Chapter-03 

Human Reproduction

Notes

Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. The reproductive events in humans include
formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of
sperms into the female genital tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote. This is followed by formation and development
of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall (implantation), embryonic development
(gestation) and delivery of the baby (parturition)

The Male Reproductive System: It consists of:

i. Primary sex organs i.e. a pair of testes suspended in a scrotum.

ii. Secondary sex organs i.e. a pair of ducts each differentiated into rete testis, vasa
efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens ,ejaculatory duct and the associated glands
iii. External genitalia

 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called scrotum, which
help in maintaining the low temperature of testes necessary for spermatogenesis.
 Each testes has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule contain highly
coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced. Each seminiferous
tubules is lined by two types of cells, spermatogonia ( male germ cell) and Sertoli
cells.
 Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize
and secrete androgen hormone.

 Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from testes to outside through urethra
which originate from urinary bladder and extend through penis to its external
opening urethral meatus.
 The penis is male external genitalia. The enlarged end of penis is called the glans
penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
 Male accessary glands include paired seminal vesicles, prostrate and paired
bulbourethral glands. Secretion of these glands forms the seminal plasma which
contains fructose, calcium and enzymes. The secretion of bulbourethral glands also
helps in lubrication of the penis.
The Female Reproductive System: It consists of :

a. The primary sex organ that is a pair of ovaries 

b. Secondary sex organs- the duct system consisting of a pair of fallopian tube , a
uterus , cervix and vagina 
c. External genitalia 
d. Mammary glands

 Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete and several
steroid hormones. Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the
ovarian stroma, which is divided into a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
 Fallopian tube extends from periphery of ovary to the uterus. The part closer to ovary
is a funnel shaped structure called infundibulum having finger like projection
called fimbriae.
 Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with uterus with isthmus. Uterus is pear
shaped structure also called womb.
 Uterus open vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of cervix (cervical canal)
along with vagina forms the birth canal.
 The wall of uterus has three layers of tissue:

I. Perimetrium- external membrane.

II. Myometrium – middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit strong contraction
during delivery of baby.
III. Endometrium - line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic changes during menstrual
cycle.

Female external genitalia includes

 Mons pubis – cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hair.
 Labia majora- fleshy fold that surround the vaginal opening.
 Labia manora – paired fold of tissue under labia majora.
 The opening of vagina is often partially covered by a membrane called hymen. The
tiny finger like projection present at the upper junction of two labia manora above the
urethral opening is called clitoris.

Mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissues and variable fats. Each
glandular tissue contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing alveoli that secrete milk.
Mammary ducts join to form mammary ampulla.
Gametogenesis: The process of formation of male and female gametes in testes and ovary
respectively is called gametogenesis.It is of two types:

1. Spermatogenesis in males
2. Oogenesis in females

Spermatogenesis- in testes immature, male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperm by

spermatogenesis that begin at puberty.

 The spermatogonia present at the inner side of seminiferous tubules multiply by

mitotic division and increase in number. Each spematogonium contain 46
chromosomes.
 Spermatogonia forms spermatocyte that undergo meiotic division to reproduce
secondary spermatocytes having 23 chromosomes.
 The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the process
called spermiogenesis. The sperm heads remain embedded in sertoli cells and are
released from seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

 Spermatogenesis initiated due to increase in secretion of gonadotropin releasing

hormone by hypothalamus
 Increase in GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate secretion of two
gonadotropins, LH and FSH
 LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates them to secrete androgens.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulates secretion of some factors which help in
spermiogenesis 

Structure of sperm- sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle

piece and a tail. The sperm head contain elongated haploid nucleus, anterior portion of which
is covered by cap like structure acrosome.
Human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a coitus. The seminal plasma
along with the sperms constitutes the semen. The function of male sex secondary ducts and
glands are maintained by androgen hormones.

Oogenesis : The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis. It started
during embryonic development stage when millions of ogonia (gamete mother cells) are
formed in each fetal ovary.

 The gametes mother cells start division and enter into prophase-I of meiotic division
and get temporally arrested at that stage called primary oocytes.
 Each primary oocyteget surrounded by a layer of granulosa cell than it is called
the primary follicle.
 At puberty, about 60,000- 80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.

 Primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells called secondary
follicle that transform into tertiary follicle that contain fluid filled cavity
 called antrum.

 The tertiary follicles further changes into the mature follicle called Graafian follicle,
which rapture to release secondary oocytes (ovum) from the ovary by the process of
ovulation.

Menstrual cycle: The reproductive cycles in female primates is called menstrual cycle. It
start at puberty and is called menarche.

Phases of Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases:

1. Menstrual Phase:
i. In a 28 days menstrual cycle,the menses  takes place on cycle days 3-5.
ii. The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced.
iii. The withdrawal of  this hormone causes degeneration of the corpus luteum
and, therefore progestrone production is reduced.
iv. Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase.
v. The endometrium of uterus breaks down & menstruation begins.
vi. The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes
the menstrual flow.
2. Follicular Phase:

i. This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 or 14 in a 28 days cycle.

ii. The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland stimulates the ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens.
iii. Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterine wall.
 iv. The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is
accompanied by an increase in uterine glands & blood vessels.

3. Ovulatory Phase:

i. Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day).
ii. Oestrogen concentration in blood increases.
iii. Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graffian follicle and thereby the
release of ovum.
iv. In fact LH causes ovulation.
4. Luteal Phase:

i. Includes cycle days 15 to 28.

ii. Corpus luteum secretes progestrone.
iii. Endometrium thickens.
iv. Uterine glands become secretory.

Hormonal Control of MC

i. FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens.

ii. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progestrone.
iii. Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
iv. LH causes ovulation
v. Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
vi. Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progestrone.

Fertilisation and Implantation

The process of fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilisation.
  During coitus (copulation) semen is released into vagina. The motile sperms swim
rapidly to reach the junction of isthmus and ampulla of fallopian tube. The ovum also
reaches there and fusion of gametes takes place in at ampullary-isthmic junction.
 In this acrosome of sperm undergoes acrosomal reaction and releases certain sperm
lysins which dissolve the egg envelopes locally and make the path for the penetration
of sperm.
 These sperm lysins contain a lysing enzyme hyaluronidase which dissolves the
hyaluronic acid polymers in the intercellular spaces which holds the granulosa cells of
corona radiata together; corona penetrating enzyme (that dissolves the corona radiata)
and acrosin (which dissolves the zona pellucida). Then it dissolves the zona pellucida.

Cortical reaction:

1. (a) Immediately after the entry of a sperm into the egg, the later shows a cortical
reaction to check the entry of more sperms.
2. (b) In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg’s plasma membrane
release chemical substance between the ooplasm and the plasma membrane (vitelline
membrane).
3. (c) These substances raise the vitelline membrane above the egg surface. The elevated
vitelline membrane is called fertilization membrane.
4. (d) The increased space between the ooplasm and the fertilization membrane and the
chemical present in it effectively check the entry of other sperm.
5. (e) If polyspermy occurs, that is more than one sperm enter the secondary oocyte, the
resulting cell has too much genetic material to develop normally

 The haploid gametes fuse together to form diploid zygote. As the zygote moves
towards the uterus, the mitotic division starts and form cleavage to change into 2,
4,8,16 celled blastomeres.
 The blastomeres with 8 to 16 cells are called morula. Morula divide to change into
blastocysts .The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer
called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner
cell mass.The outer layer of blastocyst is called trophoblast that attach with
endometrium of uterus, called implantation that leads to pregnancy.
Pregnancy and embryonic development

The finger-like projections on trophoblaste after implantation called is called chronic

villi that along with uterine wall forms functional unit between developing embryo and
maternal body called placenta. Placenta is attached with fetus with an umbilical cord that
transport food and oxygen to embryo.

 Hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), hPL (human placental

lactogen) and relaxin are produced in woman only during pregnancy by placenta.
 After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer
called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears
between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues
(organs) in adults. It is important to note that the inner cell mass contains certain cells
called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs
 In human, after one month of pregnancy the embryo’s heart is formed. By the end of
2nd month limbs and digits are formed. By the end of 12 months, major organs and
external genital organs are well developed. The first movement of foetus is observed
in 5 months. By the end of 24 weeks body is covered with fine hair, eye lids and
eyeless are formed. At the end of 9 months fetus is fully developed.

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition-the process of delivery of fully developed foetus is called parturition.

 Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and placenta inducing
mild uterine contractions called Foetal ejection reflex
 It triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary

The mammary glandsof female, start producing milk, to the end of pregnancy by the process
of lactation. The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum,
which contain several antibodies.