3/4/2016

Lecture 3-4
Prepared BY
Dr. Hamdy Nada

Metals Solidification and Defects

Objectives
• Describe the process of the solidification of metals
distinguishing between homogeneous and heterogeneous
nucleation.

• Describe the two energies involved in the solidification process

of a pure metal, and write the equation for the total free-energy
change associated with the transformation of the liquid state to
solid nucleus.

• Distinguish between equiaxed and columnar grains and the

advantage of the former over the latter.

• Explain, in general terms, why alloys are preferred materials

over pure metals for structural applications.

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Solidification of Metals ‫ﺗﺟﻣد اﻟﻔﻠزات‬

• Metals are melted to produce finished and semi-

finished parts.
• Two steps of solidification
 Nucleation : Formation of stable nuclei. ‫ﺗﻛون اﻟﻧواة‬
 Growth of nuclei : Formation of grain structure. ‫اﻟﻧﻣو‬

• Thermal gradients define the shape of each grain.

Grains
Nuclei

Crystals that will Grain Boundaries

Liquid Figure 4.2
Form grains

Formation of Stable Nuclei

• Two main mechanisms: Homogenous ‫ ﻣﺗﺟﺎﻧس‬and

heterogeneous. ‫ﻏﯾر ﻣﺗﺟﺎﻧس او ﻣﺗﻐﺎﯾراﻻﺻل‬
• Homogenous Nucleation :
 First and simplest case.‫اﺑﺳط ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
 Metal itself will provide atoms to form nuclei.
‫اﻟﻣﻌدن ﻧﻔﺳﮫ ﯾﻣد اﻟذرات ﻟﯾﺷﻛل اﻟﻧواة‬
Metal, when significantly undercooled, has several slow
moving atoms which bond each other to form nuclei.
‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻧﺧﻔض دردة اﻟﺣرارة اﻧﺧﻔﺎﺿﺎ ﻣﻠﺣوظﺎ ﻓﺗﻘﺗرب اﻟذرات ﻣن ﺑﻌﺿﮭﺎ ﻟﺗﻛون اﻟﻧواة‬

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Cluster of atoms below critical size is

called embryo‫ ﺟﻧﯾن‬.

 If the cluster of atoms reach critical size,

they grow into crystals. Else get dissolved

 Cluster of atoms that are grater than

critical size are called nucleus. ‫ﻧواة‬

Energies involved in homogenous nucleation.

Volume free energy Gv Surface energy Gs

• Released by liquid to solid • Required to form new solid

transformation. surface
• ΔGv is change in free energy • ΔGs is energy needed to
per unit volume between create a surface.
γ liquid and solid.
• γ is specific surface free
• free energy change for a energy.
spherical nucleus of radius r
Then G  4r 2
is given by s

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r  r 3Gv • ΔGs is retarding energy.
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• 100% ‫ﯾﺗم اﻻﻧﺑﺎت اﻟﻣﺗﺟﺎﻧس ﻓﻰ اﻟﻔﻠزات اﻟﻧﻘﯾﺔ‬
• ‫ﯾﺗم دون اﻟﺣﺎﺟﺔ اﻟﻰ اﻻرﺗﻛﺎز ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣواد اﺧرى‬
‫ﻛﻠﻣﺎ زاد ﻣﻌدل اﻟﺗﺑرﯾد ﻛﻠﻣﺎ زاد ﻣﻌدل اﻻﻧﺑﺎت وﺻﻐر ﺣﺟم اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ‬

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Total Free Energy

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• Total free energy is given by  G T   r 3  G v  4 r 2 
3
2
Since when r=r*, d(ΔGT)/dr = 0 r*  
GV
ΔGs
+
Nucleus

ΔGT
Above critical Below critical
ΔG radius r* radius r*
r
r*r*

Energy Energy
lowered by Lowered by
- Figure 4.4 ΔGv growing into redissolving
crystals

Critical Radius Versus Undercooling

• Greater the degree of undercooling, greater the change

in volume free energy ΔGv
• ΔGs does not change significantly.
‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ زاد ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺘﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ زاد اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﺮة وﻻ ﯾﺤﺪث ﺗﻐﯿﺮ ﻣﻠﺤﻮظ ﻓﻰ طﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺴﻄﺢ‬
• As the amount of undercooling ΔT increases, critical
nucleus size decreases.
• ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ زاد اﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻓﻰ درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﺻﻐﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﻨﻮاة‬
• Critical radius is related to undercooling by relation

2Tm r* = critical radius of nucleus

r*  γ = Surface free energy
H f T ΔHf = Latent heat of fusion
Δ T = Amount of undercooling.

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Heterogeneous Nucleation ‫اﻻﻧﺑﺎت ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺗﺟﺎﻧس‬

• Nucleation occurs in a liquid on the surfaces of

structural material. Eg:- Insoluble impurities.
• These structures, called nucleating agents, ‫ﻋواﻣل اﻧﺑﺎت‬
lower the free energy required to form stable nuclei.
Liquid

Solid
θ Nucleating
Figure 4.6 agent
• Nucleating agents also lower the critical size.
• Smaller amount of undercooling is required to solidify.
• Used excessively in industries.

Nucleation and Grain Growth

• Nucleation;
– Homogeneous nucleation: very pure metal, substantial undercooling
(0.2Tm)
• Heterogeneous nucleation: nucleation agents (5ºC undercooling)
• Grain growth
– Planar: pure metal
– Dendritic: solid solution
• Grain size
– depends on number of nuclei and cooling rate.

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Crystal Nucleation and Growth

“Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,” by Serope Kalpakjian

Growth of Crystals and Formation of Grain Structure

• Nuclei grow into crystals in different orientations.

• Crystal boundaries are formed when crystals join
together at complete solidification.
• Crystals in solidified metals are called grains.
• Grains are separated by grain boundaries.
• The greater the
number of
nucleation sites
available, the greater
the number of
grains formed.
Nuclei growing into grains
Forming grain boundaries

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Types of Grains

• Equiaxed Grains: ‫ﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻣﺗﺳﺎوﯾﺔ‬

 Crystals, smaller in size, grow equally in all directions.
‫ﺑﻠورات ﺻﻐﯾرة اﻟﺣﺟم ﻣﺗﺳﺎوﯾﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻻﺗﺟﺎھﺎت‬
 Formed at the sites of high concentration of nuclei. Mold
‫ﺗﻧﻣو ﻋﻧد وﺟود ﺗرﻛﯾز ﻋﺎﻟﻰ ﻣن اﻻﻧوﯾﺔ‬
 Example:- Cold mold wall
• Columnar Grains: ‫ﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻋﻣودﯾﺔ‬
 Long thin and coarse.
 Grow predominantly in one direction.
 Formed at the sites of slow cooling
and steep temperature gradient.
 Example:- Grains that are away from
the mold wall. Columnar Grains

Equiaxed Grains

Grain size

Factors affecting grain size :– ‫اﻟﻌواﻣل اﻟﻣؤﺛرة ﻓﻰ ﺣﺟم اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ‬

• Number and location of the nuclei at the time of
solidification ‫ﻋدد وﻣوﻗﻊ اﻻﻧوﯾﺔ وﻛذﻟك زﻣن اﻟﺗﺟﻣد‬
• Shape of the mould in which the metal solidifies
• ‫ﺷﻛل اﻟﻘﺎﻟب اﻟذى ﺗم اﻟﺻب ﻓﯾﮫ‬
• Rate of crystallisation ‫ﻣﻌدل اﻟﺗﺑﻠور‬
• Rate of cooling ‫ﻣﻌدل اﻟﺗﺑرﯾد‬
• Cold working
• Nucleating agents
• ‫ﻋواﻣل اﻻﻧﺑﺎت‬

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Control of grain size

• Smaller the grain size of the metal ,the

better its physical properties.
‫ﻛﻠﻣﺎ ﺻﻐر ﺣﺟم اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ ﻛﻠﻣﺎ ﺗﺣﺳﻧت اﻟﺧﺻﺎﺋص اﻟﻔﯾزﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ واﻟﻣﯾﻛﺎﻧﯾﻛﯾﺔ‬
• Can be controlled to an extent by super
cooling and rate of cooling.
‫ﯾﻣﻛن اﻟﺗﺣﻛم ﺑﺣﺟم اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺑرﯾد اﻟﺳرﯾﻊ وﻛذﻟك ﻓﻰ ﻣﻌدل اﻟﺗﺑرﯾد‬

• The latent heat given up by initial solidification

raises the temperature in the vicinity of the
solidification front and this condition becomes
favorable for dendrite growth resulting in
columnar grains.
‫اﻟﺣرارة اﻟﻛﺎﻣﻧﺔ ﺗرﻓﻊ درﺟﺔ ﺣرارة اﻟﻣﻧطﻘﺔ اﻟﻣﺟﺎورة ﻟﻣﻛﺎن اﻟﺗﺟﻣد‬
‫وذﻟك ﻣوﺟود اﺛﻧﺎء اﻟﻧﻣو اﻟدﻧدرﯾﺗﻰ اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻧﮫ اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت اﻟﻌﻣودﯾﺔ‬
• If the mold had been cylindrical grains would have
grown perpendicular. Such grains are called radial
grain
‫اذا ﻛﺎن ﺷﻛل اﻟﻘﺎﻟب اﺳطواﻧﯾﺎ ﻓﺎن ﻧﻣو اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻣﺗﺟﮭﺔ ﻟﻣرﻛز اﻟﻘﺎﻟب‬
‫وﺗﺳﻣﻰ ﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻗطرﯾﺔ‬
• .
• ‫اذاﻛﺎن اﻟﻘﺎااااا‬

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• The finer grain size can raise the yield stress, increase
the ductility and raise the ultimate strength.
• ‫اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺎت اﻟدﻗﯾﻘﺔ ﺗزﯾد ﻛل ﻣن اﺟﮭﺎد اﻟﺧﺿوع واﻟﻠدوﻧﺔ‬
• The change in the grain size is related to the process
of plastic deformation and fracture.
• ‫اﻟﺗﻐﯾرﻓﻰ ﺷﻛل اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋن اﻟﺗﺷﻛﯾل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺑﺎرد‬

Grain boundaries
‫ﺣدود اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت‬
• The grain boundary is assumed to be a region of
transition between differently oriented crystal lattices of
two neighboring grains.
• ‫ھﻰ اﻟﺣد اﻟﻔﺎﺻل ﺑﯾن اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت وﺑﻌﺿﮭﺎ‬

• Structure is more nearly non crystalline, particularly

towards the central region of the grain boundary.
• ‫ﺣدود اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت ﻟﯾس ﻟﮭﺎ ﺑﻧﺎء ﺑﻠورى‬
Impurities in the metal may be found in greater
concentration at the grain boundaries.
• ‫اﻟﺷواﺋب ﺗﺗرﻛز ﻋﻧد ﺣدود اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺎت‬
• Also this region is readily attacked by chemicals.
‫ﺣد اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ ﻣﻧطﻘﺔ ﺗﺗﺟﻣﻊ ﻓﯾﮭﺎ اﻟﺷواﺋب وﺗﻛون ﻣﻧطﻘﺔ ﻣﻌﯾﺑﺔ‬
‫وﺗﺑدا ﻋﻧدھﺎ اﻻﻧﺻﮭﺎر وﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﺎﻛل اﻟﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﻰ‬

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Solidification of Single Crystal

• For some applications (Eg: Gas turbine blades-high

temperature environment), single crystals are needed.
• Single crystals have high temperature creep resistance.
• Latent heat of solidification is conducted through
solidifying crystal to grow single crystal.
• Growth rate is kept slow so that temperature at solid-
liquid interface is slightly below melting point.

Growth of single
crystal for turbine
airfoil.

(After Pratt and Whitney Co.)

Metallic Solid Solutions

• Alloys are used in most engineering applications.

• An Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals and
nonmetals .‫ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن ﺧﻠﯾط ﻣن ﻣﻌدﻧﯾن اواﻛﺛر‬
• Example:
 Cartridge brass is binary alloy of 70% Cu and 30% Zinc.
 Inconel is a nickel based super alloy with about 10
elements.
• Solid solution is a simple type of alloy in which
elements are dispersed in a single phase.
• ‫ﻧوع ﻣن اﻟﺳﺑﺎﺋك اﻟﺗﻰ ﻋﻧﺎﺻره ﺗﻧﺗﺷر ﻓﻰ طور واﺣد‬

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Substitutional Solid Solution ‫ ﻣﺣﻠول ﺻﻠب ﺑﺎﻻﺣﻼل‬-١

• Solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atom in a

crystal lattice. ‫اﻟذرات اﻟﻣذاﺑﺔ ﺗﺣل ﻣﺣل ذرات ﻣن اﻟﻣذﯾب‬
• The structure remains unchanged. ‫اﻟﺑﻧﺎء اﻟﺑﻠورى ﻻ ﯾﺗﻐﯾر‬
• Lattice might get slightly distorted due to change in
diameter of the atoms. ‫ﻣﻣﻛن ان ﯾﺣدث ﺗﻐﯾر ﻓﻰ ﺷﻛل اﻟﺑﻧﺎء‬
‫اﻟﺑﻠورى ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ ﺗﻐﯾر ﻗطر اﻟذرة‬
• Solute percentage in solvent
can vary from fraction of a
percentage to 100%
%١٠٠ ‫ﻧﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﻣذاب ﻣﻣﻛن ان ﺗﺗﻐﯾر ﺣﺗﻰ‬

Solvent atoms
Solute atoms

Substitutional Solid Solution (Cont..)

‫ﻣﺣﻠول ﺻﻠب ﺑﺎﻻﺣﻼل‬

• The solubility of solids is greater if ‫درﺟﺔ اﻻذاﺑﺔﺗﻛون ﻛﺑﯾرة اذا ﻛﺎن‬#

 The diameter of atoms does not differ by more than 15%

%١٥ ‫اﻻﺧﺗﻼف ﻓﻰ اﻻﻗطﺎر ﻻ ﯾﺗﺟﺎوز‬
 Crystal structures are similar. ‫ﺗﺷﺎﺑﮫ اﻟﺑﻧﺎء اﻟﺑﻠورى‬
 Not much difference in electronegativity (or compounds will be
formed). ‫ﻻ ﯾوﺟد ﻓرق ﻛﺑﯾر ﻓﻰ اﻟﺳﺎﻟﺑﯾﺔ اﻟﻛﮭرﺑﯾﺔ او اﻟﻣرﻛﺑﺎت اﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﺗﻛون‬
 Have same valence. ‫ﻟﮭﺎ ﻧﻔس اﻟﺗﻛﺎﻓؤ‬

Atomic Electro- Solid

• Examples:- System radius negativity Solubility
Difference difference
Cu-Zn 3.9% 0.1 38.3%
Cu-Pb 36.7% 0.2 0.17%
Cu-Ni 2.3% 0 100%

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Interstitial Solid Solution ‫ﻣﺣﻠول ﺻﻠب ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ او اﻟﺣﺷر‬-٢

• Solute atoms fit in between the voids (interstices) of

solvent atoms. ‫ذرات اﻟﻣذاب ﺗﻧﺣﺷر ﺑﯾن ذرات اﻟﻣذﯾب‬
• Solvent atoms in this case should be much larger than
solute atoms. ‫ذرات اﻟﻣذﯾب ﻛﺑﯾرة ﻋن اﻟذرات اﻟﻣذاﺑﺔ‬
• Example:- between 912 and 13940C, interstitial solid
solution of carbon in γ iron (FCC) is formed.
• A maximum of 2.8%
of carbon can dissolve
interstitially in iron.

Iron atoms r00.129nm

Carbon atoms r=0.075nm

3- Intermetalic compound

‫ھﻰ ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن ﻣرﻛﺑﺎت ﻟﮭﺎ ﺗرﻛﯾﺑﺔ ﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺗﮫ ﻣﺛل‬

‫ وھﻰ ﺗرﻛﯾﺑﺔ ﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ‬Fe3c (‫اﻟﺳﻣﻧﺗﯾت )ﻛرﺑﯾد اﻟﺣدﯾد‬
‫ﺛﺎﺑﺗﮫ اى ﻟﮭﺎ درﺟﺔ اﻧﺻﮭﺎر ودرﺟﺔ ﺗﺟﻣد ﻣﻌروﻓﺔ‬

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CRYSTAL DEFECTS AND IMPERFECTIONS

An ideal crystal is a perfect crystal in which each
atom
has identical surroundings. Real crystals are not
perfect.
A real crystal always has a large number of
imperfections in the lattice.
One can reduce crystal defects considerably, but can
never eliminate them entirely.

‫ ﺑﻠورة ﻣﺛﺎﻟﯾﺔ ھﻲ ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن ﺑﻠورة ﺗﻛون ﻛل ذرة واﻟﻣﻧﺎطق اﻟﻣﺣﯾطﺔ ﺑﮭﺎ‬

.‫ ﺑﻠورات ﺣﻘﯾﻘﯾﺔ ﻟﯾﺳت ﻣﺛﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬.‫ﻣﺗطﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
.‫ اﻟﻛرﯾﺳﺗﺎل اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﻲ داﺋﻣﺎ ﻟدﯾﮫ ﻋدد ﻛﺑﯾر ﻣن اﻟﻌﯾوب ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ‬
‫ وﻟﻛن ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن أﺑدا‬،‫ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻣرء أن ﯾﻘﻠل إﻟﻰ ﺣد ﻛﺑﯾر ﻋﯾوب اﻟﻛرﯾﺳﺗﺎل‬
.‫اﻟﻘﺿﺎء ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ ﺗﻣﺎﻣﺎ‬

Crystal defects

Defects can affect

 Strength ‫اﻟﻘوة‬
Strength‫اﻟﻘوة‬
 Conductivity ‫اﻟﺗوﺻﻠﯾﺔ‬
Conductivity‫اﻟﺗوﺻﻠﯾﺔ‬
 Deformation style ‫ﺗﺷوه اﻟﻧﻣط‬

 Color ‫اﻟﻠون‬
Color‫اﻟﻠون‬

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CRYSTAL DEFECTS AND IMPERFECTIONS

The study of imperfections has a two fold purpose, namely,

A better understanding of crystals and how they affect the
properties of metals.
Exploration of possibilities of minimizing or
eliminating these defects.
The term “defect” or “imperfection” is generally used to
describe any deviation from the perfect periodic array of
atoms in the crystal.

.‫ وھوﻓﮭم أﻓﺿل ﻟﻠﺑﻠورات وﻛﯾف أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗؤﺛر ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺻﺎﺋص اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن‬،‫دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻌﯾوب ﻟﮫ أﻛﺛر ﻣن ھدف‬
.‫اﺳﺗﻛﺷﺎف إﻣﻛﺎﻧﯾﺎت ﺗﻘﻠﯾل أو اﻟﻘﺿﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ھذه اﻟﻌﯾوب‬
‫ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺻطﻠﺢ "اﻟﻌﯾب" أو "اﻟﻧﻘص" ﻟوﺻف أي اﻧﺣراف ﻋن اﻟﺷﻛل اﻟﻣﺛﺎﻟﻲ‬
.‫اﻟﻣﺗﻛررﻟﻠذرات ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﻠورة‬

Crystalline Imperfections

• No crystal is perfect.
• Imperfections affect mechanical
properties, chemical properties and
electrical properties.
• Imperfections can be classified as
 Zero dimensional point defects.
 One dimensional / line defects (dislocations).
 Two dimensional defects.
 Three dimensional defects (cracks).

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CRYSTAL DEFECTS AND IMPERFECTIONS

Crystal imperfections can be classified on the basis of
their geometry as,

Point Imperfections,

Line imperfections

Surface (or) plane imperfections and

Volume imperfections
‫وﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﺻﻧﯾف ﻋﯾوب اﻟﻛرﯾﺳﺗﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎس اﻟﺷﻛل اﻟﮭﻧدﺳﻲ‬
.‫ ﻋﯾوب ﻧﻘطﯾﺔ‬
.‫ ﻋﯾوب ﺧطﯾﺔ‬
.‫ ﻋﯾوب ﺳطﺣﯾﺔ أو ﻣﺳﺗوﯾﮫ‬
.‫ﻋﯾوب ﺣﺟﻣﯾﺔ‬

POINT IMPERFECTIONS
They are imperfect point- like regions, one or two
atomic diameters in size and hence referred to as
‘zero dimensional imperfections’.
There are different kinds of point imperfections.
VACANCIES
If an atom is missing from its normal site in the
matrix, the defect is called a vacancy defect.
It may be a single vacancy, divacancy or a trivacancy.
Point defects ‫اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﻧﻘطﯾﺔ‬
‫ھﻲ ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﺧﻠل اﻟذي ﯾﺣدث ﻓﻲ ﻧﻣط اﻟﺗرﻛﯾب اﻟﺑﻠوري اﻟﻧﻣوذﺟﻲ وﯾﺗﺳﺑب ﻓﻲ ﺗﺷوﯾﮫ ﻣﻧطﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺗﻣرﻛزة ﻣﺣددة ﻻﺗﺗﻌدى ﻋددا ﻗﻠﯾﻼ ﻣن ﺧﻼﯾﺎ اﻟوﺣدة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ اﻟﺑﻠورﯾﺔ وﺗﺻﻧف ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﻌﯾوب‬
:‫اﻟﻧﻘطﯾﺔ اﻟﺑﺳﯾطﺔ اﻟﻰ اﻻﻧواع اﻻﺗﯾﮫ‬
Schottky (vacancy) Defect ‫ﻋﯾوب ﺷوﺗﻛﻲ‬.A
Frenkel Defect ‫ﻋﯿﻮب ﻓﺮﻧﻜﻞ‬.B
Impurites ‫اﻟﺸﻮاﺋﺐ‬.C

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‫‪Point Defects – Vacancy‬‬ ‫ﻋﯾوب ﻧﻘطﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻔراغ‬

‫•‬ ‫‪Vacancy is formed due to a missing atom.‬‬

‫•‬ ‫)‪Vacancy is formed (one in 10000 atoms‬‬
‫‪during crystallization or mobility of atoms.‬‬
‫‪• Energy of formation is 1 eV. the electron volt‬‬
‫‪is a unit of energy equal to approximately‬‬
‫‪1.6×10−19 joule (symbol J).‬‬
‫‪ of vacancy results in cluster of‬اﻟﺗﻧﻘل ‪• Mobility‬‬
‫‪vacancies.‬‬
‫ﺑﺳﺑب ‪• Also caused due‬‬
‫اﻟﺗﺷﻛﯾل اﻟﻠدن ‪to plastic defor-‬‬
‫واﻟﺗﺑرﯾد اﻟﺳرﯾﻊ ‪-mation, rapid‬‬
‫‪cooling or particle‬‬
‫‪bombardment. Figure: Vacancies moving to form vacancy cluster‬‬

‫‪Schottky imperfection‬‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن اﻻﻣﺎﻛن اﻟﺷﺎﻏرة واﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻧﻧﺷﺄﻣن اﻹﺛﺎرة اﻟﺣرارﯾﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻛون درﺟﺔ اﻟﺣرارة ﻣرﺗﻔﻌﺔ ﺑﻣﺎ ﻓﯾﮫ اﻟﻛﻔﺎﯾﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟذرات ﺗﮭﺗز ﺣول ﻣوﻗﻌﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌد اﻟﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻛﺎﻓﯾﺔ ﺗﻐﺎدراﻟﻣوﻗﻊ ﺗﻣﺎﻣﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻐﺎدر اﻟذرة اﻟﻌﺎدﯾﺔ ﻣﻛﺎﻧﮭﺎ ‪،‬ﯾﻧﺷﺄ ﻣﻛﺎن ﺷﺎﻏر‪.‬‬
‫زوج واﺣد ﻣن اﻟﻛﺎﺗﯾون واﻻﻧﯾون ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻔﻘد ﻣن اﻟﺑﻠورة اﻻﯾوﻧﯾﺔ‪.‬اﻟﻣﻛﺎن اﻟﺷﺎﻏر‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ اﻧﺗﻘﺎل زوج اﻻﯾوﻧﺎت ﯾﺳﻣﻰ ‪Schottky imperfection.‬‬
‫ھذا اﻟﻧوع ﻣن اﻟﺧﻠل ھو اﻟﻣﮭﯾﻣن ﻓﻲ ھﺎﻟﯾدات اﻟﻘﻠوﯾﺎت‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫أي اﻧﮫ ﻓﻲ ھذه اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻧﺗﻘل ﺑﻌض اﻟذرات أو اﻷﯾوﻧﺎت ﻣن ﻣواﻗﻌﮭﺎ اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫داﺧل اﻟﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ اﻟﻰ ﻣواﻗﻊ ﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ اﺧرى ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳطﺢ اﻟﺑﻠورة ﺗﺎرﻛﮫ وراءھﺎ ﻓراﻏﺎت‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ھو ﻣوﺿﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺷﻛل ‪.‬ھذا اﻟﻔراغ ﯾﻌرف ﺑﺎﺳم ﻓراغ ﺷوﺗﻛﻲ وﻟﺗﻛوﯾن ﻓراغ‬
‫ﺷوﺗﻛﻲ ﺗﺣﺗﺎج اﻟذرات اﻟﻰ طﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﻐﻠب ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗوى اﻟﺗراﺑط ﻣﻊ ﺟﯾراﻧﮭﺎ‪.‬‬

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POINT DEFECT-VACANCY

Frenkel imperfection

• 1. Point Defects
b) Frenkel (cation hops from lattice site to
interstitial)
= a + b combination

b. Frenkel defect

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Frenkel imperfection

‫• ﺗﻧﺗﻘل اﻟذرات أو اﻻﯾوﻧﺎت ﻣن ﻣواﻗﻌﮭﺎ اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ داﺧل‬

‫اﻟﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ اﻟﻰ ﻣواﻗﻊ ﺑﯾﻧﯾﺔ داﺧل اﻟﺷﺑﻛﯾﺔ اﯾﺿﺎ ً وھذا ﯾﻌﻧﻲ أن‬
‫ﻋﯾوب ﻓرﻧﻛل ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن اﻟذرة اﻟﺑﯾﻧﯾﺔ أو اﻟﻔراغ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺧﻠﻔت‬
.‫وراءھﺎ ﻛﻣﺎ ھو ﻣوﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﻛل‬

EQUIL. CONCENTRATION:
POINT DEFECTS

• Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!

No. of defects Activation energy

ND  Q 
exp 
 D 

N  kT 
No. of potential Temperature
defect sites. Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10 -23 J/atom K)
(8.62 x 10 -5 eV/atom K)
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site

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MEASURING ACTIVATION ENERGY

• We can get Q from ND  Q 

an experiment. exp 
 D 

N  kT 
• Measure this... • Replot it...

ND ND slope
1
ln
N N
-QD/k
exponential
dependence!

T 1/T
defect concentration

ESTIMATING VACANCY CONC.

• Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1m 3of Cu at 1000C.

• Given:
 = 8.4 g/cm3 ACu = 63.5g/mol
QV = 0.9eV/atom NA = 6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mole
0.9eV/atom
ND Q 
 exp 
 D 
= 2.7 · 10-4
N  kT 
1273K
8.62 x 10 -5 eV/atom-K
NA
For 1m 3, N =  x x 1m3 = 8.0 x 10 28 sites
• Answer:
ACu

ND = 2.7 · 10-4 · 8.0 x 10 28 sites = 2.2x 1025 vacancies

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Point Defects – Interstitially ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻐﻠﻐل او اﻻﻧﻐراس‬

• Atom in a crystal, sometimes, occupies

interstitial site.
• This does not occur naturally.
• Can be induced by irradiation. ‫اﻹﺷﻌﺎع‬
• This defects caused structural distortion.

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SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY

c. Interstitial (impurity) defect

INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY

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DIAGRAM SHOWING THE

IMPERFECTIONS

Line Defects – (Dislocations)

• Discrepancy ‫اﻟﺗﻧﺎﻗض‬is due to dislocations.

• Dislocations are lattice distortions centered
around a line.
• Formed during
 Solidification ‫اﻟﺗﺟﻣد‬
 Permanent Deformation ‫اﻟﺗﺷوه اﻟداﺋم‬
 Vacancy condensation ‫ﺗﻛﺛﯾف اﻟﻔراﻏﺎت‬
• Different types of line defects are
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
 Mixed dislocation

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‫‪2- LINE IMPERFECTIONS‬‬

‫اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣدث ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ ﻟﺧﻠﻊ أو ﺗﺷوﯾﮫ اﻟذرات ﻋﻠﻰ طول ﺧط‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ اﺗﺟﺎه وﺗﺳﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺳم‬
‫“ﻋﯾوب ﺧطﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺳﻣﻰ أﯾﺿﺎ ﻋﯾوب ﺧط اﻻﺿطراﺑﺎت‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﻌرﯾف اﻟﺧﻠﻊ ﻛﻣﻧطﻘﺔ ازﻋﺎج ﺑﯾن ﺟزأﯾن ﻣﺛﺎﻟﯾﯾن إﻟﻰ ﺣد ﻛﺑﯾر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛرﯾﺳﺗﺎل‪.‬‬
‫وھﻲ ﻣﺳؤوﻟﺔ ﻋن ظﺎھرة اﻟﺗﺗﺷوه اﻟﻠدن ﻣﻌظم اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن‪.‬‬
‫ھﻲ ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﺧﻠل اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣدث ﻓﻲ ﻧﻣط اﻟﺗرﻛﯾب اﻟﺑﻠوري اﻟﻧﻣوذﺟﻲ وﯾؤﺛر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣواﻗﻊ‬
‫اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﯾﺔ ﻟﻠذرات اﻟﻣوﺟودة ﻓﻲ ﺻف ﻛﺎﻣل داﺧل اﻟﺑﻠورة ﺑﺣﯾث ﻻﯾﻛون ﻟﮭﺎ ﻧﻔس اﺣداﺛﯾﺎت‬
‫ﺑﺎﻗﻲ اﻟذرات اﻟﻣﻣﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ وﺗﻌرف ھذه اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﺑﻠورﯾﺔ اﻟﺧطﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﺳم اﻻﻧﺧﻼﻋﺎت‬

‫‪Edge Dislocation‬‬

‫•‬ ‫‪Created by insertion of extra half planes of atoms.‬‬

‫•‬ ‫‪Positive edge dislocation‬‬

‫•‬ ‫‪Negative edge dislocation‬‬

‫‪Burgers vector‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Burgers vector‬‬
‫‪Shows displa-‬‬
‫‪cement of‬‬
‫‪atoms (slip).‬‬

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Edge dislocation
Migration aids ductile deformation

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Screw Dislocation

• Created due to shear stresses applied to regions

of a perfect crystal separated by cutting plane.
• Distortion of lattice in form of a spiral ramp.
• Burgers vector is parallel to dislocation line.

After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.118

Screw dislocation (aids mineral growth)

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Mixed Dislocation

• Most crystal have components

of both edge and screw
dislocation.

• Dislocation, since have

irregular atomic arrangement
will appear as dark lines
when observed in electron
microscope.
Dislocation structure of iron deformed
14% at –1950C

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3-SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS
Surface imperfections arise from a change in the stacking
of atomic planes on or across a boundary.
The change may be one of the orientations or of the
stacking sequence of atomic planes.
In geometric concept, surface imperfections are two-
dimensional. They are of two types external and internal
surface imperfections.
‫اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ أو اﻟﻣﺳﺗوﯾﺔ‬
.‫ﻋﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺢ ﺗﻧﺷﺄ ﻣن ﺗﻐﯾﯾر ﻓﻲ اﻟﺗراص اﻟذرات ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﺳﺗوى أو ﻋﯾر اﻟﺣدود‬
.‫ﻗد ﯾﻛون اﻟﺗﻐﯾر ﻓﻲ اﺗﺟﺎه واﺣد أو ﻓﻲ ﻋدة اﺗﺟﺎھﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﺳﺗوى‬
.‫ ﻓﮭﻲ ﻣن ﻧوﻋﯾن ﻋﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺢ اﻟﺧﺎرﺟﻲ واﻟداﺧﻠﻲ‬.‫ ﻋﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺢ ﺛﻧﺎﺋﯾﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﮭوم ھﻧدﺳﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺷﺗرك ﻓﻲ ﺗﻛوﯾن ھذا اﻟﻧوع ﻣن اﻟﻌﯾوب ذرات ﻣﺳﺗوى ﺑﻠوري ﻛﺎﻣل ﺣﯾث ﯾﺿطرب اﻟﺗرﻛﯾب اﻟﺑﻠوري‬
‫اﻟﻧﻣوذﺟﻲ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻣﺗد ھذه اﻟﻌﯾوب ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌدﯾن ﻟﺗﻛوﯾن ﺳطوﺣﺎ ً داﺧل اﻟﺑﻠورة وﯾﻛون ﺳطﺢ اﻟﺑﻠورة ﻧﻔﺳﮫ‬
.‫ﻋﯾﺑﺎ ً ﻣﺳﺗوﯾﺎ ً وﯾﺗﺿﺢ ذﻟك ﻓﻲ دراﺳﺔ ﺧواص اﻟﻣواد اﻟﺗﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ھﯾﺋﺔ أﻏﺷﯾﺔ رﻗﯾﻘﺔ‬

EXTERNAL SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS

They are the imperfections represented by a boundary.
At the boundary the atomic bonds are terminated.
The atoms on the surface cannot be compared with the atoms
within the crystal.The reason is that the surface atoms have
neighbours on one side only. Where as the atoms inside
the crystal have neighbours on either sides.This is shown
in figure. Since these surface atoms are not surrounded
by others, they possess higher energy than that of internal atoms.
For most metals, the energy of the surface atoms is of the order
of 1J/m2.
.(‫اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﺎرﺟﯾﺔ ﺗظﮭر ﻋﻧد اﻟﺳطﺢ اﻟﺧﺎرﺟﻲ )ﺣدود اﻟﺳطﺢ‬
‫ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﮫ اﻟذرات ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺳطﺢ ﻣﻊ اﻟذرات اﻟداﺧﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﺳﺑب ھو أن اﻟذرات اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ ﺗﺣﺎط ﺑذرات ﻣن ﺟﺎﻧب‬
‫ ﺣﯾث أﻧﮭﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺣﯾط‬.‫ ھو ﻣﺑﯾن ﺑﺎﻟﺷﻛل‬.‫ ﺑﯾﻧﻣﺎ اﻟذرات داﺧل اﻟﺑﻠورة ﺗﺣﺎط ﺑذرات ﻣن ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻻﺗﺟﺎھﺎت‬.‫واﺣد ﻓﻘط‬
.‫ وأﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻣﺗﻠك طﺎﻗﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ ﻣن اﻟذرات اﻟداﺧﻠﯾﺔ‬، ‫اﻟذرات اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ ذرات اﺧرى‬
٢‫ﻣﺗر‬/‫ ﺟول‬١ ‫ طﺎﻗﺔ اﻟذرات اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ ﻣن أﺟل ﻣن‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻣﻌظم اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن‬

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EXTERNAL SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS

INTERNAL SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS

Internal surface imperfections are the imperfections

which occurred inside a crystal.
It is caused by the defects such as, grain boundaries.
tilt boundaries, twin boundaries and stacking faults.

‫ﻋﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺢ اﻟداﺧﻠﻲ‬

.‫ﻋﯾوب اﻟﺳطﺢ اﻟداﺧﻠﻲ ھﻲ اﻟﻌﯾوب داﺧل ااﻟﺑﻠورة‬

‫واﻟﺣدود اﻟﺗواﻣﯾﺔ واﻟرص اﻟﺧﺎطﺊ‬.‫وھو ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋن ﻋﯾوب ﻣﺛل ﺣدود اﻟﺣﺑﯾﺑﺔ‬

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Twin Boundaries

• Twin: A region in which mirror image pf

structure exists across a boundary.
• Formed during plastic deformation and
recrystallization.
• Strengthens the metal.

Twin
Plane

Twin

GRAIN BOUNDARIES

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4-VOLUME IMPERFECTIONS

Volume defects such as cracks may arise in crystals

when there is only small electrostatic dissimilarity between
the stacking sequences of close packed planes in metals.
Presence of a large vacancy or void space, when cluster of
atoms are missed is also considered as a volume
imperfection.

‫ﻋﯾوب ﺣﺟﻣﯾﺔ‬-٤

‫اﻟﻌﯾوب اﻟﺣﺟﻣﯾﺔ ﻣﺛل اﻟﺗﺷﻘﻘﺎت ﺗﻧﺷﺄ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﻠورات ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك اﺧﺗﻼف ﺻﻐﯾر ﺑﯾن‬
.‫اﻻﻟﻛﺗروﺳﺗﺎﺗﯾك ﻟﻠذرات ﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ اﻟرص ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن‬
‫ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻔﻘد ﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺔ ﻣن اﻟذرات‬،‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺗﺑر وﺟود اﻣﺎﻛن ﻛﺑﯾرة ﺷﺎﻏرة أو ﻣﺳﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﻔراغ‬
.‫ﺑﺎﻋﺗﺑﺎرھﺎ اﻟﻧﻘص اﻟﺣﺟم‬

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Grain Size

• Affects the mechanical properties of the

material
• The smaller the grain size, more are the
grain boundaries.
• More grain boundaries means higher
resistance to slip (plastic deformation occurs
due to slip).
• More grains means more uniform the
mechanical properties are.

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OPTICAL MICROSCOPY (1)

• Useful up to 2000X magnification.
• Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
• Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

microscope

close-packed planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.11(b) and (c),
Callister 6e. (Fig. 4.11(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

micrograph of
Brass (Cu and Zn)

0.75mm

OPTICAL MICROSCOPY (2)

Grain boundaries...
• are imperfections,
• are more susceptible microscope
to etching,
• may be revealed as polished surface
dark lines,
surface groove
• change direction in a grain boundary
polycrystal.
Adapted from Fig. 4.12(a)
ASTM grain and (b), Callister 6e.
size number (Fig. 4.12(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
N = 2n-1 Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now the
National Institute of
no. grains/in2 Standards and

at 100x Fe-Cr alloy Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD].)
magnification

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Measuring Grain Size

• ASTM grain size number ‘n’ is a measure of grain size.

N = 2 n-1 N = Number of grains per
square inch of a polished
N < 3 – Coarse grained and etched specimen at 100 x.
4 < n < 6 – Medium grained
n = ASTM grain size number.
7 < n < 9 – Fine grained
N > 10 – ultrafine grained

200 X 200 X

1018 cold rolled steel, n=10 1045 cold rolled steel, n=8

Average Grain Diameter

• Average grain diameter more directly

represents grain size.
• Random line of known length is drawn on
photomicrograph.
• Number of grains intersected is counted.
• Ratio of number of grains intersected to length
of line, nL is determined.

d = C/nLM
C=1.5, and M is
3 inches 5 grains.
magnification

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