques
The fruits and vegetables are not damaged while assessing their quality
in a non-destructive quality assessment. In order to create better non-
destructive techniques for evaluating fresh fruit and vegetable quality,
current and new techniques are being used. Non-destructive quality
evaluation of fruits and vegetables can be classified into mechanical, optical,
electromagnetic and dynamic techniques.
There are different techniques under these categories
1) Mechanical
a) Impact tests
2) Optical
a) Image analysis
b) Reflectance, transmittance and absorbance spectroscopy

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 c) Laser spectroscopy
d) Visible/near infrared spectroscopy
3) Electromagnetic
a) Impedance
b) Magnetic resonance/magnetic resonance imaging
4) Dynamic
a) Vibrated excitation
b) Sonic
c) Ultrasonic
d) X-ray image and CT
4.1 Mechanical non-destructive methods
Non-destructive mechanical techniques aim to measure the features of
the texture, primarily firmness. It involves low-mass impact tests:
accelerometers detect impact parameters, or electronic noses detect
resonance frequency through a microphone and method. The frequency of
resonance usually changes with maturation and measures an entire fruit
property.
4.1.1 Gas sensors arrays
The electronic noses attempt to simulate olfactory system functioning.
They are made up of a range of partially specific chemical and electronic
detectors and a pattern recognition system capable of recognizing easy and
complicated odors. There are many kinds of sensors that respond with a
change in their characteristics on the basis of distinct values Metal oxide
semiconductors of various kinds and organic polymers alter their electrical
characteristics when absorbing volatile compounds; quartz crystal
microbalance-based sensors alter their mass, thus altering their measured
resonance frequency. Different sensor kinds vary depending on repeatability,
response and time recovery, selectivity and sensitivity to humidity.
Electronic noses can recognize classes of compounds [3]. Each sensor reacts
to a different set of volatile compounds; the pattern of the combined
responses of all the sensors gives a “fingerprint” of a compound or a
mixture. The electronic nose cannot analyse and determine the different
volatile compounds, like a gas chromatograph, because its response is not
unique. It is useful to detect deviations from a standard, whose fingerprint is
well known, or to follow changes in times.

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4.1.2 Impact testing
Different methods can be used to estimate the firmness of fruit,
including the measurement of factors obtained from effect strength
assessment and the rebound technique [12]. A vertical effect sensor is
available to assess fruit reaction to effects. The sensor consisted of a small,
semi-spherical mass with an accelerometer, which was dropped from
different heights onto the fruit. Manual impact sensors, lateral impact sensors
are some other sensors used as mechanical measures [8, 9].
4.2 Optical techniques
Optical properties are affected with a matter's reaction to UV light (180
nm-130 nm) defined by reflectance, transmittance, absorbance, or dispersion.
The primary optical methods used are picture analysis to measure size,
shape, colour, external defects, etc. close infrarot spectroscopy to measure
soluble solid content, dryness, firmness, acidity, etc. reflectance,
transmittance and absorbance spectroscopy to measure colour, chemical
components, inner defects, etc. and laser spectroscopy to measure firmness,
viscoelasticity, defects, shape.
4.2.1 Time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy
As a novel non-destructive method for fruit quality assessment, time-
resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS) was explored. TRS provides a full
optical description of the sample being investigated by concurrent
assessment of the absorption coefficient and the coefficient of transport
dispersion. This is achieved by interpreting the attenuation and expansion
experienced by a brief laser pulse with a correct theoretical model while, like
most fruits, traveling in a diffuse medium. Components (water, chlorophyll,
sugars), while the coefficient of transport dispersion depends on the
microscopic composition of the tissue (cells, fibres). Moreover, key
advantages of TRS applied to fruits and vegetables include insensitivity to
skin colour and properties and penetration into the pulp of fruits to a depth of
more than 2 cm. As the name implies, light reflected from an illuminated
surface of the commodity is measured in this system. This technique is
particularly effective with fruits that have uniform external colour so that the
quality condition of the fruits can be predicted from reflectance reading. The
time required for one TRS measurement is now one second with a manual
portable prototype, but the technique could be adapted for on line
measurement, reducing acquisition time to ten milliseconds.

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4.2.2 Laser spectroscopy laser absorption spectroscopy (LAS)
A promising new efficient method for quantitative analysis of trace
gasses in human breath is offered in the mid-infrared region. LAS allows for
delicate, selective detection, quantification and real-time surveillance of
breathable gases. It summarizes some of the recent advances in LAS based
on semiconductor lasers and optical detection techniques for clinically
relevant exhaled gas analysis in breath, specifically such molecular
biomarkers as nitric oxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, ethane, carbonyl
sulphide, formaldehyde and acetone.
The time domain reflectance spectroscopy method offers a full optical
characterization of a diffusive sample as it estimates (simultaneously and
independently) the light absorption within the tissues and the dispersion
between them. The light source is a laser, monochromatic, but with a very
brief pulse rate at several wavelengths. Using fiber optics perpendicular to
the main portion of the fruit, the light is aimed to the fruit surface through
the intact skin. The light penetrates the tissues and portion of it in a specific
region adjacent to the transmission point is reflected from the sample. This
part of reflected light was retrieved with the fiber optics being positioned at
approximately 20 mm parallel to the transmission optics. The three-
dimensional region created by the light that can enter the collecting fiber is
built by the optical routes of the photons with a higher chance of recovery
after inner body reflection.
4.3 Electromagnetic techniques
It includes impedance technology to measure moisture contents, density,
sugar content, density and internal cavity and nuclear magnetic resonance
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure sugar content, oil,
moisture content, internal defect and structure.
4.3.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques
The method of nuclear magnetic resonance, often referred to as MRI,
includes the absorption of resonant magnetic energy by atoms positioned in
an alternating magnetic field. The quantity of energy that the nuclei absorb is
directly proportional to the number of a specific nucleus in the sample, such
as the water or oil protons. Some nuclei have a magnetic moment, including
1H, 13C, 31P, and 23Na, and align with a powerful static magnetic field.
The magnetic resonance of 1H is of biggest concern in horticulture. A weak
radiofrequency pulse (RF based on magnetic field strength) will cause a 90°
rotation of the net magnetic moment. When removing the RF signal, the
moment will lose energy and relax back to its prior place. Relaxation-

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released energy induces an RF signal in a receiver coil. Energy loss is
differential and is based on the setting surrounding each nucleus of specific
concern in horticultural apps, regions with higher free water content are
brighter than surrounding tissues in MRI so that, disorders involving water
distribution-water core, core breakdown, chilling injury, bruising, decay,
presence or feeding of insects, etc. can be visualized [11]. MRI was used to
demonstrate morphology, maturation, key breakdown, seeds or pits, voids,
pathogen invasion, worm harm, bruises, dry areas, and shifts due to
maturation, heat, chilling, and freezing. MR and MRI are currently
inconvenient for routine quality testing. MR equipment is costly and hard to
operate; but for research and specialized applications, it is becoming
cheaper, quicker and more viable, like all techniques. MR methods have
excellent ability to assess fruits and vegetables' inner quality.
4.4 Dynamic methods
4.4.1 Ultrasonic technique
The non-destructive ultrasonic measuring scheme was dependent on
evaluating the same parameters of transmission that could have a
quantitative relationship with the maturity, firmness and other quality of
fruits and vegetables-associated characteristics. Important fruit
characteristics can be assessed using non-destructive ultrasonic technique.
This technique is based on the transfer of energy into the product and the
electricity reaction [5]. When the scheme implementing an ultrasonic
technique for non-destructive measurements of the inner quality of fruits and
vegetables was tested by pairs of ultrasonic transducers, one acts as
transmitted and the other as receiver for some transmission of the sound
wave through the fruit peel and flesh and the reception of the transient
signal. When interacting with the material, ultrasonic waves can be
transmitted, reflected, refracted or diffracted. The speed, attenuation and
reflection of wave propagation are the significant ultrasonic parameters used
to assess the tissue characteristics of horticultural commodities. However,
due to the structure and air spaces in fruits and vegetables, it is difficult to
transmit enough ultrasonic energy through them to obtain useful
measurements. Ultrasonic measurements can be used for determining
firmness in some fruits, but a more powerful ultrasonic source is needed to
penetrate others. Despite numerous studies, few applications have
developed. This method is difficult to use in fruit quality determination since
it is strongly attenuated when travelling through fruit tissues and as a result
the ultrasound waves cannot penetrate deeply into the fruit [13].

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4.4.2 X-ray and CT X-ray imaging
The detection of highly attenuating materials is an established technique
and has been applied to a number of inspection applications in the
agricultural and food industries. Especially in the biological sciences there
are many applications where we want to detect weakly attenuating materials
against similar background material. X-ray computed tomography (CT) has
been used to image interior regions of fruits with varying moisture and, to a
limited extent, density states. The images were actually maps of X-ray
absorption of fruit cross sections. X-ray absorption properties were evaluated
using normal fruits alternatively canned and sequentially freeze-dried, fruit
affected by water core disorder, and normal fruits freeze-dried to varying
levels. The results suggested that internal differences in X-ray absorption
within scans of fruit cross-sections are largely associated with differences in
volumetric water content. Similarly, the physiological constituents have been
monitored in fruits by CT methods in which x-ray absorbed by the fruits is
expressed in CT number and used as an index for measuring the changes in
internal quality of the fruit. Relationships were identified between the CT
number and the physiological content and it was concluded that X-ray CT
imaging could be an effective tool for evaluating internal fruit quality [7]. X-
ray was explored to inspect agricultural commodities ' interior. The energy
intensity that exits the product depends on the incident energy, the
coefficient of absorption, the density of the product and the thickness of the
sample. Water dominates X-ray absorption due to the high content of
moisture in fruits and vegetables.
4.4.3 Hyper spectral imaging
Conventional non-contact imaging systems, such as imaging and
spectroscopy used for online quality assessment of agricultural and food
products based on optical properties, are not capable of acquiring attributes
of spatial and structural distribution. Since these conventional systems use
monochromatic light at visible wavelength, it is not possible to distinguish
objects of the same color together with defects and chemical components
that are not visible to the human eye. HSI is considered to integrate
spectroscopy and imaging techniques with the means of obtaining spectral
and spatial information about food products. HSI is one of the three main
multispectral and ultra-spectral imaging classes [9]. HSI is an emerging food
safety and quality control technique that was first developed for remote
sensing applications but later found its applications in different fields such as
astronomy, agriculture, pharmaceuticals and medicine. It enables non-
destructive, accurate, and rapid analysis of food products, which can identify

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a wide range of complex and heterogeneous samples' surface and subsurface
attributes. Regions with similar chemical composition provide similar
spectral properties in a sample, helping to visualize biochemical components
of a food product that can be done by hyper spectral cube [10]. Hyper spectral
image is a three-dimensional hyper spectral cube containing spectral and
spatial information, consisting of vector pixels called voxels. Hyper spectral
cube, also known as hypercube, spectral cube, spectral volume, data cube,
and data volume, contains a serious of contiguous sub images at different
wavelength, which provides spatial distribution of spectral intensity at a
particular wavelength. The image can be obtained as separate spatial image
at each wavelength or spectrum at each pixel [9].
4.4.4 NIR spectroscopy
NIR imagery uses electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 700 to 2500
nm, and one of the benefits of NIR is that it can penetrate more deeply into a
sample than mid-infrared radiation. NIR images can be valuable for
evaluating food quality. It is used for agricultural and food commodities
chemical imaging by creating visual image from continuous spectra and
spatial information measurement. NIR imaging system consists of a system
for the processing and analysis of light source, beam splitter, detector, and
data. The beam splitter is used to convert multicolor light to a single color,
i.e. to a monochromatic spectrum. Then the light over the object is incident
and illuminates the object, and based on its characteristics it is reflected or
transmitted. Sample detectors detect the reflected and transmitted light. A
computer acquires and processes the signal produced by the detectors and
analyzes the data.
3. Statistica1 quality control (SQC)
It is the term used to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality
professionals. Statistical quality control can be divided into three broad
categories:
i) The description of quality characteristics and relationships is based
on descriptive statistics. Statistics such as mean, standard deviation,
range, and data distribution measurement are included
ii) Statistical Process Control (SPC) involves inspecting a random
output sample from a process and deciding whether the process
produces products with features within a predetermined range. SPC
responds to the question of whether or not the process is working
properly
iii) Sampling of acceptance is the process of randomly inspecting a
sample of goods and deciding whether to accept the whole lot on

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 the basis of the results. Acceptance sampling determines whether a
batch of goods should be accepted or rejected
5.1 Control charts
Control charts for variables monitor characteristics that can be
measured, such as height, weight, volume or width, and have a continuous
scale. The variable being monitored is measured and recorded when an item
is inspected. If we produced candles, for example, height could be an
important variable. We were able to take candle samples and measure their
heights. Two of the most frequently used control charts for variables monitor
both data central tendency (mean) and data variability (either standard
deviation or range). Note that each chart monitors different information
types.
5.1.1 Mean (x-bar) Charts
A mean chart of control is often called a chart of x-bars. It is used to
monitor changes in a process's mean. We first need to construct the centre
line of the chart to construct a mean chart. We take multiple samples and
calculate their means for this purpose. These samples are usually small, with
approximately four or five observations.
5.1.2 Range (R) charts are a different type of variables control chart. While
x-bar charts measure shift in the process's central tendency, range charts
monitor the process's dispersion or variability. The method by which R-
charts are developed and used is the same as for x-bar charts.
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6. Khalifa S, Mohammad HK, Behrouz T. Usage of fruit response to both
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