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Unit 1

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shivam kumar
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23 views

Unit 1

Uploaded by

shivam kumar
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Se aE nan TT aan a ae rE Li aa po Maths Discrere mathe matics is fhe S yserete Srrvepures, Which can be discrere Seis, Graphs, Peymutations etc and FelationsShiP bepwoeen +4HEM legic is the Study of seasoning.” I+ is~ Concerned About Whether a qiven BeaSoning \S$ correct or not- enh Assertion: AStatement vohich js either Wee or False put not -boyn EN tone MEMS member} Axe_Assextions: €x> Earth is fats = BAI = 5S Not an Asceytion. because it IS ee for r=—6 bus faise for wF \-6: , Ex= The +130 Sides Ff a Page Corains he Foro tring te wo Starementy, 6) 1 The Stapement On the other Stae 2 of the Page 1S: Correct: 5 : 62 = The Statement on ee vat vy s 7 fio gpcoreect 4 cess ee Paopostition: A deciarative Statement —— _Lihich iS seitney +xue or False: but not both: ExoamPple* Punzsab is the capitah Of Trai (FAUse Mik is khite (TRoG) Abbve bop ase, Propo tion. EX> meta =2 (rot a proposition) What iS Your Name CNot,a PxoPoSiti on) Paxadox => An Assestion +0 Which tyutH VYOIse Can not be assiQGned Russei’s Paxodox - pxoPositionas VaxiablezA variable that OPOSi Hi r Knows OS PrOPositional=-variabies. "ry Pe Ponzvab is capital of India) Gut Mijk iss (White. Logicad Connec+ives 2 a Negation (>); . let P beo Paopesiti ona _Nogiakie then TIP -wead) -aS net Pp, is defined AS § & BPoPositionah form “it ig not the case +hia4 Pl Example t= Pit hance ts Gone a TP. T+ AS hop prencese that Milk is. White. “Pt mik is net Gohite fap): a (mire is mot wLdshite SS p\ tM is ohite- C TTF TTeve => iT er? tl Fase — [— or O @ eniuction (v) i te P ona TL Laxre +o PeoPosttion +e +yen } there 1S. -F.to+ ( TT) Be Ne 7 it i VIENS Sie ; 7 Tsuth table for Put 9”) Is Pel Ge ARV 9. ! ine) @ ik gO Out le ok J i Osi ih 1 id Faise-: CxarPle: P23 t¢ @ Pytme ta: (T) LQ. Eaytni ie Fiat (EF) PAQ 32 ic a Paime no. tand Earth is Fiat Ce ) ATruth | peab le fox: PALL ale Bar aio! PAD o lo iB Oud jet be ag mew ae bp , _ NoTEDGéBSUCHON: is Also Knows as INCILST VE oF = the tate ment Either Pier ¢@ bot nat both": The Statement POs ‘true (Obey Kactl One of PQ is sbene 2 other i False others ‘ LPG Que at eee oe Ex 3 yoo can | Sithey bere have Coffee oF teq 1 e Cy PQ. f Oo oO. O oO Al; 1 A o \ 4 Ee i T \ oO Kw pats MITH Le cure on. EO! Conditional / Im Plication 2” x ae Phen +heiy Conditinnal ts +16 “4e Po then AQ") Cohtch “to ——— LL IFm cace of P-39. + Pits: cane a Mme +304 vaine of the condi Ctatemen+ ic Faise Gaal at the * . J . is false , Othnertuise -the Condit tond i are - Both Table for P-—=FT Lede PEs Co Sake f oO \ \ \ 11-6 oO \ An | ee | Example 3- iy Pim ts an even Romber QA nn? iS An even - RUmMper b Then P>U? TF PP +the, q- ae Seber YS Ven Nomber ther aff | ne is @ven numbes ze l ‘ {ot i Inwerce - @ the Cratemsent G—» b is eoued @ The. Sta temeny T9-—= Tp is +he eS The, Statement 7] p-s1pa.is the. invesse of pod. Exerc ec onctrocs the Teoth -t inverse of PS: Proth Tarab\e plq | p-sqlqssl tplta|yes7plapo 7 olo \ \ hs { \ oly \ oO. lS Avi OQ Lo 2 \ oly Oo _\ Ly as! Q 1 \ Bot ts even GAL mp ts “even P29: TP is even then ee tc eves I237P + If cP iis net even +hen ms Not Sven - 3 Compound See ae nS a -ained \s a { Chis biting a+ D0 Oe State ment ar! Jo gicod__ i OANed~ oy Connec +4es Fay > Ve a. exeycise: ? : ht Ya ta hie. For i MAABAa) ag NE hy PGE pp ise pu ae ar o|psd|~p|74| paral pata|a(ea) @ ti \ \ \ O_- \ 1 | ; {419 \ \ O ol oO; 4 Oo 1 a Liitotlal o 6 = (PAa) = (psa) | oer eo 4 fe |e TRoOE if both tne Stat IhaVe Same “Teuth volve othe, bi oe is_Foise Idem Ppoyent - = layp) Comm vutativi oj <> (¢ rp) OF Vanda — 3B: fexiesaif of talent \ pa (a ani <> Leng) Ar) This is Called ASSo Ciativity of voand'A ya (ap) P| Laue of negatior Lp an [<5 Teva ja (p = in: C W7, at: C bE | ( TJ S na (avx)\sol(p ag) ve coe a Digest botive aus ‘ & [a {eval =. (Apa Ta) 7 | | CPAQ) <3 Gpvaayi Db’ maxgark Lass | Qu Shon that tmpiteation , Jose op tat Fae \ <8 a TA a BAd4Aaalalo YS | f ce Ls | AB X | 4 | aiviadia t| = ak | a 3g ye 6) £5 PII bor | ae Tah te of is tT aa Oj o| 4 ay al 4 4 Ou foal Fig Hdtd4dde “Sy Ei 4S) 0; O-- 3 ES So Saale _[addda a | Maths Semror UNIT= OL © Tsuty table of | Lele lea oO aah alls iA |i o Ev \ via (S47 @ Tam table of Py aq. BS USUTE, ISBTET OF 1) prot table oF PL NESE Seen Se elal ew ° \ ° oO olol. o nulles a Ot + 1-2 2 tho \ 1 | \ A “deal. oO! t A oy ; Q) Wurth Tabie oF (SS) WF HK Table OF Poot PS : 1 Pile A p< Plq p—q 0 oO. L | 4 glel 3 al, [oo lel lee tp Po | ag | Ae ve | eS} zy he Se Rujes = SD (Pyo) p 4 ®| (Pao) <0 ‘| Dosa nation favs (ites Clea ese ae pu(par) =P (Absoa b tien haus) + @ | Cosa (opv a) oa —~—p Va Jap) poa| a pve | (pot) Cr —F__ oe io | \ \ ; \ TO ty fy \ \ \ Die tfiol © 0 ra \ SA TN hs ! 4 | pa | oes ay che ia (pa) is eaveivalen! +0 -PAnN® my i —~_ pV alhal b=s9 | pane [5 (e= 4) oll \ ° O —~ if olviio \ ° oO a pe 1 ley ns - eo) nq Bee mie auto: e er a. O , 2a i : | oP Se | a (pa) <> a(Apva) Te(paa)ouryll Te - > 2 Gb anq "(pe Hegel t <> bana (ove negate— ef: i = Cg2 | | SGhew that 2 Re aL Cpaay| [Dea (pv7a)] (Dowble negation | <> |GparP)y Gpata) (dist: avs) (A pata) (tpap)so) <> pane Cidensity Aaw <7? «71 (2p va.) (be Morgans Aa Oo *€_Tautolegy + A propositional Form woahich iS. aways Ayeroe. 83) (PV i j= 4 Le apl 0 Which iS alwa eqs (pac) o 30 Po Sitional form 2S Hettherx a taviology Contradiction Lobhick her a —2j 2 Py. P:T:6© ai f Prove that (paa)— (Pv) oe xavuto og A ir Then PO) + 1 ig “a Prime nu mbex (F xo jtio i i : ES A function P(e) 15 caved a Paopof) litionad® Forction if {+ Produces i Propositions by assigning Valves | +0 Variable. 32. g i £3 > PGay 1 St ts a i brime mumber PG) =: > is a Prime Huomber (TT) PCA) 2 ZA is (a Paime number (F) _Buanst Fiexs [ The Values Assigned +o +e variabl y in O Propositional FPurction Fox = Productng Pro Posstion - are Calitd — LALoEanti fiers Co Cory) Sty = z Qo 3). 543 23 ag GAtojy i ya 23 6% Co,0) = ato =3 ag ra a Ty Res OF Qvant J. The oiversa fh Qudntifier.: Il Tre Siete lend Ad panditie For au BPG)" fe hcoed! a mAwers I Divamtifies CM Wich iS’ denoted hy Lae P Car) + WThus Vou BGO ic txoe Tf the t Propo ition Bwroduced PCr) ore imbeue For ai Lodis mae | Othertvice mx PCa) io) Rais | ) fC) di iti 25> Considex Pie) s at+5 > ae Gisce mit2 Sov Fas! aly atlas) 4h Jtoms excal Qodnicie, Wat Pon) 3 4 +e. 3 ae SO ee £5 3 sy 2 Sy > BG) s iP ae 4 a, ichen cot) is “Vaure ! @(a) js weve Q I @ (eo) 3s Faise.), | Thos Vou@Ge + faise . Woot ; - —~ fea ba. @i | Pasove -+hat as ; (Pau) (pva) is 9 eee Solns 1 (pra)-y (pve) = (pvaa) ~ (pve) = (Cpvaa) vy avp z= Opyp) v (ave). a ee NES Te gy Cor “ PG) For ai vaiues of at tn te domain’ denoted by Vx Ped = Teve if P@) is true by every etem*ni YO fn tne. domain > Fase if Pla) is-flaise fox at ieasd _One Clement _in the domain | €9 Pls) t- 92> 9% domain N Then Woe P(x) ts false “because Faiese. Cg 5 QM) + a Dx 3 domain Z Then Vox PO) 4g stave. {1 is NOTE i- The Vaiue of % Suck that Pla) iS Faise So thot VxPld) is false. 1S cane the Counters example +o Yue Gg 1? >" 5s | cerin tes xampie 12 fet , ae Dw. ag @® Existentiak: QvanpAres : (The existential Quantities 1 Fhe [Statemeny, ¥here Gxtses an aU Im the domain Such +hat PG” (This is d@noetea by x PCOS y Hand As. Pac) is fase iF pla) ye Foise Foxy every Value oF a. eg2| PG? 3G>u pia 6g sg Then Flas Pla) is tyne. Fox Cxam ple i P(2). so >9 4s. bee Ogi: oe) ics O! AVa Pad) <> FP GO © (54, eG) => 2 Ae) ut a> 2m | PTS @ Soh> WV Ge Da) <> Ia Ged) 2 (oe $30) > By Ge ‘ : = < 2a Saree @a>— < anit | @Min ¢<>> t 3 > @® a+ b<-> < _ __@_so\ 1,-é = Js Yoel i ze <> Wa (sea) If th 1 “KE Restriction of Donsain = af Consider fhe Statement “Ta i NZ SG (1 > > ) Ivwmeac Is -Faise:s J Ont o.7 er ? ae: | Since domain: i¢ not Given | a i } AUT ] ae | Nx >o Ge 22) 5 domain Z. ; ie i Tits = 3 —Txve : A + — O* i Considert+he Staite ment: i eL Vox > Co? S50) a im | Hen | Ny Solenes W(a20> Ia _ Thos +he westyiction of Oniwersat 1 1 aa, : 7 O- AvantifNcation 1¢ equiva ient + pm a | aie nruerne) Q Heat fl cation oF leon ditional. Q* Consider Se (a2 >>) em, Aix dole Sx) =— aol 220 A>? Dr) IR ion of existential Quantifter Iis Cquy se Oo the Exit entiak I | | Santer, OF the Com Tuction . * aA Pana i _ Preof? A Valid ae A thatihh Coens leStabliiches the 2eothor oa ctalemed of L iia L A 1 OF Coxrem Th to temnent wohich can be Pero © my FO DE he ibe) QAd iis | Some what im Per+ant th a.ave | context: g if - @ | xo sai e H P Position = A + ne aren (ohich is I lecs ium portent +e a i niext I Scanned 4. proposition @ Lemma: > A “heen / Staiement hich Sed Fox. the proof of othe ees is aye Srama @ Coo Wary? 5. A_ theorem hat dixectly | Fou — From other +heorem - es EQ) coniectoxe: “A Statement + Cotth E assumed +0 Ke +txve i Ox ex Paoof S+xrq a @ _Dizect Paonof and =e ~~ @ Direcr PxoeF: / + ete angus tT Tes eaten taal ect Loe ASSume tne ag oases is true) Sopseqvuent “Steps ave Pane P—> @- Assume thar. P ic tave, je mnt An add: number: tb Tru ¢) => et) Ppa Some tn 1 Square both Side ie get Ll me =) Ca se) Ros Wk a ute by = | m= et a et thd An integer i Sasa 4+o—be €ven i ~— Sik Fox Same integer \< and vw ris OQdd> ifn K+) For Some Kk: 2 An intexen Kis a) peafect Square HTP ms ee Roy Cee 4 ex \k- [ive dct cl ss page ee S379 ic a Perfect Square ber 9=% ~__ Gals ber P denote | the Gtotem oa “io and bare “perfect - He and e+ @ denote +he ae uv te perfect Sauare". Assume -+haot P is +7ue ie, as ee epee BS PR re ey “TK sie | and = > for Sars integer f bauliey pl Ag A and 9 tand 19 —s 4p ie eqlinaee— Thus, PanVing bq using +bhe—7 e i Statens 9719p. iS Coed tne ASS ume “1G ig +300 and | Lea ethat TA pis +eue - " Lan odd nombex" and @ denote loa Statement” mn _i6! an | Then Wwe: Show P=» @ Fox this u2e uti Show — nt = 2212) cobkich ‘ic even! ut thas, Is int ic ven, fee pe ic not Odd f-e@ T1P i ig shay e- 18 | TRos je Tas ab Therefore .P—>q. Fane (2! asant +0 Prove —the Statement PB is true. Heenan Cie Shou Ba i that 71 p= q fox Some bie —Contradictian Git i nie prove the State mend re 1p Ce ATs) fox Propesition ra Ie : Ta 8 gy Base thet Sauare ment of 3 ae if) Psrational ofing PaooF by on | OAS EY ad cH k J. ‘ ae | + © + ( a is tad eee ~~ ~ inthe Stmmtegu Of Proof by— tee: Ab => ex as) For some peo pasil? ae [| eer Pas I i he Ts : VG is rationas/. a Thus. V3. = 3. Heigens Such that da ana b have Lye’ Conamoen factor =! Nolo, VS =O owes p= tobicl Gives b, oO b* oF 268 tnis, implies a? iss even hex e fom: i even - Q= 256 i for Some integer k- Wow, a = at? gives (5 \«)* = pbk iS? yee = oye Sey pe sp ye? 5 i> bis Seven 5 Wiic even e- have “Q and bh axe even sbhha L QO -2 b h 2 omman I Fa ctax - ihe x Oo ang bb) hove no Om mon Factox then 1b —> (>a a ) {| =) “IP most he farce fee Db te bese D V5 is ixvatio Q nad Ate me Db Oda her Dis oda" : + —_ Sel iie. P denate ae otebe ta S Aiato ie an add nm —---Q_denate—_a—s OR add ruin bey. ee Therm ve Shou P-—> @ Fox +bis we tort Sheo 169 ~ wanes sume 1G le_assume_m ts Pe Odd ,ithuos =n ic even - eS yg He ne orn ers a a aes | rite) 2 = 2 (aK) | pe > Bn42 = 3k) +2 | e =) 2n+.. = > (2tc+1) | a trohich + even. | a2 Head is “Bw ctevedy 5 - Pa | Jee Reese Wet nga ye j-e “AP ic 4x00 4 ¥ Thes T@-» 7p ae TH . Rare fare __P —2 @ Nenad — ‘e HIF ConSidered « of the fomrn Pp sq are | 4 i Ip—2@ and q—ab 25>. Paove- that. ic odd if and on Lif mp? ic oda : God? Le+ Pin is add nombex and Qt pn? je odd NoTE 2 comnter xample - Lm Shaw that the Gtateme'n + i W/a'Plod) “is Fase, Gre Stow Pad ! is faicg F62 Come Valve of At- t, Countex “Oxaraple to +he: — State nient Woe Ped eg!) Fina thé! conn tex Ox a oy , i 3 Sh i + : = fer" Shisitding: the “Sante ment te al 7 AR e ~ e omy intte gery 1 +he i 4 z H == + Xam pe —~ 1} LatPro fk hy ch oteadictian fox | —~ | Srate mens of the form P49. 1 ae ] ; E ; 5 [ — —~_" thst Liye rove the S+atem ents ys PP ATID is farce: aeciieine sbhai 7 i |saq is Ge ‘J “g A pa this Stra tegu wet —{ 1. oSsem Pp and aa ts CAE c ys | Ond ‘Show that 1b te dave: ye | TAY Gives na (paap) 7 oe Pte io Contra diction _ = > ( Qi. Prove ++ if gn+2 Sg “odd | sen h 1s Odd bSing Proof By Comtradiction - Goh ley P denote Snt2 is odd. Ana GT denote WH is Oda «70 Show’ Pod Assume aie S4at¢erment Tes, . ss hot oda fay is mis even: | TRos tie can toxite Antes £2 kK: D=2k Fos Som 2nts. = a(3K4iy sok where | is an integea * | => iBn42 is even j-e 2n+4o is not odd- I i ap. TRerefoxe 19> (pa tb) D172 ‘5 false =D +he -statemenm PA Ta js Fa >i Cpsna)is +ve > Tb v4 is pve | = psd is save. (pea = pve) * | Counters Exarpie @l Fina +he no-of Countes examples "Fox the Statement i CM) “the savase of a Positive Integed jo is greater than. nm! — ! P-T-0 - a oP Ga) “8 i? ES i then YY Pin) 7 Girkbea sub LOH for -an x € pat Sels EF yer, natorad number are Counter Exampie Vacuous — ses EE _ 4 sHhat +he State ment P=s¢ is = UF Loperoie TF tue Kinde Pits Faise- = ied * || The +sivial Paosf uses tre fact] ~ thet if Mis +sve -+hen pra 5 at ee [3s +a0e- ‘ ee Wishes; 4657 PIs) Is toe — I POn) tf db) anen p2>n —™ L4ne domain ConsictS 6f Set of § ae | Sntegees + : ~ Gofl> twe have Po) t re od) +her he mB oO 2. ae Ab ~—b2 oS ul Co-b) Cetb) = blerb) sel oth = by a eases Gl btb = (es -~b =O 8 zevo = >h=b ~aitien error - af ps4 a_| PI00F by Contradiction - | hat is Ene Assucoe if Possibte Piis not ; +e: je eC lace e = is_+3ue- When Sho IP — Gata) | oO Oo al PP IS bases >) P tc teve . 3 +

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