RESEARCH METHODS

RM Techniques:
1. Experimental Method: When a researcher manipulates an IV to test its
impact on the DV
a. Lab Experiment
A highly controlled environment (commonly a lab) where the
researcher manipulates the IV to test its impact on the DV
e.g. Milgram

Strengths:
i. High levels of controls (give e.g.) which allows for the
procedure to be standardized and easily replicated to test for
reliable
ii. High levels of controls allows for confounding/extraneous
variables to be controlled which makes the researcher more
confident than any change in the DV is being caused by the IV,
hence increasing the validity
iii. Quantitative data is collected which is objective and numerical,
and allows for results to be compared easily of different
groups or participants. This can also help determine if the IV is
affecting the DV (when comparing results of the experimental
group to the control group)

Weaknesses:
i. Low ecological validity as the study is conducted in a highly
controlled and artificial setting of a lab, and the task
participants are required to perform during the procedure is
usually low in mundane realism
ii. As participants are aware they are taking part in an
experiment, they may show demand characteristics which can
lower the validity
 b. Field Experiment
A natural environment with fewer controls, where the researcher
manipulates the IV to test its impact on the DV
e.g. Piliavin

Strengths: High ecological validity and mundane realism; fewer

demand characteristics; qualitative and quantitative data

Weaknesses: Fewer controls (can lower validity and make it difficult

to replicate for reliability); perhaps unethical as participants may not
know they are taking part in a study (deception/informed consent)

c. Natural Experiment
Also known was a quasi-experiment (half experiment) as the
researcher cannot manipulate the IV, as it is naturally occurring, to
see if it has an impact on the DV. The setting (natural or artificial)
does not matter here
e.g. Baron Cohen

Strengths: The IV is naturally occurring which makes this aspect

ecologically valid

Weaknesses: Difficult to replicate as the IV cannot be manipulated

2. Observational Study
a. Covert/overt
Covert is when the participants do not know they are being
observed. This reduces the chances of demand characteristics
(validity), however, it can be unethical (no consent)

Overt is when participants know they are being observed. This

 increases the chances of demand characteristics (reduces validity),
however it may be more ethical (consent)

b. Participant/non participant
Participant is when the observer becomes part of the group they are
observing. This can be overt or covert. It allows the observer to get
more detailed info as they are closer to the participants (overt/covert
strengths/weaknesses can apply as well). However, participants may
show demand characteristics, particularly if its overt (reduces
validity)

Non Participant is when the observer is away from the

group/participant and observing them (from a distance or behind a
one way mirror, or even a video camera). This can be overt or covert.
Participants are less likely to show demand characteristics, but it may
be unethical if they don’t know they are being observed, and the
researcher may miss out on some important behavior as they are
observing from a distance)

c. Structured/unstructured
Structured is when the observers use a behavioral checklist to see if
the participant is showing a few specific behaviours. It is
standardized and can be replicated (reliability) and allows for the
specific behaviors to be closely monitored. However, other important
behaviours may be overlooked as they may not be part of the
checklist

Unstructured is when there is no behavioral checklist and all

behaviors are recorded. It is more difficult to standardize, but all
behaviours are being taken into consideration which could be
important
 d. Controlled/naturalistic
Controlled is an observation in a highly controlled environment
(Milgram/Piliavin – even though it was a field experiment)

Naturalistic is an observation in the participant’s natural environment

where there are no controls (the 51 children in Bandura who were
observed in their natural nursery environment to test for their pre-
existing aggression levels; dement kleitman observing the sleep
patterns as the participants sleep naturally)

3. Self Report
a. Interview (structured, unstructured, semi structured)
When participants respond to questions in verbal form. Structured is
when all participants are asked the same questions in the same
order. It is standardized and easy to replicate. Unstructured is when
the interviewer’s questions are based on the responses to the
participant’s previous response, and therefore may be different for
each participant and is more difficult to replicate. Semi structured is a
combination of both.
Participants may provide socially desirable responses in interviews as
they are face to face (lowers validity)
Participants provide a lot of qualitative data as they may be giving
their opinions and comments
It is difficult to administer over a large population relatively quickly as
it is usually one on one

b. Questionnaires (Close/Structured, Open/Unstructured)

When participants respond to questions in written form. Close are
when the participants have restricted responses (rating scales which
are numerical; likert scales which are scales in statements such as
Agree/Disagree etc). Open are when the participant’s responses are
not restricted and they can respond to the question freely.
A large number of participants can be take questionnaires in a short
 time period.
It may provide quantitative data if it is closed, and qualitative if it is
open.
Participants can provide socially desirable responses which may be
untruthful (lower validity)

4. Case Study
Longitudinal studies that are conducted on one participant. The
development of the behavior of the participant is observed over time. A lot
of qualitative data can be collected as well as the participant is usually
interviews (therapy).
Generalisability is restricted as the participant is only one and representing
only themselves. Furthermore, if the participant withdraws (sample
attrition) the study will be left incomplete. If the researcher and participant
develop a relationship or attachment, it can lead to researcher bias (lower
validity)

5. Correlation
The relationship between two variables can be tested.
Positive: When both variables are increasing or decreasing together e.g.
Height and Weight

Negative/Inverse: When both variables are moving in opposite direction

e.g. The Eyes Test and the AQ Test

The correlation coefficient is a numerical value from -1 to +1 that

determines the strength and direction of the relationship. The closer the
value is to 1, the stronger the relationship between the two variables. The
“-“ sign indicates a negative correlation. The “+” sign indicates a positive
correlation. The closer the value is to 0, the weaker the relationship.
Correlations do not determine cause and effect, and therefore, there is no
IV or DV
W: Cannot determine cause and effect between the two variables
 S: More ethical to conduct compared to experiments
Allows for the relationship between two variables to be determined

KEY TERMS:
Independent Variable: The variable that is being manipulated by the researcher to
determine its impact on the DV

Dependent Variable: The variable that is being measured by the researcher to see
if the IV has any impact or effect on it.

Experimental Group/Condition: The group upon whom the IV is being

manipulated

Control Group/Condition: The group upon whom the IV is not being manipulated
or exposed to

Standardization: When the procedure is the same for all participants through high
levels of controls in order to replicate it to test for reliability

Randomization: Randomizing the order of the task the participants have to

perform in order to avoid order effects

Operationalization: How the IV is being manipulated, and how the DV is being

measured

Reliability: Replicating a study to test for consistency of results

Inter Rater Reliability: When two researchers are both rating the same behaviors
to test for consistency in results. They are not aware of what each other are rating
to avoid any bias

Inter Observer Reliability: When two observers are both observing the same
behavior to test for consistency in results. They are not aware of what each other
are recording to avoid any bias
Test Re-Test Reliability: When participants perform the same task or test more
than once to see if they get the same consistent results (to ensure order effects
have not taken place)

Split Half Method: Splitting a questionnaire in two halves (such as even and odd
questions) to compare the consistency of the questions in both halves

Validity: The extent to which the researcher is accurately investigating or

measuring what they aim to measure. If participants behave
authentically/naturally and provide truthful responses, the results will be more
valid

Ecological Validity: The extent to which a study matches a real life setting

Mundane Realism: The extent to which the tasks the participants are performing
are close to ordinary life

Generalisability: The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to a

wider population. The more diverse and representative a sample, the greater the
generalizability.

Demand Characteristics: When participants suspect the true aim of the study and
change their behavior to act according to how they believe the experimenter
expects them to behave (lowers validity)

Socially Desirable Responses: When participants provide untruthful responses

that they believe are socially accepted, rather than a true reflection of their own
opinions

Single Blind Technique: When the participant does not know which condition they
are in (experimental or control)

Double Blind Technique: When both the participants and the observers are
unaware of which condition the participant is in, in order to avoid any demand
characteristics or bias and improve validity

Subjectivity: Qualitative data in the form of opinions and comments that are
different for each participant that explain the reason behind a behaviour
Objectivity: factual, quantitative, numerical data that can be used to compare
results of different participants or groups

Quantitative data: numerical, objective results that can be compared

Qualitative data: subjective results in the form of emotions, comments, opinions

etc that explain the reason behind a behavior

Longitudinal: a study conducted over a long period of time

Snapshot: a study conducted in a relative short time period