97

03
UNIT 3 AOS 3, CHAPTER 3

Momentum and energy

3A Momentum and impulse 3D Gravitational potential energy

3B Kinetic energy, work and power 3E Strain potential energy

3C Elastic and inelastic collisions 3F Vertical spring-mass systems

Key knowledge
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the laws of energy and momentum
conservation in isolated systems in one dimension
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically impulse in an isolated system for collisions
between objects moving in a straight line: FΔt = mΔv
• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the concept of work done by a constant
force using:
– work done = constant force × distance moved in direction of net force
– work done = area under force-distance graph
• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational
potential energy and energy dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat,
sound and deformation of material):
1
– kinetic energy at low speeds: Ek  = _
 2 mv 2; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to
conservation of kinetic energy
– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying
1
Hooke’s Law: Es  = _
 2 kΔx 2
– gravitational potential energy: Eg  = mgΔh or from area under a force-distance graph and area
under a field-distance graph multiplied by mass

Image: daniel desmarais/Shutterstock.com

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98 

3A MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

When a car applies its brakes or a truck crashes into a wall, different forces act on the object
to change its velocity. How do these forces relate to safety equipment such as airbags? This
lesson will explore the basics of momentum and impulse.

3A  Momentum and 3B  Kinetic energy, 3C  Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E  Strain potential 3F  Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot points

• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the laws of energy and momentum conservation in isolated systems in
one dimension
• investigate and analyse theoretically and practically impulse in an isolated system for collisions between objects moving in a
straight line: ​FΔt = mΔv​
Key knowledge units

Momentum 3.3.6.1
Impulse 3.3.13.1

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

No previous formulas in this lesson * ​p = mv​

​p​ i ​​ = ​p ​f​​​
​

* ​I = FΔt​

​I = Δp = mΔv​

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

collision  the coming together of two or more objects where each object exerts a force on the other
impulse  the change in momentum of a body as the result of a force acting over a
time (vector quantity)
isolated system  a collection of interacting objects for which there is no external exchange of mass
and energy
momentum  a quantity for a body in motion which is equal to the mass of the body multiplied by
its velocity (vector quantity)

Momentum  3.3.6.1
overview
Momentum is a vector quantity measured in kg m s−1 or N s which is conserved in an isolated
system so that the momentum before a collision will be equal to the momentum after the
collision, ​​p​ i​​ = ​p​ f​​​   .
theory details
The momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its velocity.
The direction of momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity.

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 3A THEORY  99

p
​  = mv​
p = momentum (kg m s−1 or N s), m = mass (kg), v = velocity (m s−1)

A body that has a greater momentum will require more force and/or more time to stop, which
is why a truck takes longer to stop than a car moving at the same speed.

1 Worked example

A truck of mass 10 tonnes is driving north at 30 m s−1. What is the momentum of the truck?

1 tonne = 103 kg
​p = mv = 10 × 1​0​​ 3​ × 30 = 3.0 × 1​0​​ 5​​kg m s−1 or N s
The momentum of the truck is ​3.0 × 1​0​​ 5​​kg m s−1 or N s to the north.

Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum states that any interaction or collision between two or
more bodies in an isolated system does not change the total momentum of the system. Hence
the initial momentum, ​​p​ i​​​ , will be equal to the final momentum, ​​p​ f​​​   .
In VCE Physics, all calculation questions involving momentum will assume an isolated system
where momentum is conserved.

p
​​ ​ i ​​ = ​p ​f​​​
​p​ i​= initial momentum (kg m s−1 or N s), ​p​ f​​​= final momentum (kg m s−1 or N s)

2 Worked example

A toy truck of mass 200 g rolls along the ground at a constant speed of 2.0 m s−1 when a
person places a coin onto the truck. The truck and coin have a combined mass of 250 g.
Ignore the effects of friction.
a Calculate the magnitude of the total momentum of the system before the coin is
placed on the toy truck.
b What is the total momentum after the coin is placed on the toy truck?
c Calculate the speed of the truck and coin after the event.

a The initial momentum of the coin in the horizontal direction is zero. Hence, the initial
momentum of the system is equal to the momentum of the truck before the coin is
placed on it.
​​p​ i​​ = mv = 0.200 × 2.0 = 0.40​kg m s−1 or N s
b Use conservation of momentum: ​​p​ i​​ = ​p​ f​​​
​​p​ f​ = 0.40​kg m s−1 or N s
c ​​p​ f​​ = mv  ∴ 0.40 = 0.250 × ​v​ 2​​​
​​v​ 2​​ = 1.6​ m s−1

Impulse  3.3.13.1
overview
Impulse (​I​) is a vector quantity that is equal to the change in momentum (​Δp​) of an object,
due to a constant (or average) force (​​​ ​​F)​ ​​​​that acts over a given time interval (​Δt​). It is measured
in kg m s−1 or N s and has the same direction as the change in momentum.
theory details
When a collision occurs, the bodies involved experience a change in momentum due to the
forces that act between the bodies. This change in momentum is defined as impulse, I​ ​.
Hence impulse can have the unit kg m s−1.

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 100  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

I​  = Δp = mΔv​
I​  =​impulse (kg m s−1 or N s), ​Δp​= change in momentum (kg m s−1 or N s), ​m =​mass (kg),
​Δv =​change in velocity (m s−1)

The direction of the impulse is always in the same direction as the change in momentum
and velocity.
A force must be involved in any collision between objects, and it is this force which is
responsible for the impulse.

Consider Newton’s second law, ​F = ma​, which can be written as ​F = m ​___

Δv
 Δt ​ ​ . By transposing
this equation we can write ​mΔv = FΔt​. This leads to the following alternative method for
finding impulse.

I​  = FΔt​
​I =​impulse (kg m s−1 or N s), ​F =​force (N), ​Δt =​change in time (s)

The direction of the impulse is always in the same direction as the force applied.
It is important to note that this equation applies for situations where the force is constant.
If the force varies, then the ​F​in this equation is the average force. When calculating impulse
with a force and time, it is more common to use newton-seconds (N s) to measure the impulse.
With this understanding of the relationship between impulse and force, we can now interpret
the principle of momentum conservation as being equivalent to Newton’s third law. Consider
the two balls colliding in Figure 1. When ball A collides with ball B, there is a force on ball B by
ball A acting to the right and there is a force of equal magnitude on ball A by ball B to the left.
Since ​I = FΔt​and the change in time is the same, this means ball A gives ball B impulse to the
right and ball B gives ball A an equal magnitude of impulse to the left. This means Δ ​  ​p​ A​​ = −  Δ ​p​ B​​​
and so the total momentum of the system is constant.
ΔpA = Fon A by B Δt ∆pB = Fon B by A Δt = −Fon A by B Δt = −ΔpA

Fon A by B Fon B by A = −Fon A by B

A B

Figure 1  Each ball gives the other impulse with equal magnitude in the opposite
direction which means the total momentum is conserved.

3 Worked example

A stationary golf ball of mass 45 g is struck by a golf club. The time that the ball is in
contact with the club is ​5.0 × 1​0​​ −3​s, and the ball has a final velocity of 95 m s−1 to the east.
a Calculate the change in momentum of the golf ball.
b Calculate the impulse experienced by the golf ball.
c Calculate the impulse experienced by the golf club.
d Calculate the average force experienced by the golf ball during its contact with the
golf club.

a ​​Δ ​p​ ball​​ = mΔv = m(v − u) = 45 × 1​0​​ −3​ × (95 − 0)​​
​Δ ​p​ ball​ = 4.28 = 4.3​kg m s−1 or N s to the east

b ​  ​​ = Δ ​p​ ball​ = 4.3​kg m s−1 or N s to the east

​​Iball
c ​  ​​ = −  Δ ​p​ ball​ = 4.3​N s or kg m s−1 to the west
​​Iclub
d ​Iball = ​Favg ​  ​​ × 5.0 × 1​0​​ −3​​
​  ​​ Δt  ∴ 4.28 = ​Favg
  ​​ = 8.6 × 1​0​​ 2​​N to the east
​​F​avg

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 3A THEORY  101

Impulse in collision safety

Consider the airbag in a car during a crash. If no airbag was present, a passenger’s head
would impact a solid object and the momentum of their head would reach zero extremely

zero over a longer duration. Knowing that ​I = FΔt​, we can rearrange to find ​F = ​__
quickly. An airbag will act to extend the impact, and their head’s momentum will decrease to
I
 Δt   ​. The impulse
experienced with and without an airbag is equal since the change in momentum is equal.
However the airbag increases the time of the collision, ​Δt​, decreasing the force experienced
by the head. Increasing the time of a collision is also the principle behind seat belts, helmets,
crumple zones, brakes, parachutes, and many other types of safety equipment.

(a) (b)

Image: Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com Image: Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com

Figure 2  (a) A car crash without an airbag will result in large force on the driver as the impulse occurs over a
short duration. (b) An airbag acts to slow the collision and reduce the amount of force experienced by the driver.

theory summary
• Momentum is a vector quantity that is a product of a body’s velocity and its mass and is
measured in kg m s−1 or N s.
– ​p = mv​
• The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum before a collision
will be the same as the total momentum after the collision within an isolated system.
– ​​p​ i​​ = ​p​ f​​​
• Impulse is a vector equal to the change in momentum of an object due to a force which
acts over a given time.
– ​I = Δp = mΔv​
– ​I = FΔt​
• Impulse can be described in both kg m s−1 and N s.
• The direction of impulse is determined by the direction of the change in momentum or
the direction of a force causing the impulse.

keen to investigate?
YouTube video: Physics Girl – Stacked Ball Drop
https://youtu.be/2UHS883_P60
YouTube video: Professor Dave Explains – Impulse and Momentum
https://youtu.be/E13h1E_Pc00
YouTube video: Veritasium – Bullet Block Experiment
https://youtu.be/vWVZ6APXM4w

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102  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

3A Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Question 1 This lesson
Question 6 (2 MARKS)
Which option(s) can be used to measure impulse? Select all
that apply.
A basketball of mass 0.25 kg is thrown to the right at a speed
a m s−1 of 4.0 m s−1. What is the momentum of the ball?
b Ns
Question 7 (2 MARKS)
c kg m s−1
d N A dietitian measures a banana as having a mass of
0.20 kg and a momentum of 0.50 kg m s−1 when he is moving
Question 2 it towards his mouth. Calculate the speed of the banana.

Impulse is best described as Question 8 (4 MARKS)

a the change in the momentum of an object.

A young adult driving a Subaru WRX approaches an
b the average force experienced by an object. intersection at a speed of 50 m s−1. A car pulls out in front
c the change in the velocity of an object. of the WRX which is forced to stop in 8.5 s. The driver and
d the change in the velocity of an object over a given time. Subaru have a combined mass of 1500 kg.

a Calculate the magnitude of the impulse experienced by

Question 3
the car and driver.  (2 MARKS)
During a collision b Calculate the magnitude of the average force acting to
decelerate the car.  (2 MARKS)
a momentum is never conserved.
b momentum is conserved only if the objects after a Question 9 (9 MARKS)
collision are travelling at the same speed.
The included figure shows a car of mass 1.5 tonnes moving to
c momentum is always conserved if the objects after the
collision are travelling in the same direction. the right at a speed of 20 m s−1, and a truck of mass
7.5 tonnes moving to the right at a speed of 10 m s−1.
d momentum is always conserved in an isolated system. The two vehicles collide and stick together.

Question 4 7.5 tonnes 10 m s−1

1.5 tonnes 20 m s−1
Two cars with equal mass are travelling down a road at
80 km h−1 when the traffic lights in front of them turn red and
both cars stop. Car A decelerates very rapidly from 80 km h−1
to 0 km h−1, where as Car B slowly decelerates. a Calculate the magnitude and direction of the total
momentum of the car and truck when they stick
Relative to Car B, Car A experiences together after the collision.  (2 MARKS)
a a greater magnitude of impulse. b Calculate the speed of the truck and car once they have
b a lesser magnitude of impulse. stuck together after the collision.  (2 MARKS)
c the same magnitude of impulse. c State the magnitude, direction, and units of the impulse
d no impulse. given to the car by the truck during the collision.  (3 MARKS)
d What is the magnitude and direction of the impulse given
Question 5 to the truck by the car during the collision?  (2 MARKS)
Adapted from 2013 VCAA Exam Section A Q3
After a collision between 2 objects, A and B, object A is found
to have a change in momentum of 10 kg m s−1 to the left.
Question 10 (2 MARKS)
Which of the options best describes the momentum change
of object B after the collision?
In a game of cricket, a ball of mass 85 g is struck by a bat over
a The momentum change of object B will be 10 kg m s−1 a duration of 0.010 s. For a specific hit, the magnitude of the
to the left. impulse given to the ball is 2.90 N s.
b The momentum change of object B will be 10 kg m s−1 What was the magnitude of average force exerted on the ball
to the right. by the bat?
c The momentum change of object B will be zero.
d There is not enough information to determine the
momentum change of object B.
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 3A QUESTIONS  103

Question 11 (5 MARKS) Question 13 (4 MARKS)

Students in a physical education class are exploring the An angry teenager drops a bowling ball from rest, in order
breaking point of rubber balls by striking them with a bat to crush a frustrating optical illusion. The bowling ball falls
whilst they are thrown. The physical education students also h metres before contacting the optical illusion. The bowling
possess a good knowledge of momentum and impulse, and ball takes 0.50 s to make contact with the optical illusion.
decide to calculate one of their failed attempts. They record Take ​g =​9.8 m s−2.
the included measurements. 2.0 kg

Mass of ball 0.40 kg

Mass of bat 2.5 kg
Speed of bat immediately before 12 m s−1
striking ball (bat is stationary after collision) h
Speed of ball immediately before 20 m s−1 (towards bat)
being struck
Speed of ball immediately after 55 m s−1 (away from bat)
being struck
Average force between the ball ​1.2 × 1​0​​3​​ N
and bat

Before the collision After the collision

a Calculate the distance h in metres.
Show your working.  (2 MARKS)
b Calculate the speed of the bowling ball as it makes
contact with the optical illusion.  (2 MARKS)
Adapted from 2018 VCAA Exam Section B Q7

Key science skills

Question 14 (8 MARKS)
Bat is
12 m s−1 20 m s−1 stationary 55 m s−1
Students conduct a physics experiment in which they use a
toy car moving at a known constant velocity with variable
a Calculate the magnitude of the impulse given to
mass, and collide it with another stationary car of known
the ball by the bat. Include an appropriate unit in
mass. The students use a tape measure and a stopwatch to
your answer.  (3 MARKS)
measure the velocity of the second car. Due to the inaccuracy
b Calculate the time that the ball is in contact with of this method, the students estimate the uncertainty of
the bat.  (2 MARKS) the final momentum to be ± 3.0 kg m s−1. They record the
Adapted from 2019 NHT VCAA Exam Section B Q7
following data.

Initial Momentum (kg m s−1) Final Momentum (± 3.0 kg m s−1)

Previous lessons
9 10
Question 12 (3 MARKS) 15 13
22 21
A clown at the circus is riding on a miniature bike in a circle of
radius 8.0 m. The floor of the circus is flat. The clown is able 26 28
to move at a constant speed of 3.0 m s−1. The clown and their 31 29
miniature bike have a combined mass of 110 kg.
a On a set of axes:  (5 MARKS)
a What is the magnitude of the net force acting on the
• plot a graph of final momentum versus initial
clown and the miniature bike?  (2 MARKS)
momentum using the data in the table provided
b Copy the included diagram, and add an arrow to show • include appropriate uncertainty bars for the final
the direction of the net force on the clown and their momentum values
miniature bike.  (1 MARK)
• label each axis correctly
Clown on
• include an appropriate scale
miniature bike • Include a line of best fit
b Use the graph from part a to determine whether the
students’ data supports the law of conservation of
8.0 m momentum. Explain your answer.  (2 MARKS)
c Suggest a way in which students could reduce random
Image: Graphiqa Stock/Shutterstock.com errors in their experiment.  (1 MARK)

Adapted from 2009 VCAA Exam 1 Section A AoS 1 Q3-4

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104 

3B KINETIC ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

This lesson is primarily about the energy associated with motion, which is core to Unit 3 Area
of Study 3, and it provides grounding for the concept of energy which is a fundamental tool
for all aspects of physics.

3A  Momentum and 3B  Kinetic energy, 3C  Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E  Strain potential 3F  Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot points

• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the concept of work done by a constant force using:
– work done = constant force × distance moved in direction of net force
– work done = area under force-distance graph
• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and energy

– kinetic energy at low speeds: ​​E​k  ​​ = ​__

dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat, sound and deformation of material):
1

​​ s  ​​ = ​__
 2 ​  m​v​​ 2​​; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to conservation of kinetic energy
1
– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying Hooke’s Law: E​  2 ​  kΔ ​x​​ 2​​
– gravitational potential energy: ​​Eg​  ​​ = mgΔh​or from area under a force-distance graph and area under a field-distance graph
multiplied by mass
Key knowledge units

Kinetic energy 3.3.15.1

Work done 3.3.14.1
Power as the rate of change in energy 2.1.15.1

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

* ​KE = ​__
1
No previous formulas in this lesson  2 ​ m​v​​ 2​​

​W = Fs​

​P = ​___
ΔE
 Δt  ​​

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

energy  a scalar quantity describing the ability to cause a physical change
kinetic energy  the energy of an object due to its motion
power  the rate of change in energy with respect to time
work  the change in energy caused by a force acting on an object in a direction parallel to its motion

Kinetic energy  3.3.15.1

overview
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with an object because of its motion. The SI unit for all
types of energy is joules (J) and it is a scalar quantity – it does not have an associated direction.

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 3B THEORY  105

theory details
In classical physics, the kinetic energy of an object is related to its mass and speed by the
following formula:

​ E = ​__
1
K  2 ​ m​v​​ 2​​
KE = kinetic energy (J), m = mass (kg), v = speed (m s−1)

Note that the VCE Physics Study Design uses the abbreviation Ek for kinetic energy. For the
purposes of making an obvious distinction between different forms of energy, this book will
usually use KE.
The benefit of quantifying kinetic energy will become clear in the next section, which explores
the concept of work, and in later lessons in chapter 3 when we introduce other types of
energy which will allow us to apply the law of conservation of energy.

1 Worked example

A toy car with a mass of 500 g is travelling at 3.00 m s−1. Calculate the kinetic energy of the
toy car.

​m = 500​ g ​= ​____
Convert all values into SI units.
500
 1000   ​​ kg ​= 0.500​ kg

​KE = ​__
​v = 3.00​m s−1
1
 2 ​ m​v​​ 2​   ​

​KE = ​__
1
 2 ​ × 0.500 × ​3.00​​ 2​  ​
K
​ E = 2.25 ​J

Work done  3.3.14.1

overview
Work is the change in the energy of an object caused by a force. The SI unit for work is
joules (J) and work is a scalar quantity.
theory details
Work as a change in energy
As we know from Newton’s first law, a change in the speed of an object (and therefore its
kinetic energy) must be caused by a force. Work is a measure of the change in energy caused
by a force. If given the energy of an object at two different locations, the work done can be
calculated by subtracting the object’s initial energy from the object’s final energy.
In this lesson we focus on the relationship between work and kinetic energy (where W​  = ΔKE​).
However, as we will see in later lessons, work is done when a force changes any form of energy.

2 Worked example

A 1500 kg car is initially travelling at 10 m s−1 and then speeds up to 30 m s−1. Calculate the
work done by the engine to speed up the car.

​K​Ei​  ​​ = ​__
 2 ​  m​u​​ 2​ = ​__
1 1
 2 ​ × 1500 × ​10​​ 2​ = 75 000​ J

​K​Ef​  ​​ = ​__
 2 ​  m​v​​ 2​ = ​__
1 1
 2 ​ × 1500 × ​30​​ 2​ = 675 000​ J
​W = K​Ef​  ​​ − K​Ei​  ​​​
​W = 675 000 − 75 000​
​W = 6.0 × ​10​​ 5​​ J

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106  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Work as the product of a force and displacement

Work can also be defined and calculated as:

W
​  = Fs​
W = work done (J), F = magnitude of constant force (N), s = distance moved in the direction
of force (m)

This equation gives a complementary definition of work which allows us to connect the ideas of
force and energy. It is equivalent to stating that the kinetic energy of an object can change only
when a force is applied parallel to the object’s motion so it either speeds up or slows down. It
also gives a more concrete understanding of energy as the ability or potential to do work.
In VCE Physics, we need to consider three situations where work is done by a constant force:
• If the distance moved is in the same direction as the applied force, energy is transferred
to the object. This means the final energy (and speed) is greater than the initial energy
(and speed). The work done will have a positive value.
• If the distance moved is in the opposite direction to the applied force, energy is
transferred from the object. This means final energy (and speed) is less than initial
energy (and speed). The work done will have a negative value.
• If the distance moved is perpendicular to the applied force, no work is done (​W = 0​).
If the applied force was on an angle relative to the displacement (which we will not need to
consider in VCE Physics), then only the component of the force parallel to the displacement
would do work.
(a) (b)

s
F

s
Figure 1  (a) By pushing a box positive work is done as the box moves in the same direction as the force.
(b) When carrying a book horizontally 3 m to the right, no work is done as force and displacement are perpendicular.

Examples of work being done include:

• a car getting faster due to a driving force pushing the car in the direction of motion
(positive work done).
• a car getting slower due to a brake force pushing the car against the direction of motion
(negative work done).
• a bucket being lifted up a well by a rope due to the tension force on the bucket by the rope
displacing the bucket upwards (positive work).
A person holding an object up in the air does not do work on that object (despite the fact
that they may feel tired) because the force they apply does not result in the displacement of
the object.
Multiple forces can do work on an object at once. If we push a box over a rough surface, the
force we apply will do work which transfers kinetic energy to the box. At the same time,
friction will act in the opposite direction and take kinetic energy away from the box. This
energy will generally dissipate as sound and thermal energy.

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 3B THEORY  107

3 Worked example

A person pushes a box across a horizontal surface by applying a force of 10 N in the

direction of motion while a frictional force of 4.0 N acts on the box in the opposite
direction. The box moves a distance of 5.0 m.
a Calculate the work done on the box by the person.
b Calculate the work done on the box by friction.
c Calculate the total work done on the box.

a The motion is in the same direction as the force applied by the person so we should
expect a positive value for the work done on the box by the person.
​​W​p  ​​ = ​Fp​  ​​  s ​
​​W​p  ​​ = 10 × 5.0​
​​W​p  ​​ = 50​ J

b The motion is in the opposite direction to the frictional force so we should expect a
negative value for the work done on the box by friction.
​​W​f  ​​ = ​Ff​  ​​  s ​
​​W​f  ​​ = −  4.0 × 5.0​
​​W​f  ​​ = −  20​ J

c The total work can be calculated in two ways. We can use the contributions of work done
on the box by both the person and friction:
​​W​tot
  ​​ = 50 − 20 = 30​ J
Alternatively we can use the net force in the formula for work done:
  ​​ = ​Fnet
​​W​tot ​  ​​  s ​
​​​Wtot
​  ​​ = (10 − 4.0) × 5.0​​
  ​​ = 30​ J
​​W​tot
This represents the total increase in kinetic energy of the box.

It is important to understand that the equation we have introduced in this section applies
only to work being done by a constant force or to the average value of a changing force.
Calculating work from force-displacement graphs
When the force applied to an object is changing, the work done on the object can be
determined by the area under a force-displacement. It cannot be determined using W ​  = Fs​.
The explanation of why the work is equal to the area lies in integral calculus, which is beyond
the scope of the VCE Physics course.

useful tip
Ensure that you check the units of the axes when calculating the area under a graph. You
will need to convert units that are not in their SI form.

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4 Worked example

Calculate the work done on an object that moves 50 metres in a constant direction, with
an applied force that acts in the direction of motion and varies according to the force-
displacement graph shown.
70
60
50
Force (N)

40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacement (m)

Work = area under force-displacement graph

First, divide the graph into areas made of rectangles and triangles.
70
60
C
50
Force (N)

40
30
A B D
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacement (m)

Calculate the area of each rectangle/triangle.

​​AA​  ​​ = _
1
​ 2 ​ × 10 × 50 = 250​ J
​​AB​  ​​ = 50 × 30 = 1500​ J

​​AC​  ​​ = ​_
1
 2 ​ × 20 × 10 = 100​ J

​​AD​  ​​ = ​_
1
 2 ​ × 10 × 60 = 300​ J
Total area under graph = ​250 + 1500 + 100 + 300 = 2150 ​
Total work = ​2150 ​J

Power as the rate of change in energy  2.1.15.1

overview
Power is the rate of change of energy. The SI unit for power is watts (W) which is equivalent to
joules per second (J s−1). Power is a scalar quantity.
This knowledge unit is not explicitly included in Units 3 or 4 of VCE Physics but it is a
fundamental concept which could reasonably be integrated into assessments in Units 3 or 4.
theory details
Power is related to change in energy and time by the following formula.

​  = ​___
ΔE
P  Δt  ​​
P = power (W), E = energy (J), t = time (s)

​​ P = ​__
Power can also be viewed as the rate of work being done (  Δt  )
W
​ ​​when the change in energy
is caused by a force.

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 3B THEORY  109

5 Worked example

An object gains 30 J of energy over the span of 1 minute. Calculate the power used during
this energy transfer.

​ΔE = 30​ J

​P = ​___
 Δt ​  = ​ ___
​Δt ​= 1 minute = 60 s
ΔE 30
60 ​ = 0.5 ​W

Theory summary
​​ KE = ​__
• Kinetic energy is the energy of an object associated with its motion (  2 ​  m​v​​ 2​)​​​​​​.
1

• Work is a change in energy caused by a force pushing parallel to the direction of motion
(​W = Fs​).
– When the force is in the same direction as motion, the work done is positive.
– When the force is opposite to the direction of motion, the work done is negative.
• If an object has changed its kinetic energy, work has been done to the object.
• When the applied force is changing, work can be determined from the area under a

​​ P = ​___
force-displacement.
• Power is the rate of work being done or the rate of change of energy (  Δt ​ )​​
ΔE

3B Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS Question 4

Question 1 Which of the following best shows the work done by a person
who applies a force of 35 N to open a sliding door a distance
Which of the following best gives the kinetic energy of an
of 2 m?
object with a mass of 5.0 kg travelling at a speed of 8.0 m s−1?
a 37 J
a 20 J
b 70 J
b 80 J
c 37 N m−1
c 160 J
d 70 N m−1
d 640 J
Question 5
Question 2
F (N)
In which of the following scenarios is the individual not
doing work on an object? 10
a Sam picks up clothes from the floor.
8
b Jess holds a barbell above her head.
6
c Cassie pushes a pram.
d Ted opens a sliding door. 4

2
Question 3
0 s (m)
An object initially has 4 J of kinetic energy. A while later, it 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
has 12 J of kinetic energy. How much work has been done on Using the force-displacement graph, calculate the amount of
the object? work done.
a 3J a 25 J
b 4J b 26 J
c 8J c 52 J
d 12 J d 72 J

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110  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS Question 9 (4 MARKS)

This lesson a A car with a mass of 1500 kg accelerates from a speed

Question 6 (4 MARKS) of 9.0 m s−1 to 14 m s−1 with a net force of magnitude
800 N. Calculate the distance over which the car
achieves this increase in speed. Use the concept of
900 kg 900 kg
Stationary 10 m s−1 work and energy.  (2 MARKS)
1500 kg 1500 kg
9.0 m s−1 14 m s−1
a Calculate the work that has been done on an initially
stationary car of mass 900 kg to get it moving at a speed 800 N s
of 10 m s−1.  (2 MARKS)

b Calculate the additional work that must be done b A car with a mass of 1200 kg slows from 20 m s−1 to
to increase the speed of the car from 10 m s−1 12 m s−1 by applying a constant brake force over a
to 20 m s−1.  (2 MARKS) distance of 64 m. Calculate the magnitude of the net
force applied to the car as it slows down. Use the
Question 7 (2 MARKS) concept of work and energy.  (2 MARKS)

The combined mass of a cyclist and her bike is 80 kg. 1200 kg 1200 kg
20 m s−1 12 m s−1
Calculate the final speed of the cyclist if she is travelling at
12 m s−1 and then does 10 240 J of work to increase her
speed. Ignore the effects of resistance forces. Fnet 64m

80 kg 80 kg
Question 10 (3 MARKS)

Brake tests for a new car are conducted where the same
12 m s−1 v
brake force is applied in each trial (controlled variable) for
a car travelling at two different speeds. The distance to stop
is measured.
Question 8 (4 MARKS)
Initial speed Distance to stop
a A cyclist riding with an initial kinetic energy of 6000 J (independent variable) (dependent variable)
pedals such that the wheel pushes against the road with Trial A 5 m s−1 2m
a constant force of 130 N to increase her kinetic energy Trial B 15 m s−1 18 m
to 13 540 J. Calculate the distance the cyclist travelled to
achieve this increase in kinetic energy. Ignore the effects Explain why a car that is moving 3 times faster takes 9 times
of resistance forces.  (2 MARKS) the distance to stop, given that the same brake force is applied.
Use the concepts of work and energy in your explanation.
KEi = 6000 J KEf = 13 540 J
Question 11 (3 MARKS)

The graph shows the net force applied to a van with a mass
of 1600 kg which is initially moving at a speed of 8.0 m s−1.
130 N s The net force is in the direction of motion. Calculate the final

speed of the van after it has travelled 100 m.
b Another cyclist riding with an initial kinetic energy of
9400 J applies a constant brake force to decrease his
1200
kinetic energy to 4900 J over a distance of 70 m. What is
Net force on Van (N)

the magnitude of the braking force? Ignore the effects of 1000

resistance forces.  (2 MARKS) 800
KEi = 9400 J KEf = 4900 J 600

400

200

0
F 70 m 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Distance (m)

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 3B QUESTIONS  111

Question 12 (3 MARKS) a Calculate the magnitude of ​​TB​  ​​​when the child is pulling
the blocks at constant velocity.  (1 MARK)
A 1300 kg car passes through an intersection (which
b The child then accelerates at a rate of 0.80 m s−2.
corresponds to a distance of 0 metres on the graph shown)
Calculate the magnitude of ​​TA​  ​​​.  (2 MARKS)
at a speed of 36.0 km h−1. The driver varies the application
of the accelerator so that the net force in the direction of the c The strings will break if the tension reaches 10 N. The
car’s motion varies as shown in the graph. The distance is child drags the blocks at an increasing acceleration until
measured from the intersection. one of the strings breaks. Calculate the magnitude of the
acceleration when this occurs. Assume that the friction
on each block remains the same (2.0 N on each).  (2 MARKS)
700
600 Question 16 (7 MARKS)
Net force on Van (N)

500
A car drives at a constant speed of 3.0 m s−1 around a
400 roundabout with a radius of 5.0 m. Inside the car there is a
300 ball with a mass of 0.15 kg hanging on a piece of string from
200 the roof.
100 5.0 m
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Distance (m)

Use the graph to calculate the speed of the car after it has
travelled 60.0 m.

Question 13 (3 MARKS)
a What is the magnitude of the net force on the ball?  (1 MARK)
Genevieve (60.0 kg) is riding a bike (20.0 kg), and she b Copy the diagram of the ball on the string and draw
increases her speed from 10.0 km h−1 to 15.0 km h−1 over arrows to show the forces acting on the ball. Also include
3.00 minutes on a flat road. Calculate the power exerted by a dashed arrow to show the net force on the ball.  (2 MARKS)
Genevieve. Ignore the effects of any resistance forces. Adapted from 2013 VCAA Exam Section A Q4a

Question 14 (6 MARKS) c Explain how the forces acting on the ball cause the
net force.  (2 MARKS)
A removalist pushes a heavy box on a rough surface such that
Adapted from 2011 VCAA Exam 1 Section A AoS 1 Q5
the net force on the box is 50.0 N. The removalist pushes with
a power of 300 W for 30.0 seconds and moves the box 15.0 m. d What angle does the string make with
There is a constant friction force acting against the motion of the vertical?  (2 MARKS)
the box causing energy to dissipate as heat.
Key science skills
a Calculate the magnitude of the force applied by
the removalist.  (3 MARKS) Question 17 (3 MARKS)

b Calculate the magnitude of the friction force.  (1 MARK)

Mikaela, Sergio and Liam are investigating work and kinetic
c Calculate the amount of energy dissipated energy. They measure the speed of a cart after a force has
as heat.  (2 MARKS) been applied using a ruler and a stopwatch. Mikaela suggests
that it is important to repeat the measurement to reduce
Previous lessons
the effects of random error. Sergio agrees that they should
Question 15 (5 MARKS) repeat the measurement, but he suggests this will reduce the
effects of systematic error. Liam suggests that repeating the
A child is pulling a toy, which consists of two blocks measurement will reduce the absolute uncertainty of each
connected by string, along the ground. The mass of each measured value.
block is 0.50 kg and each block experiences a friction force
Evaluate each of these three claims.
of 2.0 N.
​​TA​  ​​​ and ​​TB​  ​​​are the tensions in the strings as shown in
the diagram.
The child and the toy are moving towards the right.
Block 1 Block 2
String A (TA) String B (TB)
0.5 kg 0.5 kg
2.0 N 2.0 N

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112 

3C ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS

In this lesson we will analyse collisions in one dimension and classify them as either elastic
or inelastic. We will investigate the conservation of momentum and determine the possible
changes in kinetic energy during collisions.

3A  Momentum and 3B  Kinetic energy, 3C  Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E  Strain potential 3F  Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot points

• investigate and apply theoretically and practically the laws of energy and momentum conservation in isolated systems in
one dimension
• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and energy
dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat, sound and deformation of material):
– kinetic energy at low speeds: ​​Ek​  ​​ = ​_
1
 2   ​ m​v​​ 2​​; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to conservation of kinetic energy
​​  s​​ = ​__
1
– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying Hooke’s Law: E​  2 ​ kΔ​x​​ 2​​
– gravitational potential energy: ​​E​ g​​ = mgΔh​or from area under a force-distance graph and area under a field-distance
graph multiplied by mass
Key knowledge units

Elastic and inelastic collisions 3.3.6.2 & 3.3.15.6

Energy dissipation 3.3.15.5

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

3A * ​p = mv​ No new formulas in this lesson

3A ​​p​ i​​ = ​p​ f​​​

* ​KE = __
1
3B ​ 2 ​m​v​​ 2​​

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

elastic collision  a collision in which kinetic energy is conserved
energy dissipation  the transfer of energy out of a system
inelastic collision  a collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved

Elastic and inelastic collisions  3.3.6.2 & 3.3.15.6

overview
useful tip
Momentum is conserved in all collisions. In elastic collisions kinetic energy is also conserved,
whereas in inelastic conditions kinetic energy is not conserved. Momentum is a
vector quantity. When
theory details calculating the total
Total momentum is conserved in all collisions. This means that the sum of the initial momentum before
momenta of objects involved in a collision is equal to the sum of the final momenta of the and after a collision,
same objects after a collision. make sure to take into
account the direction
of movement.

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 3C THEORY  113

Elastic collisions Before collision

In elastic collisions, kinetic energy is conserved. This means that the total kinetic energy of
the colliding objects before the collision is equal to the total kinetic energy of the objects after 5 m s−1
2 kg 3 kg
the collision. As in all collisions, momentum is also conserved.
Not many everyday collisions are elastic: true elastic collisions only occur at a subatomic p = 10 kg m s−1
level. However, collisions between very rigid objects like billiard balls are often close to
elastic collisions. After collision

Inelastic collisions
During inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is not conserved. This means that the total kinetic 2 m s−1
2 kg 3 kg
energy of the colliding objects before the collision is not equal to the total kinetic energy of
p = 10 kg m s−1
the objects after the collision, despite momentum still being conserved. Since kinetic energy
cannot be gained in a collision, the total kinetic energy after an inelastic collision will be less
Figure 1  The total momentum
than before the collision. This is because the kinetic energy lost in the collision is transformed of objects involved in a collision
into other types of energy. is the same before and after the
collision occurs.
Most collisions in the real world are inelastic collisions, such as a car crash or football players
tackling each other.
useful tip
Problem solving process If the final total kinetic
energy is larger than
To solve common VCAA collision questions:
the initial total kinetic
1 Calculate total momentum before collision. energy, you have
2 Using the conservation of momentum and information provided, calculate the final made a mistake in
velocity of the colliding objects. your working.

3 Calculate the total kinetic energy before and after the collision.
4 From the change in kinetic energy, determine if the collision conserved kinetic energy
(elastic) or did not (inelastic).

1 Worked example

Two 3000 kg train cars, car A and car B, are moving toward each other head on. Before they collide, car A is travelling to the
right at 3.00 m ​​s​​ −1​​ and car B is travelling to the left at 4.00 m ​​s​​ −1​​.

Before the collision

3.00 m s−1 4.00 m s−1
3000 kg 3000 kg

A B

After the collision, the cars are joined together and move off as one.

After the collision

A B

a Calculate the final velocity of the joined cars.

b Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Justify your answer with calculations.

a Define the right direction as positive.

Initial total momentum:
​ = mv  ∴ ​p​ A​​ = ​m​ A​​ × ​u​ A​​= 3000 × 3.00 = 9000​kg m ​s ​​ −1​
p
​​p​ B​= ​m​ B​× ​u​ B​= 3000 × − 4.00 = −12 000​kg m ​s ​​ −1​
  ​= ​p​ A​+ ​p​ B​= 9000 − 12 000 = −3000​kg m ​s ​​ −1​(negative value indicates direction is to the left)
​​p​tot

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114  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Final total momentum:

​​p​ f​​ = ​p​ i​​  ∴ ​p​ f​​= −3000​kg m ​s ​​ −1​(negative value indicates direction is to the left)
Final velocity:
​​​ ​ f​​ = ​(​m​ A​​ + ​m​ B​​)​ × ​v​ f​​  ∴ −3000 = ​(3000 + 3000)​ × ​v​ f​​
p

​​v​ f​= ___________
−3000
​ ​(​​3000 + 3000​ ​= −0.500​m ​s ​​ −1​(negative value indicates direction is to the left)
  ) ​​  

b Initial total kinetic energy:

K​EA​  ​= __
​ 2 ​​ m​ A​​​u​ A​​​​ 2​= __
1 1
​ ​ 2 ​× 3000 × ​3.00​​ 2​= 13 500​J

K ​EB​  ​= __
​ 2 ​ ​m​ B​​​u​ B​​​​ 2​= __
1 1
​ ​ 2 ​ × 3000 × ​4.00​​ 2​= 24 000​J
  ​= ​KE​A  ​+ ​KE​B  ​= 13 500 + 24 000 = 37 500​J
​​KE​tot
Final total kinetic energy:

  ​= ​KE​A  ​+ ​KE​B  ​= __
​ 2 ​​ m​ A​​​v​ A​​​​ 2​+ __
​ 2 ​​ m​ B​​​v​ B​​​​ 2​= 2 × __
1 1 1
​​KE​tot ​ 2 ​× 3000 × ​0.500​​ 2​= 750​J
Compare initial and final total kinetic energy:
​​KE​i  ​​ ≠ ​KE​f  ​​​therefore it is an inelastic collision.​​

Note that kinetic energy is not a vector quantity. No matter the direction objects are travelling
before or after a collision, kinetic energy is always added to find the total.

Energy dissipation  3.3.15.5

overview
During inelastic collisions, the kinetic energy lost is dissipated from the objects in the form
of heat, sound, and the deformation of the objects.
theory details
During collisions where kinetic energy is not conserved (inelastic collisions), the energy lost
must be transformed into other forms of energy, since energy cannot just vanish.
Imagine a tennis ball bouncing along the floor. With each bounce, the tennis ball loses kinetic
energy, which can be seen by the ball bouncing lower each time. We know that there will be
a sound produced as the ball bounces, and the energy required to produce this sound comes
from the kinetic energy of the ball. Additionally, there will be friction between the tennis ball
and the ground, which generates heat. This heat energy is also transformed from the initial
kinetic energy of the ball. Finally, with each bounce energy is transformed into deformation
of the tennis ball (changing its shape).
Due to processes like the ones seen in the tennis ball bounce, kinetic energy is dissipated into
other forms during inelastic collisions. To observe energy dissipation yourself, try rubbing Figure 2  Energy is dissipated as
sound, heat, and deformation of
your hands together. The kinetic energy of your hands will be transformed into heat energy the tennis ball when it collides with
due to friction. the ground.

Theory summary
keen to investigate?
• The total momentum is conserved in all collisions
oPhysics ‘Momentum & Energy: Elastic and
• Kinetic energy is conserved in elastic collisions
Inelastic Collisions’ simulation
• Kinetic energy is not conserved (decreases) in inelastic collisions https://ophysics.com/e2.html
• When energy is not conserved, it is dissipated in the form of heat, sound oPhysics ‘Momentum & Energy: Explosive
or object deformation “Collisions”’ simulation
https://ophysics.com/e2a.html
PhET ‘Collision Lab’ simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/collision-
lab/collision-lab_en.html

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 3C QUESTIONS  115

3C Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS Question 4 (5 MARKS)

Question 1 Two runaway train cars collide and join together.

Choose the row that best describes types of collisions: Before the collision
Before the collision 6.0 m s−1 3.0 m s−1
Collision Momentum Kinetic energy 10 tonnes 6.0 m s−1 5.0 tonnes 3.0 m s−1
conserved? conserved?
10 tonnes 5.0 tonnes
A Elastic Yes Yes X Y
Inelastic Yes Yes X Y

B Elastic Yes Yes

After the collision
Inelastic Yes No
After the collision
C Elastic No Yes
X Y
Inelastic Yes No
X Y
D Elastic Yes No
Inelastic Yes Yes

Question 2 a Calculate the final speed of the joined cars.  (2 MARKS)

b Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Use calculations to
Which of the following statements is incorrect? support your answer.  (3 MARKS)
a Energy is a vector quantity. When calculating total
Adapted from 2018 VCAA Exam Section A Q8
energy, you should keep in mind the directional sign.
b Energy is a scalar quantity. When calculating total Question 5 (3 MARKS)
energy, always add the various energies together.
Two billiard balls collide during a game of pool. They each
c Momentum is a vector quantity. When calculating
have a mass of 0.35 kg and ball A has an initial speed of
total momentum, you should keep in mind the
4.0 m ​​s​​ −1​​before it hits the stationary ball B.
directional sign.
d Energy is dissipated away from inelastic collisions.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
This lesson A
4.0 m s−1
Question 3 (8 MARKS)

Two whitetail bucks are charging towards each other and

collide head on during a territorial fight. Before the collision, B
buck A has a mass of 110 kg and is moving at 8.00 m ​​s​​ −1​​ to the
right, while buck B is 130 kg and is moving at 5.00 m ​​s​​ −1​​ to
the left.
a What is the total momentum before the After the collision ball A is stationary. Find the final speed of
bucks collide?  (1 MARK) ball B and determine, using calculations, if the collision is
elastic or inelastic.
b What will be the total momentum after
the collision?  (1 MARK)
c After the collision, buck A and B are locked together.
At what speed are the joined pair travelling?  (2 MARKS)
d Calculate the initial total kinetic energy of the
two bucks.  (2 MARKS)
e Calculate the final total kinetic energy of the
two bucks.  (1 MARK)
f Is the collision elastic or inelastic?  (1 MARK)

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116  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Question 6 (3 MARKS) Previous lessons

Two blocks collide on a frictionless surface. Initially, a 4 kg Question 8 (2 MARKS)

block is travelling to the right, before it collides elastically

with an 8 kg block. A motorcycle rider drives around a banked circular track
which is angled at 25° to the horizontal. The rider’s circular
Before collision path has a radius of 50 m.
a Calculate the speed they should drive at so that they
4 kg 8 kg
do not experience a sideways frictional force while
maintaining this path.  (1 MARK)
After they collide, the 8 kg block moves to the right and the b Calculate the required angle of the banked track for
4 kg block moves to the left as shown in the diagram. there to be no sideways friction force if the rider drives at
After collision
30 m ​​s​​ −1​​along the same circular path.  (1 MARK)

Question 9 (2 MARKS)
4 kg 8 kg
Calculate the impulse given to a 0.25 kg toy rocket when it is
The magnitude of the momentum of the 8 kg block after accelerated from rest to 60 m ​​s​​ −1​​by a strong spring.
the collision is greater than the magnitude of the Key science skills
momentum that the 4 kg block had before the collision.
Question 10 (2 MARKS)
Explain why the greater magnitude momentum of the
8 kg block is consistent with the law of conservation Five different momentum measurements are recorded.
of momentum. Determine the number of significant figures used for each
Adapted from 2012 VCAA Exam 1 Section A AoS 1 Q2 of the values:
0.50001 kg m s−1, 0.00001 kg m s−1, 0.500 kg m s−1,
Question 7 (4 MARKS) 0.50 ✕ 107 kg m s−1, 0.001 ✕ 10−3 kg m s−1, 420 kg m s−1.

The behaviour of a golf ball and the club used to strike it is Question 11 (2 MARKS)
being investigated. Treat the impact as an elastic collision
between the head of the golf club and the golf ball. Describe the gradient of this final momentum versus initial
momentum graph.

3.80
Final momentum (kg m s−1)

3.70

3.60
Golf club Golf ball
Four relevant measurements are recorded.
3.50
Mass of golf ball 48 g
Initial speed of golf club head 30.00 m ​​s​​ −1​​
3.40
Final speed of golf club head 24.74 m ​​s​​ −1​​
Final speed of golf ball 54.74 m ​​s​​ −1​​
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Given that the golf ball was stationary before being hit, Initial momentum (kg m s−1)
calculate the mass (in grams) of the golf club head.

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 3D THEORY  117

3D GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

This lesson will build on our understanding of work and energy from lesson 3B. Gravitational
potential energy is the energy associated with the position of an object within a gravitational
field. We will introduce the law of conservation of energy and use it as a convenient way to
relate the change in an object’s height to its associated change in speed.

3A  Momentum and 3B  Kinetic energy, 3C  Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E  Strain potential 3F  Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot point

• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and energy
dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat, sound and deformation of material):

– kinetic energy at low speeds: ​​E​k  ​ = ​__

1
 2 ​ m​v​​ 2​​; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to conservation of kinetic energy

​​ s  ​​ = ​_
1
– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying Hooke’s Law: E​  2 ​ kΔ​x​​ 2​​
– gravitational potential energy: ​Eg​  ​ = mgΔh​or from area under a force-distance graph and area under a field-distance graph
multiplied by mass
Key knowledge units

Gravitational potential energy 3.3.15.2

Conservation of energy 3.3.15.4

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

* ​KE = ​_
1
3B  2 ​m​v​​ 2​​ ΔGPE = mgΔh​
* ​

_
3B W
​  = Fs​ ​v = √
​  −2gΔh + ​u ​​ 2 ​  
​​

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

gravitational potential energy  the stored energy associated with the position of an object
in a gravitational field

Gravitational potential energy  3.3.15.2

overview 25
Gravitational potential energy is the energy associated with the
position of an object within a gravitational field. We can calculate the 20
Force due to gravity (N)

change in gravitational potential energy when an object changes its

height in the field with ​ΔGPE = mgΔh​. 15
theory details
In lesson 3B we learned that work is done whenever a force is applied 10
to an object in a parallel direction to its motion – such as the force due
to gravity acting on a falling object – and it can be calculated from the 5
equation ​W = Fs​or by the area under a force-displacement graph. For
a uniform gravitational field, the force due to gravity acting on a given
object is constant. Figure 1 shows a force-displacement graph for a 2 4 6 8 10
2 kg object under the influence of a uniform gravitational field with Height/vertical displacement (m)
strength 9.8 N kg−1.
Figure 1  A force-displacement graph for a 2 kg object. The
force due to gravity remains constant so the graph shows a
horizontal line. The shaded area represents the work done,
or the change in gravitational potential energy.

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 118  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

We also know from lesson 3B that the work done is equal to the change in energy of an object
caused by a force. Gravitational potential energy represents the object’s potential to do work
due to its height in a gravitational field.
This means the area under a gravitational force-height graph will give us the magnitude
of the change in gravitational potential energy (​W = ΔGPE​). The change in height (vertical
displacement) of the object is ​​hf​  ​​ − ​hi​  ​​ = Δh​. The force due to gravity is given by ​​Fg​  ​​= mg​.
Since the area under the graph is a rectangle, we multiply the force (​mg​) with the change in
height (​Δh​) to get the change in gravitational potential energy.

​ΔGPE = mgΔh​
ΔGPE = change in gravitational potential energy (J), m = mass (kg), g = acceleration due to
gravity (m s−2), Δh = change in height (m)

Note that the VCE Physics Study Design uses the abbreviation Eg for gravitational potential
energy. For the purposes of making an obvious distinction between different forms of energy,
this book will usually use GPE.

1 Worked example

A 2.0 kilogram ball is released from the top of a track with As the question asks for the magnitide, we take a
an initial height of 5.0 m as shown in the diagram. Take the positive value.
acceleration due to gravity to be 9.8 m s−2.
​ΔGPE = 59​J
10
Point C:
8
We are given the mass ​m = 2.0​kg, acceleration due to gravity ​
g = 9.8​m s−2
2.0 kg
Height (m)

6 ​​Δh =  h​f  ​​ − ​hi​  ​​ = 0 − 5​​  ∴ Δh = −5​m

A E
​ΔGPE = mgΔh = 2.0 × 9.8 × (−5)​
4
D ​ΔGPE = −98​J
2 B As the question asks for the magnitude, we take a
positive value.
C
0 ​ΔGPE = 98​J
What is the magnitude of the change in gravitational Point E:
potential energy from point A to the points B, C, and E? We are given the mass ​m = 2.0​kg, acceleration due to gravity ​
g = 9.8​m s−2
Point B: ​​Δh = h​f  ​​ − ​hi​  ​​ = 5 − 5 ​​∴ Δh = 0 ​m
We are given the mass ​m = 2.0​kg, acceleration due to gravity ​
g = 9.8​m s−2 ​ΔGPE = mgΔh = 2.0 × 9.8 × 0​

​​Δh  =  h​f  ​​ − ​hi​  ​​ = 2 − 5​ ​∴ Δh = −3 ​m ​ΔGPE = 0​J

​ΔGPE = mgΔh = 2.0 × 9.8 × (−3)​

​ GPE = −59​J
Δ

Conservation of energy  3.3.15.4

overview
Energy is always conserved. This means that energy can be transformed from one type to another
but never be created or destroyed. Hence, the total energy in a system will remain constant.
theory details
To find the total energy of a system we must add together all the different types of energy in
the system. If kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy are the only relevant types of
​  ​​​ = ​KE​+ ​GPE​
energy in a system, the total energy would be given by the following equation: ​​Etotal
Since energy is conserved (the total energy must be constant) we can equate the initial and
final state giving us:
​KE​i  ​+ ​GPE​i  ​= ​KE​f  ​+ ​GPE​f  ​​ 

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 3D THEORY  119

When finding ​​GPE​i  ​​​or ​​GPE​f  ​​​ , we use the formula ​GPE = mgh​where the height, h, is taken from
any point as long as it is consistent. For example, the height of a ball resting on a table could
be measured from the floor or from the top of the table (or from any other reference height);
it does not matter as long as we are consistent about the reference height.

gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy giving us: __​​ 2 ​ m​u​​ 2​​+ ​​mgh​i ​​= __
We can expand the energy conservation equation by substituting in the values for
1 1
​​ 2 ​ m​v​​ 2​ ​+ ​​mgh​f  ​​​  .
By rearranging this equation we can find a formula for the final speed of an object moving in
a gravitational field, as long as kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy are the only

_
relevant types of energy:

​v = √
​  −2gΔh + ​u​​ 2​ ​​ 
v = final speed (m s−1), g = acceleration due to gravity (m s−2), Δh = change in height (m),
u = initial speed (m s−1)

Energy can be transformed into other types like thermal energy, sound energy, and
deformation of material. This is called energy dissipation and it does not violate the
conservation of energy principle.

2 Worked example

A 2.0 kilogram ball is released from the top of a track with a We are given: the mass ​m = 2.0​kg, gravitational
an initial height of 5.0 m as shown in the diagram. Its speed acceleration ​g = 9.8 ​m s−2, and height ​h = 5.0​m (measured
is initially zero. Take the gravitational potential energy at relative to the ground).
the bottom to be zero. ​ GPE = mgh = 2.0 × 9.8 × 5.0​
​ GPE = 98​J
10
b ​​ KE​A  ​​​ + ​​GPE​A  ​​​= ​​KE​B  ​​​+ ​​GPE​B  ​​​where ​​KE​i  ​​ = 0​
8
​​ GPE​A  ​​​= ​​KE​B  ​​​+ ​GPE​B  ​​​
2.0 kg
Height (m)

6 98 ​= ​​KE​B  ​​ ​+ ​2.0 × 9.8 × 2​

​
A E
​98 ​= ​​KE​B  ​​​ + ​39.2​
4
D ​​ E​B  ​​ ​= ​98​ − ​39.2​
K
B
2 ​​KE​f  ​​ = 59​J
C
_
c ​g = 9.8​m s−2, ​hi = 5.0​m, ​hf​  ​= 0​m, ​u = 0​m s−1
Substitute into the equation: ​v = √
0

_________________
​  −2gΔh + ​u​​ 2​ ​​ 
v=√
Calculate:
​ ​  −2 × 9.8 × ​( ​​0 − 5​)​​ + ​0​​ 2​ ​​ 
a the gravitational potential energy at point A.
v = 9.9​m s−1
​
b the kinetic energy at point B.
c the speed at point C. d The total energy is the same at all points. So we will use
point A to find the total energy.
d the total energy at point D.
At point A: ​E = KE + GPE​, where ​KE = 0​
​E = 0 + 98 = 98 ​J

Theory summary
keen to investigate?
• A change in gravitational potential energy can be calculated from
PhET ‘Energy Skate Park’ simulation
– the area under a gravitational force-height graph. https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/
– the equation ​ΔGPE = mgΔh​. energy-skate-park-basics
• Energy is always conserved.
– The initial energy equals the final energy of the system. For a
system involving only kinetic energy and gravitational potential
_
energy this gives us: ​K​Ei​  ​​ + ​GPE​i  ​​ = ​KE​f  ​​ + ​GPE​f  ​​​
– ​v = ​√ −2gΔh + ​u​​ 2​ ​​ 
• In the real world energy is often transformed into other forms such
as thermal energy and sound.
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120  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

3D Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS Question 5

Question 1 Which of the following calculations could be used to find the

kinetic energy of the ball at point Z?
Which of the following statements is correct?
a ​​15 × ​(10 − 2)​ × g​​

​​ __
a Total energy is always conserved.
1 2
b Total energy is only conserved in frictionless systems. b 2 ​× 15 × ​3​​  ​​
c Gravitational potential energy is always conserved. c 1​ 5 × 10 × g​
d Total energy is not conserved. d __ 1
 ​​  ​× 15 × ​8​​ 2​​
2

Question 2 Question 6

An object is dropped 1 m with an initial gravitational Which of the following options is the best reason the ball
potential energy of 15 J and a final gravitational potential never reaches point Q?
energy of 12 J. Which equation would we use to find the
a The gravitational potential energy at point Q is greater
change in the object’s kinetic energy?

​​ΔKE = ​__
than the total energy of the ball.
1
a  2 ​ m ​(​u​​ 2​ − ​v​​ 2​)​ b Friction would cause the ball to stop before it reaches

​ΔKE = __
​ 2 ​ m​u​​ 2​− __
1 1 point Q.
b ​ 2 ​ m​v​​ 2​​
c The ball does not have enough mass to make it over
c ​KE = GPE​ the second hill.
d ​​KE​i  ​​ + ​GPE​i  ​​ = ​KE​f  ​​ + ​GPE​f  ​​​ d The horizontal distance to point Q is too far.

Use the following information to answer Questions 3–6. EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

A 15 kg ball which is initially at rest at point W rolls along the This lesson
frictionless track shown in the diagram. Question 7 (4 MARKS)
16
A 1800 kg jeep is travelling at 30 m s−1 at the bottom of a 15 m
14
Q hill. Assume there is no friction and no driving force acting
12 on the car.

Image: EgudinKa/Shutterstock.com
Height (m)

10
W
8
X Y
6
15 m

1800 kg
4
Z
30 m s−1
2
0
Question 3
a Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy
of the car when it reaches the top of the hill.  (2 MARKS)
Which of the following calculations could be used to find the b Calculate how fast the car is travelling when it reaches
change in gravitational potential energy as the ball rolls from the top of the hill.  (2 MARKS)
point W to point X?
Question 8 (8 MARKS)
a ​15 × 10 × g​
b ​15 × 6 × g​ Tom throws a 0.50 kg ball at 5.0 m s−1 from a height of
35 m. Take the gravitational potential energy at the water
c ​​15 × ​(10 − 6 )​ × g​​
to be zero.
d 1​​ 5 × ​(10 − 2 )​ × g​​
5.0 m s−1
Question 4

At which two points is the ball moving at the same speed?

a
35 m

W and Q
b X and Y
c X and Z
d Y and Z

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 3D QUESTIONS  121

A B Previous lessons
Question 11 (3 MARKS)
Energy (J)

Energy (J)
A 0.50 kg ball is on a vertical circular track of radius 3.0 m.
At the lowest point A, the ball is moving at 8.0 m s−1.
Ignore air resistance.
Height (m) Height (m)
m
3.0
C D
Energy (J)

Energy (J)
0.50 kg

A
a Draw the resultant force acting on the ball at point A.  (1 MARK)
b What is the magnitude of the force that the ball exerts
Height (m) Height (m)
on the track at point A?  (2 MARKS)
a Which graph (A-D) best shows the kinetic energy of the
ball as a function of height? Explain your answer.  (2 MARKS) Adapted from 2015 VCAA Exam Section A Q3

b Which graph (A-D) best shows the gravitational potential

Question 12 (5 MARKS)
energy of the ball as a function of height? Explain
your answer.  (2 MARKS) A baseball fielder attempts to catch a ball. The ball has a
c What is the kinetic energy of the ball when it impacts mass of 0.250 kg.
the water?  (2 MARKS)
Speed of ball before collision 13.0 m s−1
d What is the speed of the ball when it is 10 metres above Speed of ball after collision 0 m s−1
the water?  (2 MARKS)
Time in contact with the ball 0.150 s
Question 9 (5 MARKS)

Lucie, a 64 kg skier rides down a frictionless mountain side until

she reaches a dirt patch at the bottom. The dirt slows Lucie to a
13.0 m s−1
complete stop with a force of 560 N applied over 18.2 m. Stationary
Image: SunshineVector/Shutterstock.com

Image: Yayayoyo/Shutterstock.com

a Calculate the magnitude of the impulse given by the glove

64 kg to the ball. Give your answer in appropriate units.  (3 MARKS)
b Calculate the magnitude of the average force by the glove on
the ball during the collision. Show your working.  (2 MARKS)
Adapted from 2019 VCAA NHT Exam Section B Q7

Key science skills

18.2 m Question 13 (6 MARKS)

a What is the height of the hill Lucie skied down?  (3 MARKS)

Students drop a 0.50 kg ball from rest at varying heights
b Is energy conserved when moving over the dirt patch? and record the final kinetic energy of the ball just before it
Explain your answer.  (2 MARKS) hits the ground. Take the ground as the position with zero
Question 10 (3 MARKS)
gravitational potential energy.
a Calculate the values for the initial gravitational
A probe of mass 1.5 kg, which is initially at rest, drops from potential energy and write them in a similar table in
a height of 4.0 m above the surface of the Moon. Take the your book.  (2 MARKS)
moon to have a gravitational field strength, g, of 1.5 m s−2.
Height from which the Initial gravitational Final kinetic
Sketch gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy ball is dropped (m) potential energy (J) energy (J)
as a function of height above the Moon’s surface. Take the 2 9.5
gravitational potential energy on the surface of the moon
4 18
to be zero.
6 27
Adapted from 2017 VCAA Sample Exam Section B Q1b 8 35

b Draw a graph of the final kinetic energy on the vertical

axis versus the initial gravitational potential energy on
the horizontal axis using the data from the table in part
a. You must also provide an appropriate label for each
axis, a scale, and a line of best fit.  (4 MARKS)

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122 

3E STRAIN POTENTIAL ENERGY

A spring will always produce a force to return to its natural length. We can plot the force-displacement graph for a spring
and find the area under the graph to calculate strain potential energy. Strain potential energy will be used in conservation of
energy calculations alongside gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.

3A Momentum and 3B Kinetic energy, 3C Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E Strain potential 3F Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot point

• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and energy
dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat, sound and deformation of material):
– kinetic energy at low speeds: Ek = 2​​ __ ​​ mv2; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to conservation of kinetic energy
1

– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying Hooke’s Law: Es = 2__
1
​​   ​​ kx 2
– gravitational potential energy: Eg = mgΔh or from area under a force-distance graph and area under a field-distance graph
multiplied by mass
Key knowledge units

Hooke’s law 3.3.15.3.1

Strain potential energy 3.3.15.3.2

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

2B ​
​Fg​  ​ = mg​ * Fs = –k​Δ​x

*​ KE = ​__ ​​ PE = ​__
1 1
3B  2 ​ m ​v​​ 2​ * S  2 ​ k(Δx)2​​

3D *​ ΔGPE = mgΔh​

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

compression (spring)  the process of decreasing an object’s length
extension  the process of increasing an object’s length
ideal spring  a spring that obeys Hooke’s law so that the force it exerts is proportional to its change
in length
natural length  the length of a spring when no external forces are acting on it
spring constant  a value that describes the stiffness of a spring
strain potential energy  the energy stored by the deformation of an object; also known as elastic
potential energy or spring potential energy

Hooke’s Law  3.3.15.3.1

overview
Hooke’s law describes the linear relationship between the force and displacement of an ideal
spring. The spring constant, k, represents the stiffness of a spring and determines the amount
of force needed to compress or extend a spring.
theory details
Hooke’s law is used to calculate the restoring force that an ideal spring applies when it is
compressed or extended.

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 3E THEORY  123

​Fs​  ​ = − kΔx​
​ ​= spring constant (N m−1), ​Δx​= displacement from natural
​Fs​  ​= spring restoring force (N), k
position (m)
useful tip
• A spring will always produce a force in the opposite direction to its displacement to return In VCE Physics it is
to its natural length which is represented by the negative sign. common to deal with the
• When a spring is in its natural position (neither compressed nor stretched, Δ
​ x = 0​) it will magnitudes of forces, in
not exert a force (​​F​s  ​​ = kΔx = 0​). which case the negative
sign in Hooke’s law can
• The spring constant is a property of each spring and it is equal to the gradient of a spring’s
be excluded. Hence, we
force-displacement graph (Figure 1).
would use ​​Fs​  ​ = kΔx​ in
• Many elastic objects besides springs may obey Hooke’s law, but springs will be the most our calculations.
common in VCE Physics.
Equilibrium involving springs
For an object attached to a vertical spring, when the force due to gravity 10
acting on the object has the same magnitude as the restoring force of

Magnitude of spring force (N)

the spring (​mg = kΔx​), the net force on the object is zero. This is often 8
called the equilibrium position. rise
k=–
run
• When dropped from a height, the equilibrium position is where the 6
Rise
object reaches its maximum speed.
• This is the only position where an object can remain stationary 4
over time.
Note that if the velocity of a mass is zero, it does not necessarily mean 2
that the spring is in equilibrium. This will be covered in more detail in Run
lesson 3F.
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Displacement (m)
Figure 1  The spring restoring force against displacement
from the spring’s natural length. The gradient is the spring
constant, k.

1 Worked example

To determine the spring constant of a spring, students attached a block with a mass of 5.0 kg to a hanging spring. The
diagram on the left shows the uncompressed spring and the diagram on the right shows the spring with the block at rest
hanging on the spring.







a What is the magnitude of the displacement, ​Δx​, of the spring from its natural state?
b Find the spring constant, k.

a Δx is the magnitude of the displacement from the b The block is in equilibrium since it is at rest so the
uncompressed spring. magnitudes of the force due to gravity and the spring force
Δx = 2.5 − 0.5 must be equal.

Δx = 2.0 m ​​F​s  ​​ = ​Fg​  ​​​

mg = kΔx​
​
​5.0 × 9.8 = k × 2.0​
​ k = 25​N m−1

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124  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Strain potential energy  3.3.15.3.2 10

overview

Magnitude of spring force (N)

Strain potential energy is equal to the area under a force-displacement 8
rise
graph for a spring and it represents the energy that is stored in the k=–
run
spring. It can be transformed into gravitational potential energy, kinetic 6
energy, or dissipated into the environment according to the law of
conservation of energy described in lesson 3D.
4
theory details
In lesson 3B we learned that work is done whenever a force is applied to 2
an object in a parallel direction to its motion – such as the force applied
to compress or stretch a spring – and is equal to the area under a force-
displacement graph. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
We also know from lesson 3B that the work done is equal to the change in Displacement (m)
energy of an object caused by a force. Strain potential energy represents Figure 2  The shaded area shows the strain potential energy
the spring’s potential to do work as it returns to its natural length. when the spring is displaced 0.06 m from its natural state.

This means the area under the force-displacement graph for a spring will give us the change
in strain potential energy (​W = ΔSPE​). When the spring is stretched or compressed from

to __
​​ 2 ​  ×  base × height = ​ __
its natural length, the area under the graph is a triangle so it can be calculated according
1 1
2 ​ × Δx × ​Fs​  ​​​. By substituting ​kΔx​in the place of ​​Fs​  ​​​, we arrive at the
following formula for the strain potential energy:

​​SPE = ​__
1
 2 ​ k(Δx)2​​
SPE = strain potential energy (J), k = spring constant (N m−1),
​Δx​= displacement from natural position (m)

Note that the VCE Physics Study Design uses the abbreviation Es for strain potential energy.
For the purposes of making an obvious distinction between different forms of energy, this useful tip
book will usually use SPE. Strain potential energy
Conservation of energy is also known as elastic
potential energy or
As we learned in lesson 3D, total energy is always conserved. This means we can equate the spring potential energy.
total energy of the initial state of a spring-mass system with the total energy of the final state
of the system to determine unknown quantities.
​​KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​​ + ​​SPE ​ i​​​ =​​ KE​f  ​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​ + ​​SPE​f  ​

Problem solving process

How to solve a problem using conservation of energy:
1 Write out the conservation of energy statement:
​​KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​​ + ​​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​​​ +​​ SPE​f  ​​​
2 Find the terms that are equal to zero
a When ​v = 0​ then ​KE = 0​
b When ​h = 0​ then ​GPE = 0​
c When ​Δx = 0​ then ​SPE = 0​
3 Rewrite the equation but ignore the terms that equal to zero.
For example: ​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ +​ GP​Ef​  ​​​
4 Substitute the formulas for the unknown energies:

For example: ​​​ __ 2 __

1 1 2
2 ​  k(Δx)​ ​ i​  ​​ = ​​ 2 ​  m​v​​  ​​ + ​mg​hf​  ​​​
5 Substitute the remaining values into the equation and solve.

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 3E THEORY  125

2 Worked example

A compressed spring is used to launch a 2.0 kg ball on a horizontal surface. The ball then continues to roll up a ramp which
is also frictionless. The spring is initially compressed by 0.80 m and its force-displacement characteristics are shown in
the graph.

100
96
Magnitude of spring force (N)

80

60

40

20

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Displacement (m)

 


a Use the graph to calculate the spring constant, k.

b Calculate the strain potential energy in the spring when it is initially compressed.
c Calculate the maximum speed of the ball.
d Calculate the maximum height that the ball reaches up the ramp.

a The spring constant is found as the gradient of the When the spring is initially compressed:
force-displacement graph.
​k = gradient = ​___  run  ​ = ______
K
​​ E​i  ​​ = 0​ as the ball starts from rest.
rise 96 − 0 
​ 0.8 − 0   ​ = 120​ N m–1

​​SPE = ​__
​​GPE​i  ​​ = 0​ as the ball starts from the lowest point.
1
b  2 ​  k(​ Δx)​2 ​​ Just after the ball is released from the spring:

SPE = ​__
1 G
​​ PE​f  ​​ = 0​ as the ball is still at the lowest point.
​  2 ​ × 120 × 0.8​0​​ 2​ = 38.4​ J
​SP​Ef​  ​​ = 0​ as the spring has returned to its natural length.
OR
Alternatively we can use the area under the graph: 
Ignoring the values that are zero, we will rewrite the

SPE = ​__
 2 ​ × Δx × ​Fs​  ​​ = ​__
energy statement as:
1 1
​  2 ​ × 0.80 × 96 = 38.4​J ​​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​K​Ef​  ​​​
c The ball is travelling fastest just after being released and Substitute the formulas for the unknown energies:
before going up the ramp. Use energy conservation.
__
​​   ​​ k(Δx)2 = ​​__
1 1
   ​  m​v​​ 2​​
Initial state: ball at rest next to compressed spring. 2 2
Final state: ball rolling along horizontal surface with Substitute the known values into the equation:

__
​​ 2 ​ × 120 × 0.8 ​0​​ 2​​ = ​​__
spring at natural length. 1 1
 2 ​ × 2.0 × ​v​​ 2​​
​KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​​ + ​​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​​​ + ​​SPE​f  ​​​
​
Rearrange and solve for v: ​v = 6.2​m s−1.

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126  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

d Use energy conservation.

Initial state: ball at rest next to compressed spring (same as part c).
Final state: ball at its highest point on the ramp.
​​KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​ + ​​SPE​i  ​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​​​ + ​​SPE​f  ​
At the highest point:
​​KE​i  ​​ = 0​as the ball briefly stops when it reaches its maximum height.
​SP​Ef​  ​​ = 0​ as the spring has returned to its natural length.
Ignoring the values that are zero, we will rewrite the energy statement as:
​ PE​i  ​​ = ​​GPE​f  ​
S
​

Substitute the formulas for the unknown energies:  __

1
 ​​​2 ​  k(​ Δx)2​ ​​ = mgh

Substitute the known values into the equation:  __

1
​​ 2 ​× 120 × 0.8​0​​ 2​​ = ​2.0 × 9.8 × h​

Rearrange and solve for h: ​h = 2.0​ m.

Theory summary
• Hooke’s law relates the spring force to the displacement of a spring: F​​​ s  ​​ = −  kΔx​.
• When a block is hanging on a spring in equilibrium, ​mg = kΔx​.

• Strain potential energy can be calculated by ​​SPE = ​__

1
 2 ​  k(Δx)​ ​​ 2​​​
• On a force-displacement graph for an ideal spring
– the graph is linear.
– the gradient is equal to the spring constant, k.
– the area under the graph is equal to the strain potential energy.
• Conservation of energy
– Energy can be transformed between kinetic, gravitational and strain potential energy
or dissipated as heat and sound but the total energy in a system must remain constant.
– When no energy is dissipated: ​​KE​i  ​​  + ​GPE​i  ​​  + ​SPE​i  ​​ = ​KE​f  ​​  +  GP​Ef​  ​​  + ​SPE​f  ​​​

keen to investigate?
oPhysics ‘Conservation of Mechanical Energy: Mass on a Vertical Spring’ simulation
https://ophysics.com/e1.html
PhET ‘Masses and springs’ simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/masses-and-springs

3E Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS
Question 1 Question 2

Hooke’s law is given by A spring is known to be ideal if

​​SPE = ​__
1 a it obeys Hooke’s law.
a  2 ​  k(​ Δx)2​ ​​
b the spring constant, k, is equal to zero.
b ​mg = − kΔx​
c the spring is positioned horizontally.
c F​​ s​  ​​ = −  kΔx​
d the unstretched spring is greater than the length of the
d K
​​ E​i  ​​ + ​GPE​i  ​​ + ​SPE​i  ​​ = ​KE​f  ​​ +  GP​Ef​  ​​ + ​SPE​f  ​​​ stretched spring.

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 3E QUESTIONS  127

Question 3 EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

The shape of a force-displacement graph for an ideal spring is This lesson

a linear and horizontal. Question 7 (8 MARKS)

b linear and diagonal.

The force-displacement graph for an ideal spring is as shown.
c exponential.
F (N)
d hyperbolic.
100
Use the following information to answer Questions 4 and 5.
80
A spring is being compressed by a paperweight resting on
top of it.
60

40

20

Question 4
x (m)
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
If only the mass of the paperweight was known, which
equation would best be used to calculate the magnitude of a Use the graph to determine the spring constant, k.  (1 MARK)
the spring’s restoring force?
b Given that a force of 40 N is applied to the spring, what
a F​​ s​  ​​ = mg​ is the magnitude of the compression, ​Δx​, of the spring?
b F​​ s​  ​​ = kΔx​ Assume the spring is stationary.  (1 MARK)

F​​​ s​  ​​ = ​__

c Calculate the strain potential energy when a force of
1
c  2 ​  k(Δx)​ ​​ 2​​​ 40 N is applied to the spring. Assume the spring
is stationary.  (2 MARKS)
d F​​ s​  ​​ = mgkΔx​
An initially stationary 3.0 kg ball is shot from the spring when
Question 5 it is allowed to expand from a compression of 0.080 m.

If the mass of the paperweight and the compression of the 

spring was known, which equation would we use to calculate
the spring constant?
a F​​ s​  ​​ = mg​
b F​​ s​  ​​ = kΔx​ d Calculate the work done by the spring on the ball. Give

​​ PE = ​__
1 appropriate units.  (2 MARKS)
c S  2 ​  k(Δx​)​​ 2​​​
e Calculate the speed of the ball when it leaves the spring.
d ​mg = kΔx​ Show the steps involved in your working out.  (2 MARKS)
Adapted from 2017 VCAA Exam Section A Q12
Question 6




 

Which forms of energy are relevant to the situation shown in

the diagram as the ball rolls down the ramp and compresses
the spring?
a GPE and SPE
b GPE and KE
c KE and SPE
d GPE, KE and SPE

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128  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Question 8 (4 MARKS) Previous lessons

A spring-mass system has been set up. The spring has an Question 11 (5 MARKS)

unstretched length of 30 cm.

Students roll a ball down a ramp onto a circular loop.








In order to determine the spring constant, k, students

progressively place 25 g masses onto an unstretched spring a Calculate the minimum speed at the top of the loop for
and measure the resultant length. the ball to maintain contact with the loop.  (2 MARKS)
Number of masses 0 1 2 3 b What is the minimum height, h, that the ball can be
Length of spring 30 cm 40 cm 50 cm 60 cm
dropped from in order to complete a loop?  (3 MARKS)

Question 12 (2 MARKS)
a Show that the spring constant is equal to 2.45 N m−1. 
(2 MARKS) An ice hockey puck is travelling at 30 m s−1 and collides
b What is the strain potential energy when the spring is with a second puck. After the collision, the first puck comes
loaded with two masses?  (2 MARKS) to a complete stop. Given that both pucks have a mass of
1.5 kg, determine whether the collision was elastic. Justify
Adapted from 2014 VCAA Exam Section A Q2 your answer.

Question 9 (4 MARKS) Key science skills

Question 13 (8 MARKS)

Students set up a test to determine the spring constant, k, of

a spring.



x
 
 

A 4.5 kg mass is suspended from a spring with a spring

constant ​k = 350​N m−1. Take the spring to be static.
a Calculate the extension of the spring from its
unstretched position. Show your working out.  (2 MARKS) 

b Calculate the strain potential energy when the mass is at
its equilibrium position.  (2 MARKS) Five 2.0 kg masses are incrementally attached to the end of
Adapted from 2019 VCAA NHT Exam Section B Q5
the spring. The spring was slowly lowered to its equilibrium
position. The resulting length of the spring was measured
Question 10 (5 MARKS) each time.
Number of 2.0 kg masses 0 1 2 3 4 5
Length of spring (m) 0.30 0.40 0.48 0.57 0.65 0.75


a Plot the data from the table onto a set of axes with
mass on the horizontal axis and spring length on the

vertical axis. Include axis labels, scales, and units on
each axis. Given that the measurements were taken
with a ruler that has 5 cm intervals and held by hand,
A 0.50 kg ball is dropped down a ramp from a height of 1.0 m insert realistic uncertainty bars (or error bars). Draw a
before compressing a horizontal spring by 15 cm from its line of best fit.  (5 MARKS)
uncompressed state.
b Use your graph drawn in part a to determine the spring
a Show that ​k = 4.4 × 1​0​​ 2​​ N m−1.  (2 MARKS) constant, k.  (3 MARKS)
b If the ball is launched from the compressed spring, what Adapted from 2017 VCAA Sample Exam Section B Q14
is the maximum height that the ball reaches?  (1 MARK)
c What is the maximum speed of the ball?  (2 MARKS)

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 3F THEORY  129

3F VERTICAL SPRING-MASS SYSTEMS

An oscillating spring is a common example of how various forms of energy can interact in
a system, obeying the law of energy conservation. This lesson will examine the physics
needed to understand the motion of vertical spring-mass systems. In particular, it will show
how energy conservation can be applied to relate the different stages of motion in a
spring-mass system.

3A  Momentum and 3B  Kinetic energy, 3C  Elastic and 3D Gravitational 3E  Strain potential 3F  Vertical spring-
impulse work and power inelastic collisions potential energy energy mass systems

Study design key knowledge dot point

• analyse transformations of energy between kinetic energy, strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and
energy dissipated to the environment (considered as a combination of heat, sound and deformation of material):

– kinetic energy at low speeds: ​Ek​  ​= __

1
​ 2 ​m​v​​ 2​; elastic and inelastic collisions with reference to conservation of kinetic energy

​ s​  ​= __
1
– strain potential energy: area under force-distance graph including ideal springs obeying Hooke’s law: E ​ 2 ​k​Δx​​ 2​
– gravitational potential energy: ​Eg​  ​= mgΔh​ or from area under a force-distance graph and area under a field-distance
graph multiplied by mass
Key knowledge unit

Vertical spring-mass systems 3.3.15.3.3

Formulas for this lesson

Previous lessons New formulas

2B * ​F​net
  ​​ = ma No new formulas in this lesson

2B ​​F​g  ​​ = mg​

* ​KE = __
1
3B ​ 2 ​  m​v​​ 2​​

3D ΔGPE = mgΔh​
* ​

3E * ​​F​s  ​​ = −kΔx​

* ​SPE = ​​ __
1 2  
2  ​k(Δx ​) ​​ ​​ ​​ ​​
3E

(*Indicates formula, or a similar version, is on VCAA formula sheet)

Definitions for this lesson

equilibrium position (spring-mass system)  the position of the mass at which the net force on
the mass is zero. This position is always halfway between the two extreme points (endpoints) in
oscillatory motion
oscillate  move repetitively around a fixed position
spring-mass system  the combination of a spring and a mass that is attached to one end of
the spring

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130  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Vertical spring-mass systems  3.3.15.3.3

overview
When a vertical spring stretches or compresses with the motion of an object, energy
transforms between kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, and strain potential
energy. At the position where the spring has its maximum compression or extension, the
object stops moving briefly. The forces are not balanced at this point. At the position where
the forces are balanced, the object will move fastest.
theory details
Vertical spring-mass systems include both hanging springs and standing springs (see
Figure 1). When a mass is attached to the vertical spring (rather than landing on the spring or
being released from the spring), which is always the case for hanging springs, the mass will
oscillate between a top and bottom position.
Hanging spring Standing spring
The force due to gravity on the mass does not change but the force of the spring changes in
Figure 1  Vertical spring-mass
proportion to the displacement of the mass. Therefore, the net force, acceleration, and speed systems include both hanging and
of the mass will also change. standing springs.

Table 1  Comparison of acceleration and force with speed and kinetic energy at different points on a vertically
oriented spring-mass system.

Magnitude of acceleration Speed and kinetic energy

and force useful tip
Extreme positions Maximum Zero When the mass is
(top/bottom) attached to the spring,
The net force is a maximum The mass momentarily stops
the equilibrium
Equilibrium position Zero Maximum position will be the
The net force is zero (​kΔ x = mg​) The mass has stopped accelerating midpoint between the
and KE is a maximum
top and bottom of the
oscillation. This is also
For a vertical spring-mass system the equilibrium position is not where the mass would
• the position of maximum extension or compression. eventually come to rest,
• the unstretched or uncompressed position. given enough time, if
energy is dissipated
• where strain potential energy is zero. If ​Δx ≠ 0​then ​SPE ≠ 0​.
from the system.
Energy conservation for a vertical spring-mass system
For a vertical oscillating spring there are three relevant forms of energy:
• Kinetic energy of the mass: ​KE​ useful tip
• Gravitational potential energy of the mass: ​GPE​ Equating spring force
to the force on the
• Strain potential energy of the spring: ​SPE​
mass due to gravity
• Applying the law of energy conservation (and assuming energy is not dissipated from the (​kΔ x = mg​) applies
system) we can conclude that the sum of these three energies must be the same at all to the equilibrium
stages of the motion: KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​ ​+ ​​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​​​ + ​​SPE​f  ​​​ position. It does
not determine the
maximum extension of
the oscillating spring.
Top Etotal = SPE + KE + GPE
Unstretched position,
Zero extension =0 =0 Etotal
(maximum)

Fs
Etotal = SPE + KE + GPE
Middle
Equilibrium position Fg 0.25 × Etotal 0.25 × Etotal 0.5 × Etotal
Fnet = 0 (maximum)

Etotal = SPE + KE + GPE

Bottom
Maximum extension Etotal =0 =0
(maximum)
Figure 2  A mass released from the unstretched position of a hanging spring.
The energy of the system transforms between strain potential energy, kinetic energy,
and gravitational potential energy.

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 3F THEORY  131

SPE KE GPE Total energy

useful tip
The top position can
be below or above the
unstretched position
Energy

in which case the

strain potential energy
in the top position will
not be zero. This will
depend on where the
Bottom position Middle Top position
Maximum extension Equilibrium position Zero extension mass is released to
begin the oscillation.
Height of mass from bottom of oscillation
Figure 3  The strain potential energy, gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy of a hanging oscillating spring-mass system each vary with
displacement, but the total energy is constant.

1 Worked example

A block of mass 0.050 kg is attached to the end of a hanging spring with a spring constant 10 N m−1. The mass is initially
held so that the spring is unstretched. It is then released. Calculate

a the maximum extension of the spring.

b the extension of the spring at which the mass would come to rest.

a Use energy conservation and define ​h = 0​at the b The mass would come to rest at the equilibrium
lowest position. position, which is halfway between the top and the
Initial state: mass at the top in the unstretched position. bottom of the oscillation and where ​​Fs​  ​​ = ​Fg​  ​​​
Final state: mass at the bottom of its oscillation. As the equilibrium position is halfway between the
​
​KE​i  ​+​ ​GPE​i  ​​+​ ​SPE​i  ​​ =​​ KE​f  ​+​ GP​Ef​  ​​ + ​SPE​f  ​ maximum and minimum extension
equilibrium position = __
1
When the mass is at the top in the unstretched position: ​ ​ 2 ​× 0.098​
​
​ E​i  ​​ = 0​as the mass starts from rest.
K ​equilibrium position = 0.049​m
​SP​Ei​  ​​ = 0​ as the spring starts from its OR
natural/unstretched length. kΔ x = mg​
​
When the mass is at the bottom of its oscillation: ​10 × Δ x = 0.050 × 9.8​
​Δ  x = _________
​K
 ​Ef​  ​​ = 0​ as at the bottom of the oscillation the mass 0.050 × 9.8
​  10    ​ = 0.049​m
momentarily comes to rest.
​GPE​f  ​​ = 0​ as the mass is at its lowest point.
​
Ignoring the values that are zero, we will rewrite the
energy statement as:
​GPE​i  ​​​ = ​SP​Ef​  ​​​
​

​mgh​ = __
Substitute the formulas for the unknown energies:
1
​​​ 2 ​ k(Δ x ​)​​ 2​​​

​0.050 × 9.8 × h ​= __

Substitute the known values into the equation:
1
​​​ 2 ​ × 10 × (Δ x​)​​ 2​​​
In this case ​h = Δx​because the top of the oscillation is at

the unstretched position.

​0.050 × 9.8 × Δ x ​=​ __

So we can rewrite the equation:
1
​ 2 ​× 10 × (​ ​​Δ x)​ ​​​​ 2​​
Rearrange and solve for ​Δ x​: ​Δ  x = 0.098​m.

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132  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Theory summary
• Total energy must be conserved for an isolated vertical spring-mass system:
– ​​KE​i  ​​​ + ​​GPE​i  ​​​ + ​​SPE​i  ​​​ = ​​KE​f  ​​​ + ​GP​Ef​  ​​​ + ​​SPE​f  ​​​
• At the top and bottom of an oscillation, the mass momentarily comes to a stop.
• In the equilibrium position, the mass is moving at its maximum speed (has maximum
kinetic energy).
• The position of maximum compression or extension is not the equilibrium position.
• The equilibrium position is
– halfway between the top and bottom positions of the oscillating spring.
– where ​kΔ x = mg​.
– where a mass will eventually come to rest over time, as energy is dissipated.

3F Questions
THEORY REVIEW QUESTIONS Question 3

Use the following information to answer Questions 1 – 3. Which option correctly describes the speed and magnitude of
acceleration at each of the three positions?
The following diagram shows a block oscillating on a vertical
hanging spring. The spring is at its natural length when the Speed Acceleration magnitude
block is at the top of the oscillation (position X). Position X Zero Maximum
A Position Y Maximum Zero
Position Z Zero Maximum
Position X Zero Constant (9.8 m s−2)
X Natural length, zero displacement B Position Y Medium Constant (9.8 m s−2)
Position Z Maximum Constant (9.8 m s−2)
Y Equilibrium position Position X Zero Zero
C Position Y Maximum Maximum
Position Z Zero Zero
Z Maximum extension
Position X Zero Constant (9.8 m s−2)
D Position Y Maximum Constant (9.8 m s−2)
Question 1
Position Z Zero Constant (9.8 m s−2)

Which option correctly describes the energy forms at each of

Question 4
the three positions?
Energy form Position X Position Y Position Z Below is the graph of each of the three relevant energy forms
KE Maximum Zero Maximum
(labelled as P, Q and R) as a function of the distance of the
A GPE Maximum Medium Minimum block above its lowest point.
SPE Zero Maximum Zero
KE Zero Maximum Zero
B GPE Maximum Medium Minimum
P
SPE Maximum Zero Maximum Q
Energy

KE Zero Maximum Zero

C GPE Maximum Medium Minimum
SPE Zero Medium Maximum
R
KE Zero Medium Maximum
D GPE Maximum Medium Zero Extension
SPE Zero Medium Maximum Zero Middle Maximum

Which option correctly identifies the energy forms

Question 2 represented by P, Q and R?

Which option correctly describes the magnitude of the net Graph P Graph Q Graph R
force at each of the three positions? A KE GPE SPE

Position X Position Y Position Z B GPE SPE KE

A Maximum Medium Zero C SPE KE GPE
B Maximum Medium Maximum D SPE GPE KE
C Maximum Zero Maximum
D Zero Zero Zero

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 3F QUESTIONS  133

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS c Draw a graph showing the acceleration of the mass as it

moves from the highest point to the lowest point, where
This lesson
upwards is the positive direction. The acceleration should
Question 5 (3 MARKS) be shown on the vertical axis and the extension of the
spring should be shown on the horizontal axis. Include
Yokabit, Valeriy, and JL are conducting an experiment with a units and an appropriate scale on your graph.  (3 MARKS)
mass attached to a standing spring. When at rest, the mass d Using the same spring and mass, Ryle and Rushil now
compresses the spring by 2.0 cm. They intend to compress hold the mass at rest such that the spring has an initial
the spring by a further 1.0 cm (total compression of 3.0 cm) extension of 30 cm. It is then released. Calculate the
and measure the maximum height that the mass reaches maximum extension of the spring.  (1 MARK)
when it oscillates.
Question 7 (13 MARKS)
2.0 cm Equilibrium
position Starting
1.0 cm position A spring launcher is used to project a 0.50 kg ball vertically
upwards. When the spring reaches the top point X it is held
stationary, but still partly compressed. Assume the spring
Natural length

has no mass.
Uncompressed Ball leaves
position spring
launcher
0.40 m X X here
0.20 m
Each of the students has a different suggestion for the Y Y
maximum height that the mass will reach:
• Yokabit suggests that the highest position will be the
equilibrium position because the net force would act Uncompressed spring Compressed spring Ball launched
downwards if the mass was any higher;
• Valeriy suggests that the highest position will be the
position at which the spring is uncompressed because 50
the spring force would act downwards on the mass if the 40
mass was any higher;
Force (N)

• JL suggests that the highest position will be 3.0 cm above 30

the natural length (uncompressed position) because 20
energy conservation suggests that the highest and lowest
positions should be the same distance from the 10
uncompressed position.
Evaluate each of these students’ suggestions with supporting 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
explanations. Ensure that you clearly state the correct height Uncompressed Highest point (X) Lowest point (Y)
that the mass will reach in your answer. position
Compression of spring from
Question 6 (10 MARKS) uncompressed length (m)

Ryle and Rushil hang a mass of 0.800 kg on the end of a spring a Use the graph to show that the spring constant k, is
with spring constant 12 N m−1. They initially hold the mass at 120 N m−1.  (1 MARK)
the unstretched length of the spring and then release it. b Show that the change in strain potential energy as
the spring goes from its lowest to its highest point
is 7.2 J.  (2 MARKS)
c Assuming the change in strain potential energy is 7.2 J,
determine the maximum height above the lowest point
(Y) that the ball reaches after being launched.  (3 MARKS)
d What is the speed of the ball at point X.  (3 MARKS)
∆x
e Describe how the three energies and the total energy of
the mass-spring system changes as the ball is launched
from the lowest point Y to the highest point X.  (4 MARKS)
a Determine how far the spring stretches until the mass Adapted from 2018 VCAA NHT Exam Section B Q9
comes to rest, before moving upwards again.  (3 MARKS)
b Calculate the maximum speed of the mass.  (3 MARKS)

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134  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

Question 8 (3 MARKS)

Students design a vertically oscillating spring-mass system.

They set up the system so that the mass is released from
20 cm below the unstretched spring length. They assume that
• at the point of release, the system has zero strain
potential energy and zero kinetic energy;
• at the bottom of the oscillation, the system has zero
gravitational potential energy and zero kinetic energy.
However their calculations for total energy (​KE + GPE + SPE)​
give different values when comparing these two positions.
Explain the mistake that the students have made.
Adapted from 2013 VCAA Exam Section A Q6c

Previous lessons
Question 9 (3 MARKS)

A ball is launched towards a wall which is 25 m away. The ball

is launched from a height of 2.0 m at a speed of 20 m s−1 and
angle of 40° above the horizontal. At what height above the
ground will the ball hit the wall?

Question 10 (4 MARKS)

An aerobatics pilot with a mass of 60.0 kg completes a loop

de loop in her plane which has a mass of 1000 kg. At the
top of the loop she has a speed of 80.0 m s−1 and there is no
normal force acting on her. At the bottom of the loop she is
travelling at 100 m s−1. Assuming that the loop is a perfect
circle, calculate the magnitude of the normal force acting on
her at the bottom of the loop.
Key science skills
Question 11 (4 MARKS)

Tommy and Arden are conducting an experiment in which

they attach a 500 g mass to an unstretched hanging spring,
and release the mass to measure the maximum extension
of the spring during oscillation for a variety of springs with
different spring constants.
They are making their measurements using a ruler which has
markings at 5.0 cm increments.
a What is the uncertainty in the measured data as a result
of the ruler which was used?  (1 MARK)
b Identify the independent variable, dependent variable
and a controlled variable for this experiment.  (3 MARKS)

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 CHAPTER REVIEW   135

CHAPTER 3 QUESTIONS
These questions are typical of one hour’s worth of questions on the VCE Physics Exam.
total marks: 50

SECTION A

All questions in this section are worth one mark.

Unless otherwise indicated, the diagrams in this book are not drawn to scale.

Question 1

A car is moving towards a pedestrian crossing with a momentum of 10 800 kg m s−1. The driver sees a pedestrian and has
to suddenly brake. The car’s momentum is reduced to 500 kg m s−1 over 0.250 s. What is the magnitude of the braking
force applied to the vehicle?
a 41.2 kN b − 41.2 kN c − 10.3 kN d 10.3 kN

Use the following information to answer Questions 2–4.

A block of 15 kg moving at 50 m s−1 to the right collides with a block of 40 kg
moving at 4.0 m s−1 to the left. After the collision they stick together. Assume 4.0 m s−1
50 m s−1 40 kg
there are no frictional forces. 15 kg

Question 2

What is the magnitude of the combined momentum that the blocks have before the collision?
a 160 kg m s−1 b 590 kg m s−1 c 750 kg m s−1 d 910 kg m s−1

Question 3

What is the velocity of the blocks after the collision?

a 2.9 m s−1 in the leftward direction
b 11 m s−1 in the rightward direction
c 14 m s−1 in the rightward direction
d 17 m s−1 in the rightward direction

Question 4

Which of the following statements is true?

a Momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved in the collision.
b Momentum is not conserved but kinetic energy is conserved in the collision.
c Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved in the collision.
d Neither momentum or kinetic energy are conserved in the collision.

Question 5

A worker pulls a 20 kg block up a distance of 3.0 m a ramp using a force of 100 N.

How much work does the worker do on the block? m
3.0
a ​60​ J
b ​5.9 × 1 ​0​​ 2​​N m s−1 20 kg
c ​3.0 × 1 ​0​​ 2​​ J
d ​5.9 × 1 ​0​​ 2​​ J

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136  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

SECTION B

In questions where more than one mark is available, appropriate working must be shown.
Unless otherwise indicated, the diagrams in this book are not drawn to scale.

Question 6 (2 MARKS)

In a crash test for the Batmobile, Alfred (who happens to be an excellent mechanical engineer as well as a butler)
crashed the test model into a solid stone wall. The car’s mass is 1200 kg. It was travelling at a speed of 90 km h−1 and
stopped in 0.10 seconds. Calculate the average force on the Batmobile.

Question 7 (2 MARKS)

A crumple zone is a region in a car which is designed to extend the duration of the collision by crumpling in the case of
an accident. With reference to impulse, explain why crumple zones are an effective safety mechanism.

Question 8 (2 MARKS)

A PE teacher is holding up a heavy object above her head. She states that she is doing a lot of work to hold the object
above there. Evaluate this statement and justify your answer.

Question 9 (5 MARKS)

The graph shows the force that a baseball pitcher applies in a horizontal 140
direction to a 150 g baseball over a distance of 2.0 m. The ball starts from rest. 130
120
a What is the work done by the pitcher on the baseball?  (3 MARKS) 110
100
b What is the speed of the ball as it leaves the pitcher’s hand?  (2 MARKS)
Force (N) 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Displacement (m)
Question 10 (4 MARKS)

1200 kg
400 kg
B B
A A

15.0 m s−1 10.0 m s−1

Two blocks are travelling to the right on a frictionless surface. Block A has a speed of 15.0 m s−1 and block B has a speed
of 10.0 m s−1. After they collide, the masses attach together. Using calculations, determine whether the collision is elastic
or inelastic.
Adapted from 2017 VCAA Exam Section B Q12

Question 11 (3 MARKS)

A football with a mass of 0.50 kg is thrown downwards with an initial kinetic energy of 6.25 J from the Sydney Harbour
Bridge. The ball impacts the water with a speed of 31 m s−1. Calculate the height of the bridge. Ignore the effects of
resistance forces.

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 CHAPTER REVIEW   137

Question 12 (8 MARKS)

A ball of 1.5 kg is dropped from a height of 5.0 m above an uncompressed spring 3.0 m
tall. The ball comes to rest 5.6 m below its original position. Take the spring constant to be ​
k = 457​N m−1.
a What is the spring potential energy when the ball has come to a complete stop?  (2 MARKS)

5.0 m

5.6 m
b How far has the spring been compressed when the ball reaches its maximum
speed?  (3 MARKS)
c The spring is replaced by a different one with a spring constant of 200 N m−1. For this
new spring, the ball is again dropped from a height 5.0 m above the spring, and it
reaches its maximum speed when the spring is compressed by ​7.35 × 1​0​​ −2​​m. Find the

3.0 m
maximum kinetic energy of the ball.  (3 MARKS)
Adapted from 2018 VCAA Exam Section B Q6

Question 13 (4 MARKS)

Engineers set up a gravity light as shown. The energy from a falling sandbag
with a mass of 30 kg is used via an electrical generator to power an LED light.
The LED light uses 1.5 J s−1. The maximum height of the sandbag is 2.0 m from Generator/light
the floor. Assume the generator is ideal, meaning it converts all the input energy
to light energy.

2.0 m
a How much energy can the sandbag deliver to the LED by falling from the
maximum height to the ground? Ignore resistance forces and assume the Sandbag
(30 kg)
kinetic energy of the bag when it reaches the ground is negligible.  (2 MARKS)
b For how much time will the LED stay on as a result of the sandbag falling
from the maximum height to the ground?  (2 MARKS)
Floor

Question 14 (8 MARKS)

In 2016, Luke Aikins (70.0 kg) skydived out of a plane at 7661 m without a
parachute. Due to air resistance, Aikins reached a terminal (maximum) velocity
of 240 km h−1. He opted to land in an enormous net with an area of 30 m by
30 m. Assume that the net follows Hooke’s law. The net was set up on 61 m tall
cranes and it was initially flat before Aikins landed on the net.
a How much of Aikins’ initial gravitational potential energy was dissipated to

61 m
air resistance in his skydive by the time he hit the top of the net?  (3 MARKS) Net
b What must the minimum spring constant of the net be so that Aikins does
not hit the ground?  (3 MARKS)
c Calculate the magnitude of the impulse on Aikins between when he first Cranes
lands on the net and when he comes to rest.  (2 MARKS)

Question 15 (7 MARKS)

A mass is attached to a standing spring at its unstretched length and released, allowing it to oscillate.
a Explain how the three energies involved, and the total energy of the system, vary as the mass descends from top to
bottom. Calculations are not required.  (4 MARKS)
Uncompressed
position

Equilibrium
position

Maximum
compression

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138  Unit 3 | AOS 3 | Chapter 3: Momentum and energy

b A different spring is hung from the roof with a 4.8 kg mass attached. It is released from the unstretched position
and allowed to oscillate. The spring constant is 50 N m−1. Calculate the magnitude of the maximum extension of
the spring.  (3 MARKS)

Unstretched
position

Equilibrium
position

Maximum
extension

Adapted from 2017 VCAA Exam Section B Q13

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