BIO 151- Concepts of Biology I

Chapter 5:
The Structure and Function of
Large Biological Molecules
Katerina Tsouma, Ph.D.
Department of Biology, University of Dayton
 The Molecules of
Life
❖ All living things are made up of four classes of large
biological molecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins,
and Nucleic Acids (DNA N RNA)
❖ These are called Macromolecules
❖ Macromolecules are large molecules composed of
thousands of covalently connected atoms
❖Three of the four classes of macromolecules form
chain-like molecules called polymers

❖A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many

similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent
bonds
covalent bonds

Monomer Covalent bonds

polymer (thread )
(beads)
(necklace)

❖These building blocks are small molecules called protein Amino Acid peptide

nucleic acid nucleotide phosphodiester

monomers polysaccharides monosaccharides glycoside
 Life’s Monomers and Polymers

❖Three of the four classes of life’s organic

molecules are polymers:
• Proteins (monomer = amino acids)
• Nucleic acids (monomer = nucleotides)
• Carbohydrates (monomer = monosaccharide)

➢ Lipids (fatty acid + glycerol)

Monomers are joined together by
Covalent Bonds
 How Are Polymers Synthesized
(and broken down)?
❖ Polymers are formed through dehydration reactions
(water removal)
synthetic reaction
eg- building muscle , need addition of
new proteins.

❖ Polymers are disassembled to monomers by

hydrolysis reactions (hydro=water, lysis=breakage)
breaking down of food is hydrolysis reaction . food digests and we get energy.
Animation: Making and Breaking Polymers
(Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers)
 Carbohydrates
monosaccharide
❖ Sugars and their polymers
❖ Monosaccharides (simple sugars) are the monomers
❖ Disaccharides (double sugars) consist of two
covalent
monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond bond

❖ Polysaccharides (many sugars) are polymers of many

monosaccharides Carbohydrates consist of C, H and O atoms
(Think CHO)
➢ CHO ratio typically is 1C:2H:1O
➢ e.g. Glucose: C6H12O6

Sugars serve as fuel and a source of carbon

 Monosaccharides (=Monomers)
• General chemical formula: CH2O
• Most names end in -ose
maltose , glactose , sucrose.

How is one monosaccharide different than another?

➢ Number of carbons in skeleton (3-7)

➢ Position of hydroxyl groups (Spatial arrangement)
e.g. glucose, galactose
➢ Location of carbonyl groups
glucose and fructose are structural isomer, but fructose is more sweeter than
glucose.

Sweeter than
glucose!
 Linear and Ring Forms of Glucose
In aqueous solutions most sugars form rings

α and β isomers differ in placement of a

hydroxyl group
 Polysaccharides
A few hundred to a few thousand
Many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
monosaccharides

Functions of Polysaccharides:
• Energy storage (e.g. Starch and
Glycogen)
• Structural support (e.g. Cellulose)

Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose

monomers are all glucose
molecules
this pic explains that - there is starch in potato , glycogen in muscle of farmer
and cellulose in the cell wall of the plant.
 Polysaccharides
A few hundred to a few thousand
Many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
monosaccharides

Functions of Polysaccharides:
• Energy storage (e.g. Starch and
Glycogen)
• Structural support (e.g. Cellulose)

Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose

monomers are all glucose
molecules
 Polysaccharides Starch (plants)
a. Energy Storage Polysaccharides Glycogen (animals)

❖ Sugar monomers and glycosidic linkage positions (branching) determine their architecture
and function
b. Structural Polysaccharides
➢ Cellulose
 b. Structural Polysaccharides
➢ Chitin

Animals and Fungi

 Common Disaccharides
✓ A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
✓ This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage (glyco=sweet)
lack or malfunction of lactase enzyme causes lactose intolerance.
 Polymer- lipid
Lipids Monomer- Glycerol or fatty acids
covalent bond -ester.

❖ Not true polymers

❖ Their unifying feature is that they mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic)

Members:
➢ Fats
➢ Phospholipids
➢ Steroids (e.g. cholesterol)

Functions:
❖ Energy storage Alcohol is called glycerol.

❖ Structural role – Used to make membranes

❖ Some hormones are lipids
 Fats
many non-polar bonds in fatty acids or fats ,
hence they are hydrophobic.
 Fats
• The major function of fats is energy storage
• 1g fat stores more than 2x energy as 1g starch

The many nonpolar C—H bonds in the long

hydrocarbon skeleton make fats hydrophobic
 Fats
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
(with Hydrogen)
dont have double bonds.

have double bonds

btw hyrdocarbons.
 Phospholipids
Cell membranes

phospholipids
are basic elements of
cell membrane .
Polar they have only two aftty
acids.
they have polar heas and non-
polar tail.
therefore, hydrophillic
head and hydrophobic tail,
hence called AMPHIPATHIC
molecules.

Non-polar
Phospholipids
Cell membranes
 Steroids
➢ Steroids are lipids characterized by a
carbon skeleton consisting of four
fused rings

➢ Different steroids vary in the

chemical groups attached to the
rings

➢ Cholesterol is a precursor from which other

steroids are synthesized

➢ A high level of cholesterol in the blood may

contribute to cardiovascular disease
 By now you should be able to answer the following:
➢Define macromolecules, polymers and monomers
➢What are the four classes of life’s macromolecules? Which ones of these are polymers and why?
➢What types of reactions are involved in the synthesis and breakdown of polymers?
➢What are Carbohydrates made of? What types of bonds do they contain? Is there a particular ratio?
What are they used for in cells?
➢What is the difference between mono- di- and polysaccharides? What are some common sugars?
➢What types of glucose rings are there?
➢What types of storage and structural polysaccharides are there in plants, animals and fungi?
➢How can cellulose and starch both be composed of glucose monomers but one is a storage polymer
and one is a structural polymer?
➢What types of molecules are lipids composed of?
➢What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
➢What is a phospholipid? Where are they found in an organism?
➢Steroids are also considered lipids. What is their characteristic shape?
Summarize
Summarize
Polymers are made of monomer subunits that are joined by what type of bonds?

a) ionic bonds
b) covalent bonds
c) hydrogen bonds
d) hydrophobic bonds
A polysaccharide you are studying contains unbranched
β glucose molecules and cannot be digested by humans. Which polysaccharide
are you studying?
a) cellulose
b) DNA
c) chitin
d) starch
e) glycogen
Lipids cannot be considered polymers because

a) they contain polar covalent bonds.

b) their structure includes carbon rings.
c) they can be artificially created.
d) their monomers are connected via ionic bonds.
e) they are not composed of monomer subunits.
All lipids

a) are made from glycerol and fatty acids.

b) contain nitrogen.
c) have low energy content.
d) are acidic when mixed with water.
e) do not dissolve well in water.
 Acknowledgements

➢Campbell and Reece, © Benjamin Cummings, ➢senecalearning.com

2017 ➢commons.wikimedia.org
➢David J. Wright and Karolyn M. Hansen ➢www0.cs.ucl.ac.uk
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