Design a Database

Database System
Database is collection of related data which contained the
fundamental element called table. The table is related
within each other that are categorized into tuples and
fields.
Database systems are designed to manage large data set in
an organization. The data management involves both
definition and the manipulation of the data which ranges
from simple representation of the data to considerations of
structures for the storage of information. The data
management also consider the provision of mechanisms
for the manipulation of information.
Today, Databases are essential to every business. They are
used to maintain internal records, to present data to
customers and clients on the World-Wide-Web, and to
support many other commercial processes. Databases are
likewise found at the core of many modern organizations.
The power of databases comes from a body of knowledge
and technology that has developed over several decades

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and is embodied in specialized software called a database

management system, or DBMS. A DBMS is a powerful tool
for creating and managing large amounts of data
efficiently and allowing it to persist over long periods of
time, safely. These systems are among the most complex
types of software available.
In common dialect, the term database refers to a collection
of data that is managed by a DBMS.
Thus the DB course is about:
1. How to organize data
2. Supporting multiple users
3. Efficient and effective data retrieval
4. Secured and reliable storage of data
5. Maintaining consistent data
6. Making information useful for decision making
Data management passes through the different levels of
development along with the development in technology
and services. These levels could best be described by
categorizing the levels into three levels of development.
Even though there is an advantage and a problem
overcome at each new level, all methods of data handling
are in use to some extent. The major three levels are;
1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach
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3. Database Approach
1. Manual Approach
In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follows
the primitive and traditional way of information handling
where cards and paper are used for the purpose. The data
storage and retrieval will be performed using human
labour.
1. Files for as many event and objects as the organization
has are used to store information.
2. Each of the files containing various kinds of
information is labelled and stored in one or more
cabinets.
3. The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security
purpose based on the sensitivity of the information
contained in it.
4. Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for
the right cabinet then for the right the file then the
information.
 One could have an indexing system to facilitate access
to the data
Limitations of the Manual approach
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile the
information
 Limited to small size information
 Cross referencing is difficult

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2. Traditional File Based Approach

After the introduction of Computer for data processing
to the business community, the need to use the device
for data storage and processing increase. There were,
and still are, several computer applications with file
based processing used for the purpose of data handling.
Even though the approach evolved over time, the basic
structure is still similar if not identical.

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 File based systems were an early attempt to

computerize the manual filing system.
 This approach is the decentralized computerized data
handling method.
 A collection of application programs perform services
for the end-users. In such systems, every application
program that provides service to end users define and
manage its own data
 Such systems have number of programs for each of the
different applications in the organization.
 Since every application defines and manages its own
data, the system is subjected to serious data
duplication problem.
 File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection
of records which contains logically related data.
Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach
As business application become more complex demanding
more flexible and reliable data handling methods, the

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shortcomings of the file based system became evident.

These shortcomings include, but not limited to:
 Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in
one application may not be known.
 Limited data sharing
 Lengthy development and maintenance time
 Duplication or redundancy of data
 Data dependency on the application
 Incompatible file formats between different
applications and programs creating inconsistency.
 Fixed query processing which is defined during
application development
The limitations for the traditional file based data
handling approach arise from two basic reasons.
1. Definition of the data is embedded in the application
program which makes it difficult to modify the
database definition easily.
2. No control over the access and manipulation of the
data beyond that imposed by the application
programs.
3. Database Approach
Following a famous paper written by Ted Codd in
1970, database systems changed significantly. Codd
proposed that database systems should present the
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user with a view of data organized as tables called

relations. Behind the scenes, there might be a complex
data structure that allowed rapid response to a variety
of queries. But, unlike the user of earlier database
systems, the user of a relational system would not be
concerned with the storage structure. Queries could be
expressed in a very high-level language, which greatly
increased the efficiency of database programmers. The
database approach emphasizes the integration and
sharing of data throughout the organization.
Thus in Database Approach:

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 Database is just a computerized record keeping system

or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
 Database is a repository for collection of computerized
data files.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data
designed to meet the information needs of an
organization. Since it is a shared corporate resource, the
database is integrated with minimum amount of or no
duplication.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where
these logically related data comprises entities, attributes,
relationships, and business rules of an organization's
information.
 In addition to containing data required by an
organization, database also contains a description of the
data which called as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary”
or “Systems Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
 Since a database contains information about the data
(metadata), it is called a self descriptive collection on
integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to
allow users to retrieve and update that information on
demand.
 Database is designed once and used simultaneously by
many users.

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 Unlike the traditional file based approach in database

approach there is program data independence. That is
the separation of the data definition from the
application. Thus the application is not affected by
changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Each database application will perform the combination
of: Creating database, Reading, Updating and Deleting
data.
Benefits of the database approach
 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use
same data instead of storing data in redundant manner
for each user.
 Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query
languages, the users can easily access data without
programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in
database to decrease the redundant data stored at
different applications.
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity
constraints in the database approach will maintain the
quality leading to better decision making
 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy
will avoid inconsistency of the data in the database to
some extent.
 Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any
transaction support systems are implanted in a full scale
DBMS.

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 Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications

will be integrated together with additional constraints to
facilitate shared data resource.
 Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be
secured by having different levels of clearance and other
data security mechanisms.
 Improved decision support: the database will provide
information useful for decision making.
 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and
dealing with data by different unite of an organization
can be balanced and standardized by using database
approach.
 Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling
method, the data is stored compactly (no voluminous
papers).
 Speed: data storage and retrieval is fast as it will be using
the modern fast computer systems.
 Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data
maintenance will not demand much resource.
 Centralized information control: since relevant data in the
organization will be stored at one repository, it can be
controlled and managed at the central level.
Limitations and risk of Database Approach
 Introduction of new professional and specialized
personnel.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new
system
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 High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the

system
 Complex backup and recovery services from the users
perspective
 Reduced performance due to centralization and data
independency
Database Management System (DBMS)
Database Management System (DBMS) is a Software
package used for providing EFFICIENT, CONVENIENT
and SAFE MULTI-USER (many people/programs
accessing same database, or even same data,
simultaneously) storage of and access to MASSIVE
amounts of PERSISTENT (data outlives programs that
operate on it) data.
A DBMS also provides a systematic method for creating,
updating, storing, retrieving data in a database. DBMS
also provides the service of controlling data access,
enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency control,
and recovery. Having this in mind, a full scale DBMS
should at least have the following services to provide to
the user.
Data storage, retrieval and update in the database

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1. A user accessible catalogue

2. Transaction support service: ALL or NONE
transaction, which minimize data inconsistency.
3. Concurrency Control Services: access and update on
the database by different users simultaneously should
be implemented correctly.
4. Recovery Services: a mechanism for recovering the
database after a failure must be available.
5. Authorization Services: In this the data administrator
uses to create account and account restrictions. Then
DBMS should enforce these restrictions automatically.
6. (Security): must support the implementation of access
and authorization service to database administrator
and users.
7. Support for Data Communication: should provide the
facility to integrate with data transfer software or data
communication managers.
8. Integrity Services: rules about data and the change that
took place on the data, correctness and consistency of
stored data, and quality of data based on business
constraints.
9. Services to promote data independency between the
data and the application
10. Utility services: sets of utility service facilities like
Importing data

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DBMS and Components of DBMS Environment

A DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and
maintain databases. Each DBMS should have facilities to
define the database, manipulate the content of the
database and control the database. These facilities will
help the designer, the user as well as the database
administrator to discharge their responsibility in
designing, using and managing the database. It provides
the following facilities:
 Data Definition Language (DDL):
 Language used to define each data element required
by the organization.
 Commands for setting up schema or the intension of
database
 These commands are used to setup a database, create,
delete and alter table with the facility of handling
constraints
 Data Manipulation Language (DML):
 Is a core command used by end-users and
programmers to store, retrieve, and access the data in
the database e.g. SQL
 Since the required data or Query by the user will be
extracted using this type of language, it is also called
"Query Language"
 Data Dictionary:
 Due to the fact that a database is a self describing
system, this tool, Data
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Dictionary, is used to store and organize information

about the data stored in the database.
 Data Control Language:
 Database is a shared resource that demands control of
data access and usage. The database administrator
should have the facility to control the overall
operation of the system.
 Data Control Languages are commands that will help
the Database Administrator to control the database.
 The commands include grant or revoke privileges to
access the database or particular object within the
database and to store or remove database transactions
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to
database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given
with the GRANT command
 Transaction Control (TCL) is statements used to manage
the changes made by DML statements. It allows statements
to be grouped together into logical transactions.
eg. COMMIT - save work done
The DBMS is software package that helps to design,
manage, and use data using the database approach.
Taking a DBMS as a system, one can describe it with
respect to it environment or other systems interacting
with the DBMS. The DBMS environment has five
components. To design and use a database, there will

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be the interaction or integration of Hardware,

Software, Data, Procedure and People.
1. Hardware: are components that one can touch and feel.
These components are comprised of various types of
personal computers, mainframe or any server computers
to be used in multi-user system, network infrastructure,
and other peripherals required in the system.
2. Software: are collection of commands and programs
used to manipulate the hardware to perform a function.
These include components like the DBMS software,
application programs, operating systems, network
software, language software and other relevant
software.
3. Data: since the goal of any database system is to have
better control of the data and making data useful, Data is
the most important component to the user of the
database. There are two categories of data in any
database system: that is Operational and Metadata.
Operational data is the data actually stored in the system
to be used by the user. Metadata is the data that is used
to store information about the database itself.The
structure of the data in the database is called the schema,
which is composed of the Entities, Properties of entities,
and relationship between entities.
4. Procedure: this is the rules and regulations on how to
design and use a database. It includes procedures like
how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to
start and stop transaction, how to make backup, how to
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treat hardware and software failure, how to change the

structure of the database.
5. People: this component is composed of the people in the
organization that are responsible or play a role in
designing, implementing, managing, administering and
using the resources in the database. This component
includes group of people with high level of knowledge
about the database and the design technology to other
with no knowledge of the system except using the data
in the database.

Database Development Life Cycle

As it is one component in most information system
development tasks, there are several steps in designing a
database system. Here more emphasis is given to the
design phases of the system development life cycle.

The major steps in database design are;

1. Planning: that is identifying information gap in an

organization and propose a database solution to solve
the problem.

2. Analysis: that concentrates more on fact finding about

the problem or the opportunity. Feasibility analysis,
requirement determination and structuring, and
selection of best design method are also performed at
this phase.
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3. Design: in database designing more emphasis is given

to this phase. The phase is further divided into three
sub-phases.
A. Conceptual Design: concise description of the
data, data type, relationship between data and
constraints on the data.
 There is no implementation or physical detail
consideration.
 Used to elicit and structure all information
requirements
B.Logical Design: a higher level conceptual
abstraction with selected specific data model to
implement the data structure.
 It is particular DBMS independent and with
no other physical considerations.
C. Physical Design: physical implementation of the
upper level design of the database with respect to
internal storage and file structure of the database for
the selected DBMS.
 To develop all technology and organizational
specification.
4. Implementation: the testing and deployment of the
designed database for use.
5. Operation and Support: administering and maintaining
the operation of the database system and providing
support to users.
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Roles in Database Design and Use

As people are one of the components in DBMS

environment, there are group of roles played by different
stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database
system.
Database Administrator (DBA)
 Responsible to oversee, control and manage the
database resources (the database itself, the DBMS and
other related software)
 Authorizing access to the database
 Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
 Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware
and software resources
 Accountable for problems like poor security, poor
performance of the system
 Involves in all steps of database development
We can have further classifications of this role in big
organizations having huge amount of data and user
requirement.
1. Data Administrator (DA): is responsible on
management of data resources. Involves in database
planning, development, maintenance of standards
policies and procedures at the conceptual and
logical design phases.

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2. Database Administrator (DBA): is more technically

oriented role. Responsible for the physical
realization of the database. Involves in physical
design, implementation, security and integrity
control of the database.
1. Database Designer (DBD)
 Identifies the data to be stored and choose the
appropriate structures to represent and store the data.
 Should understand the user requirement and should
choose how the user views the database.
 Involve on the design phase before the
implementation of the database system.
We have two distinctions of database designers, one
involving in the logical and conceptual design and
another involving in physical design.
a)Logical and Conceptual DBD
 Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship)
relevant to the organization
 Identifies constraints on each data
 Understand data and business rules in the
organization
 Sees the database independent of any data model at
conceptual level and consider one specific data
model at logical design phase.
b) Physical DBD
 Take logical design specification as input and decide
how it should be physically realized.

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 Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS

with respect to tables and integrity constraints.
(DBMS dependent designing)
 Select specific storage structure and access path to
the database
 Design security measures required on the database
2. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst
 System analyst determines the user requirement
and how the user wants to view the database.
 The application programmer implements these
specifications as programs; code, test, debug,
document and maintain the application program.
 Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert,
update and delete data in the database.
 The application could use any high level
programming language according to the availability,
the facility and the required service.
3. End Users
Workers, whose job requires accessing the database
frequently for various purpose. There are different
group of users in this category.
Naïve Users:
 Sizable proportion of users
 Unaware of the DBMS
 Only access the database based on their access level
and demand
 Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.

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a)Sophisticated Users
 Are users familiar with the structure of the Database
and facilities of the DBMS.
 Have complex requirements
 Have higher level queries
 Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business
analysts, etc
a)Casual Users
 Users who access the database occasionally.
 Need different information from the database each
time.
 Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their
needs.
 Are most of the time middle to high level managers.
 Users may be divided into those who actually use and
control the database content, and those who design,
develop and maintain database applications(called
“Actors on the scene”), and those who design and
develop the DBMS and related tools, and the computer
systems operators(called “Workers behind the scene”).
eg of“ Actors on the Scene”.
Actors On the Scene:
 Data Administrator
 Database Administrator
 Database Designer
 End Users
Workers behind the Scene

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 DBMS designers and implementers: who design and

implement different DBMS software.
 Tool Developers: experts who develop software
packages that facilitates database system designing
and use. Prototype, simulation, code generator
developers could be an example. Independent
software vendors could also be categorized in this
group.
 Operators and Maintenance Personnel: system
administrators who are responsible for actually
running and maintaining the hardware and software
of the database system and the information
technology facilities.
Data Independence
Logical Data Independence:
 Refers to immunity of external schemas to changes
in conceptual schema.
 Conceptual schema changes e.g. addition/removal of
entities should not require changes to external
schema or rewrites of application programs.
 The capacity to change the conceptual schema
without having to change the external schemas and
their application programs.
Physical Data Independence
 The ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema

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 In general, the interfaces between the various levels

and components should be well defined so that
changes in some parts do not seriously influence
others.
 The capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema
 Refers to immunity of conceptual schema to changes
in the internal schema
 Internal schema changes e.g. using different file
organizations, storage structures/devices should not
require change to conceptual or external schemas.
The distinction between a Data Definition Language
(DDL) and a Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Allows DBA or user to describe and name entitles,
attributes and relationships required for the
application.
 Specification notation for defining the database
schema
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Provides basic data manipulation operations on data
held in the database.
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
Procedural DML: user specifies what data is required
and how to get the data.

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Non-Procedural DML: user specifies what data is

required but not how it is to be retrieved
SQL is the most widely used non-procedural language
query language.
Fourth Generation Language (4GL )
 Query Languages  Graphics Generators
 Forms Generators  Application
 Report Generators Generators
A Classification of data models
A specific DBMS has its own specific Data Definition
Language, but this type of language is too low level to
describe the data requirements of an organization in a way
that is readily understandable by a variety of users.
We need a higher-level language.
Such a higher-level is called data-model.
Data Model: a set of concepts to describe the structure of a
database, and certain constraints that the database should
obey.
A data model is a description of the way that data is
stored in a database. Data model helps to understand the
relationship between entities and to create the most
effective structure to hold data.
Data Model is a collection of tools or concepts for
describing
 Data  Data semantics
 Data relationships  Data constraints
The main purpose of Data Model is to represent the data in
an understandable way.
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Categories of data models include:

 Object-based
 Record-based
 Physical
Record-based Data Models
Consist of a number of fixed format records.
Each record type defines a fixed number of fields,
Each field is typically of a fixed length.
 Hierarchical Data Model
 Network Data Model
 Relational Data Model
1. Hierarchical Model
 The simplest data model
 Record type is referred to as node or segment
 The top node is the root node
 Nodes are arranged in a hierarchical structure as
sort of upside-down tree
 A parent node can have more than one child node
 A child node can only have one parent node
 The relationship between parent and child is one-
to-many
 Relation is established by creating physical link
between stored records (each is stored with a
predefined access path to other records)
 To add new record type or relationship, the
database must be redefined and then stored in a
new form.

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Department

Employee Job

Time Card Activity

ADVANTAGES of Hierarchical Data Model:

 Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and
operate on
 Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically
organized domains - e.g., assemblies in
manufacturing, personnel organization in
companies
 Language is simple; uses constructs like GET, GET
UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT WITHIN
PARENT etc.
DISADVANTAGES of Hierarchical Data Model:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of
records
 Little scope for "query optimization"
2. Network Model
 Allows record types to have more than one parent
unlike hierarchical model
 A network data models sees records as set members
 Each set has an owner and one or more members
 Allow many to many relationship between entities
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 Like hierarchical model network model is a

collection of physically linked records.
 Allow member records to have more than one
owner

Department Job

Employee
Activity

Time Card

ADVANTAGES of Network Data Model:

 Network Model is able to model complex
relationships and represents semantics of
add/delete on the relationships.
 Can handle most situations for modeling using
record types and relationship types.
 Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND,
FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set,
GET etc. Programmers can do optimal navigation
through the database.
DISADVANTAGES of Network Data Model:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database contains a complex array of pointers that
thread through a set of records.
 Little scope for automated "query optimization”
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3. Relational Data Model

 Developed by Dr. Edgar Frank Coded in 1970
(famous paper, 'A Relational Model for Large
Shared Data Banks')
 Terminologies originates from the branch of
mathematics called set theory and relation
 Can define more flexible and complex relationship
 Viewed as a collection of tables called “Relations”
equivalent to collection of record types
 Relation: Two dimensional table
 Stores information or data in the form of tables 
rows and columns
 A row of the table is called tuple equivalent to
record
 A column of a table is called attribute equivalent
to fields
 Data value is the value of the Attribute
 Records are related by the data stored jointly in the
fields of records in two tables or files. The related
tables contain information that creates the relation
 The tables seem to be independent but are related
somehow.
 No physical consideration of the storage is required
by the user
 Many tables are merged together to come up with a
new virtual view of the relationship
Alternative
terminologies
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Relatio Table File

n
Tuple Row
Record
Attribut Colum Field
e n
 The rows represent records (collections of information
about separate items)
 The columns represent fields (particular attributes of a
record)
 Conducts searches by using data in specified columns
of one table to find additional data in another table
 In conducting searches, a relational database matches
information from a field in one table with information
in a corresponding field of another table to produce a
third table that combines requested data from both
tables
Relational Data Model
Properties of Relational Databases
 Each row of a table is uniquely identified by a
PRIMARY KEY composed of one or more columns
 Each tuple in a relation must be unique
 Group of columns, that uniquely identifies a row in
a table is called a CANDIDATE KEY
 ENTITY INTEGRITY RULE of the model states that
no component of the primary key may contain a
NULL value.

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 A column or combination of columns that matches

the primary key of another table is called a
FOREIGN KEY. Used to cross-reference tables.
 The REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY RULE of the
model states that, for every foreign key value in a
table there must be a corresponding primary key
value in another table in the database or it should be
NULL.
 All tables are LOGICAL ENTITIES
 A table is either a BASE TABLES (Named Relations)
or VIEWS (Unnamed Relations)
 Only Base Tables are physically stores
 VIEWS are derived from BASE TABLES with SQL
instructions like: [SELECT .. FROM .. WHERE ..
ORDER BY]
 Is the collection of tables
o Each entity in one table
o Attributes are fields (columns) in table
 Order of rows and columns is immaterial
 Entries with repeating groups are said to be un-
normalized
 Entries are single-valued
 Each column (field or attribute) has a distinct name
All values in a column represent the same attribute and
have the same data format
Building Blocks of the Relational Data Model
The building blocks of the relational data model are:
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 Design a Database

 Entities: real world physical or logical object

 Attributes: properties used to describe each Entity or
real world object.
 Relationship: the association between Entities
 Constraints: rules that should be obeyed while
manipulating the data.
1. The ENTITIES (persons, places, things etc.) which the
organization has to deal with. Relations can also
describe relationships
The name given to an entity should always be a
singular noun descriptive of each item to be stored in
it. E.g.: student NOT students.
Every relation has a schema, which describes the
columns, or fields the relation itself corresponds to our
familiar notion of a table:
A relation is a collection of tuples, each of which
contains values for a fixed number of attributes
 Existence Dependency: the dependence of an entity
on the existence of one or more entities.
 Weak entity : an entity that can not exist without the
entity with which it has a relationship – it is
indicated by a double rectangle
2. The ATTRIBUTES - the items of information which
characterize and describe these entities.
Attributes are pieces of information ABOUT entities.
The analysis must of course identify those which are
actually relevant to the proposed application.
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 Design a Database

Attributes will give rise to recorded items of data in

the database
At this level we need to know such things as:
Attribute name (be explanatory words or
phrases)
 The domain from which attribute values are

taken (A DOMAIN is a set of values from

which attribute values may be taken.) Each
attribute has values taken from a domain. For
example, the domain of Name is string and
that for salary is real
 Whether the attribute is part of the entity
identifier (attributes which just describe an
entity and those which help to identify it
uniquely)
 Whether it is permanent or time-varying (which

attributes may change their values over time)

 Whether it is required or optional for the entity

(whose values will sometimes be unknown or

irrelevant)
Types of Attributes
(1) Simple (atomic) Vs Composite attributes
 Simple : contains a single value (not divided
into sub parts)
E.g. Age, gender
 Composite: Divided into sub parts
(composed of other attributes)
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E.g. Name, address

(2) Single-valued Vs multi-valued attributes
 Single-valued : have only single value(the
value may change but has only one value
at one time)
E.g. Name, Sex, Id. No. color_of_eyes
 Multi-Valued: have more than one value
E.g. Address, dependent-name
Person may have several college degrees
(3) Stored vs. Derived Attribute
 Stored : not possible to derive or compute
E.g. Name, Address
 Derived: The value may be derived
(computed) from the values of other
attributes.
E.g. Age (current year – year of birth)
Length of employment (current date-
start date)
Profit (earning-cost)
G.P.A (grade point/credit hours)
(4) Null Values
 NULL applies to attributes which are not
applicable or which do not have values.
 You may enter the value NA (meaning not
applicable)
 Value of a key attribute can not be null.
Default value - assumed value if no explicit value
Entity versus Attributes
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When designing the conceptual specification of the

database, one should pay attention to the distinction
between an Entity and an Attribute.
 Consider designing a database of employees for an
organization:
 Should address be an attribute of Employees or an
entity (connected to Employees by a relationship)?
 If we have several addresses per employee,
address must be an entity (attributes cannot
be set-valued/multi valued)
3. If the structure (city, Woreda, Kebele, etc) is important,
e.g. want to retrieve employees in a given city, address
must be modeled as an entity (attribute values are
atomic)
4. The RELATIONSHIPS between entities which exist
and must be taken into account when processing
information. In any business processing one object
may be associated with another object due to some
event. Such kind of association is what we call a
RELATIONSHIP between entity objects.
 One external event or process may affect several
related entities.
 Related entities require setting of LINKS from one
part of the database to another.
 A relationship should be named by a word or phrase
which explains its function

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 Role names are different from the names of entities

forming the relationship: one entity may take on
many roles, the same role may be played by different
entities
 For each RELATIONSHIP, one can talk about the
Number of Entities and the Number of Tuples
participating in the association. These two concepts
are called DEGREE and CARDINALITY of a
relationship respectively.
Degree of a Relationship
 An important point about a relationship is how
many entities participate in it. The number of
entities participating in a relationship is called the
DEGREE of the relationship.
Among the Degrees of relationship, the following
are the basic:
O UNARY/RECURSIVE RELATIONSHIP:
Tuples/records of a Single entity are related with
each other.
O BINARY RELATIONSHIPS: Tuples/records of two
entities are associated in a relationship
O TERNARY RELATIONSHIP: Tuples/records of
three different entities are associated
o And a generalized one:
 N-NARY RELATIONSHIP: Tuples from
arbitrary number of entity sets are
participating in a relationship.
Cardinality of a Relationship
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 Another important concept about relationship is the

number of instances/tuples that can be associated
with a single instance from one entity in a single
relationship. The number of instances participating
or associated with a single instance from an entity in
a relationship is called the CARDINALITY of the
relationship. The major cardinalities of a
relationship are:
o ONE-TO-ONE: one tuple is associated with only
one other tuple.
 E.g. Building – Location as a single
building will be located in a single location
and as a single location will only
accommodate a single Building.
o ONE-TO-MANY, one tuple can be associated
with many other tuples, but not the reverse.
 E.g. Department-Student as one
department can have multiple students.
o MANY-TO-ONE, many tuples are associated
with one tuple but not the reverse.
 E.g. Employee – Department: as many
employees belong to a single department.
o MANY-TO-MANY: one tuple is associated with
many other tuples and from the other side, with
a different role name one tuple will be associated
with many tuples

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 E.g. Student – Courseas a student can take

many courses and a single course can be
attended by many students.
5. Relational Constraints/Integrity Rules
 Relational Integrity
 Domain Integrity: No value of the attribute
should be beyond the allowable limits
 Entity Integrity: In a base relation, no
attribute of a Primary Key can assume a
value of NULL
 Referential Integrity: If a Foreign Key exists
in a relation, either the Foreign Key value
must match a Candidate Key value in its
home relation or the Foreign Key value
must be NULL
 Enterprise Integrity: Additional rules
specified by the users or database
administrators of a database are
incorporated
 Key constraints
If tuples are need to be unique in the database, and
then we need to make each tuple distinct. To do this
we need to have relational keys that uniquely
identify each relation.
Super Key: an attribute or set of attributes that
uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation.

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Candidate Key: a super key such that no proper

subset of that collection is a Super Key within
the relation.
A candidate key has two properties:
1. Uniqueness
2. Irreducibility
If a super key is having only one attribute, it
is automatically a Candidate key.
If a candidate key consists of more than one
attribute it is called Composite Key.
Primary Key: the candidate key that is selected to
identify tuples uniquely within the relation.
The entire set of attributes in a relation can be
considered as a primary case in a worst case.
Foreign Key: an attribute, or set of attributes, within
one relation that matches the candidate key of
some relation.
A foreign key is a link between different
relations to create the view or the unnamed
relation
 Relational Views
Relations are perceived as a Table from the users’
perspective. Actually, there are two kinds of relation in
relational database. The two categories or tyapes of
Relations are Named and Unnamed Relations. The basic
difference is on how the relation is created, used and
updated:
1. Base Relation
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A Named Relation corresponding to an entity in the

conceptual schema, whose tuples are physically
stored in the database.
2. View (Unnamed Relation)
A View is the dynamic result of one or more
relational operations operating on the base relations
to produce another virtual relation that does not
actually exist as presented. So a view is virtually
derived relation that does not necessarily exist in the
database but can be produced upon request by a
particular user at the time of request. The virtual
table or relation can be created from single or
different relations by extracting some attributes and
records with or without conditions.
Purpose of a view
 Hides unnecessary information from users: since
only part of the base relation (Some collection of
attributes, not necessarily all) are to be included
in the virtual table.
 Provide powerful flexibility and security: since
unnecessary information will be hidden from the
user there will be some sort of data security.
 Provide customized view of the database for
users: each users are going to be interfaced with
their own preferred data set and format by
making use of the Views.
 A view of one base relation can be updated.

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 Update on views derived from various relations

is not allowed since it may violate the integrity
of the database.
 Update on view with aggregation and summary
is not allowed. Since aggregation and summary
results are computed from a base relation and
does not exist actually.
Schemas and Instances and Database State
When a database is designed using a Relational data
model, all the data is represented in a form of a table. In
such definitions and representation, there are two basic
components of the database. The two components are the
definition of the Relation or the Table and the actual data
stored in each table. The data definition is what we call the
Schema or the skeleton of the database and the Relations
with some information at some point in time is the
Instance or the flesh of the database.
Schemas
 Schema describes how data is to be structured, defined
at setup/Design time (also called "metadata")
 Since it is used during the database development
phase, there is rare tendency of changing the schema
unless there is a need for system maintenance which
demands change to the definition of a relation.
 Database Schema (Intension): specifies name of
relation and the collection of the attributes (specifically
the Name of attributes).
 refer to a description of database (or intention)
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 specified during database design

 should not be changed unless during maintenance
 Schema Diagrams
 convention to display some aspect of a schema
visually
 Schema Construct
 refers to each object in the schema (e.g.
STUDENT)
E.g.: STUNEDT (FName,LName,Id,Year,Dept,Sex)
Instances
 Instance: is the collection of data in the database at a
particular point of time (snap-shot).
 Also called State or Snap Shot or Extension of the
database
 Refers to the actual data in the database at a
specific point in time
 State of database is changed any time we add,
delete or update an item.
 Valid state: the state that satisfies the structure
and constraints specified in the schema and is
enforced by DBMS
 Since Instance is actual data of database at some point
in time, changes rapidly
 To define a new database, we specify its database
schema to the DBMS (database is empty)
 database is initialized when we first load it with data
Database Design

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Database design is the process of coming up with different

kinds of specification for the data to be stored in the
database. The database design part is one of the middle
phases we have in information systems development
where the system uses a database approach. Design is the
part on which we would be engaged to describe how the
data should be perceived at different levels and finally
how it is going to be stored in a computer system.
Information System with Database application consists of
several tasks which include:
 Planning of Information systems Design
 Requirements Analysis,
 Design (Conceptual, Logical and Physical Design)
 Tuning
 Implementation
 Operation and Support
From these different phases, the prime interest of a
database system will be the Design part which is again sub
divided into other three sub-phases. These sub-phases are:
1. Conceptual Design
2. Logical Design, and
3. Physical Design
 In general, one has to go back and forth between these
tasks to refine a database design, and decisions in one
task can influence the choices in another task.
 In developing a good design, one should answer such
questions as:

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 What are the relevant Entities for the

Organization
 What are the important features of each Entity
 What are the important Relationships
 What are the important queries from the user
 What are the other requirements of the
Organization and the Users
The Three levels of Database Design

Conceptual Design

Logical Design

Physical Design
Conceptual Database Design
 Conceptual design is the process of constructing a
model of the information used in an enterprise,
independent of any physical considerations.
 It is the source of information for the logical
design phase.
 Mostly uses an Entity Relationship Model to
describe the data at this level.
 After the completion of Conceptual Design one has to
go for refinement of the schema, which is verification
of Entities, Attributes, and Relationships
Logical Database Design
 Logical design is the process of constructing a model
of the information used in an enterprise based on a
specific data model (e.g. relational, hierarchical or
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 Design a Database

network or object), but independent of a particular

DBMS and other physical considerations.
 Normalization process
 Collection of Rules to be maintained
 Discover new entities in the process
 Revise attributes based on the rules and the
discovered Entities
Physical Database Design
 Physical design is the process of producing a
description of the implementation of the database on
secondary storage. -- defines specific storage or access
methods used by database
 Describes the storage structures and access
methods used to achieve efficient access to the
data.
 Tailored to a specific DBMS system --
Characteristics are function of DBMS and
operating systems
 Includes estimate of storage space
Conceptual Database Design
 Conceptual design revolves around discovering and
analyzing organizational and user data requirements
 The important activities are to identify
 Entities
 Attributes
 Relationships
 Constraints

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 And based on these components develop the ER

model using
 ER diagrams
The Entity Relationship (E-R) Model
 Entity-Relationship modeling is used to represent
conceptual view of the database
 The main components of ER Modeling are:
o Entities
 Corresponds to entire table, not row
 Represented by Rectangle
o Attributes
 Represents the property used to describe an
entity or a relationship
 Represented by Oval
o Relationships
 Represents the association that exist between
entities
 Represented by Diamond
o Constraints
 Represent the constraint in the data
Before working on the conceptual design of the
database, one has to know and answer the following
basic questions.
 What are the entities and relationships in the
enterprise?
 What information about these entities and
relationships should we store in the database?

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 What are the integrity constraints that hold?

Constraints on each data with respect to update,
retrieval and store.
 Represent this information pictorially in ER diagrams,
then map ER diagram into a relational schema.
Developing an E-R Diagram
 Designing conceptual model for the database is not a one
linear process but an iterative activity where the design is
refined again and again.
 To identify the entities, attributes, relationships, and
constraints on the data, there are different set of methods
used during the analysis phase. These include information
gathered by…
 Interviewing end users individually and in a group
 Questionnaire survey
 Direct observation
 Examining different documents
 The basic E-R model is graphically depicted and presented
for review.
 The process is repeated until the end users and designers
agree that the E-R diagram is a fair representation of the
organization’s activities and functions.
 Checking for Redundant Relationships in the ER Diagram.
Relationships between entities indicate access from one
entity to another - it is therefore possible to access one
entity occurrence from another entity occurrence even if
there are other entities and relationships that separate

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them - this is often referred to as Navigation' of the ER

diagram
 The last phase in ER modeling is validating an ER Model
against requirement of the user.
Graphical Representations in ER Diagramming
 Entity is represented by a RECTANGLE containing
the name of the entity.
Strong Entity Weak

 Connected entities are called relationship participants

 Attributes are represented by OVALS and are Ovals
connected to the
Ovalsentity by a line.
Ovals Ovals Ovals

Multi-valued Composite Ovals

Attribute Attribute Attribute

 A derived attribute is indicated by a DOTTED LINE.

(……..)
Ovals

 PRIMARY KEYS are underlined.

Key

 Relationships are represented by DIAMOND shaped

symbols
 Weak Relationship is a relationship between Weak
and Strong Entities
 Strong Relationship is a relationship between two
strong Entities

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Diamon Diamond
d
Strong Relationship Weak Relationship

Example 1: Build an ER Diagram for the following

information:
 A student record management system will have the
following two basic data object categories with their
own features or properties: Students will have an Id,
Name, Dept, Age, GPA and Course will have an Id,
Name, Credit Hours
 Whenever a student enroll in a course in a specific
Academic Year and Semester, the Student will
have a grade for the course
Name Dept DoB Id Name Credit

Id Gpa
Students Courses

Age

Enrolled_In Semester
Academic
Year

Grade

Example 2: Build an ER Diagram for the following

information:
 A Personnel record management system will have the
following two basic data object categories with their
own features or properties: Employee will have an Id,
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Name, DoB, Age, Tel and Department will have an Id,

Name, Location
 Whenever an Employee is assigned in one
Department, the duration of his stay in the
respective department should be registered.
Structural Constraints on Relationship
1. Constraints on Relationship / Multiplicity/ Cardinality
Constraints
 Multiplicity constraint is the number or range of possible
occurrence of an entity type/relation that may relate to a
single occurrence/tuple of an entity type/relation through
a particular relationship.
 Mostly used to insure appropriate enterprise constraints.
One-to-one relationship:
 A customer is associated with at most one loan via the
relationship borrower
 A loan is associated with at most one customer via
borrower

E.g.: Relationship Manages between STAFF and BRANCH

The multiplicity of the relationship is:
 One branch can only have one manager
 One employee could manage either one or no branches

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1..1 Manages 0..1

Employee Branch

One-To-Many Relationships
 In the one-to-many relationship a loan is associated with at
most one customer via borrower, a customer is associated
with several (including 0) loans via borrower

E.g.: Relationship Leads between STAFF and PROJECT

The multiplicity of the relationship
 One staff may Lead one or more project(s)
 One project is Lead by one staff
1..1 Leads 0..*
Employee Project

Many-To-Many Relationship
 A customer is associated with several (possibly 0) loans
via borrower
 A loan is associated with several (possibly 0) customers
via borrower

E.g.: Relationship Teaches between INSTRUCTOR and

COURSE
The multiplicity of the relationship
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 One Instructor Teaches one or more Course(s)

 One Course Thought by Zero or more Instructor(s)
0..* Teaches 1..*
Instructor Course

Participation of an Entity Set in a Relationship Set

Participation constraint of a relationship is involved in
identifying and setting the mandatory or optional feature
of an entity occurrence to take a role in a relationship.
There are two distinct participation constraints with this
respect, namely: Total Participation and Partial
Participation
 Total participation: every tuple in the entity or relation
participates in at least one relationship by taking a role.
This means, every tuple in a relation will be attached with
at least one other tuple. The entity with total participation
in a relationship will be connected to the relationship
using a double line.
 Partial participation: some tuple in the entity or relation
may not participate in the relationship. This means, there
is at least one tuple from that Relation not taking any role
in that specific relationship. The entity with partial
participation in a relationship will be connected to the
relationship using a single line.
 E.g. 1:Participation of EMPLOYEE in “belongs to”
relationship with DEPARTMENT is total since
every employee should belong to a department.
Participation of DEPARTMENT in “belongs to”
relationship with EMPLOYEE is total since every
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department should have more than one employee.

Employee Belongs To Department

 E.g. 2:Participation of EMPLOYEE in “manages”

relationship with DEPARTMENT, is partial
participation since not all employees are managers.
Participation of DEPARTMENT in “Manages”
relationship with EMPLOYEE is total since every
department should have a manager.
Employee Manages Department

Problem in ER Modeling
The Entity-Relationship Model is a conceptual data model
that views the real world as consisting of entities and
relationships. The model visually represents these
concepts by the Entity-Relationship diagram. The basic
constructs of the ER model are entities, relationships, and
attributes. Entities are concepts, real or abstract, about
which information is collected. Relationships are
associations between the entities. Attributes are properties
which describe the entities.
While designing the ER model one could face a problem
on the design which is called a connection traps.
Connection traps are problems arising from
misinterpreting certain relationships
There are two types of connection traps;
1. Fan trap:

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Occurs where a model represents a relationship

between entity types, but the pathway between certain
entity occurrences is ambiguous.
May exist where two or more one-to-many (1:M)
relationships fan out from an entity. The problem
could be avoided by restructuring the model so that
there would be no 1:M relationships fanning out from
a singe entity and all the semantics of the relationship
is preserved.
Example:
1..* Works 1..1 1..1 IsAssigned 1..*
For
Employee Branch Car
Semantics description of the problem;
Emp1 Bra1 Car1
Emp2 Bra2 Car2
Emp3 Bra3 Car3
Emp4 Bra4 Car4
Emp5 Car5
Emp6 Car6
Emp7 Car7

Problem: Which car (Car1 or Car3 or Car5) is used by

Employee 6 Emp6 working in Branch 1 (Bra1)? Thus from
this ER Model one can not tell which car is used by which
staff since a branch can have more than one car and also a

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branch is populated by more than one employee. Thus we

need to restructure the model to avoid the connection trap.
To avoid the Fan Trap problem we can go for restructuring
of the E-R Model. This will result in the following E-R
Model.
1..1 Has 1..* 1..* Used By 1..*
Branch Car Employee

Semantics
Bra1
description of Car1
the problem; Emp1
Car2
Bra2 Emp2
Car3
Bra3 Emp3
Car4
Bra4 Emp4
Car5
Emp5
Car6
Emp6
Car7
Emp7

2. Chasm Trap:
Occurs where a model suggests the existence of a
relationship between entity types, but the path way
does not exist between certain entity occurrences.
May exist when there are one or more relationships
with a minimum multiplicity on cardinality of zero
forming part of the pathway between related entities.
Example:
1..1 Has 1..* 0..1 Manages 0..*
Branch Employee project
If we have a set of projects that are not active currently
then we can not assign a project manager for these
projects. So there are project with no project manager
making the participation to have a minimum value of
zero.
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Problem:
How can we identify which BRANCH is responsible
for which PROJECT? We know that whether the
PROJECT is active or not there is a responsible
BRANCH. But which branch is a question to be
answered, and since we have a minimum participation
of zero between employee and PROJECT we can’t
identify the BRANCH responsible for each PROJECT.
The solution for this Chasm Trap problem is to add
another relation ship between the extreme entities
(BRANCH and PROJECT)

1..1 Has 1..* 0..1 Manages 0..*

Branch Employee project

1..1 Responsible for 1..*

Database Normalization Basics

If you've been working with databases for a while, chances are
you've heard the term normalization. Perhaps someone's asked
you "Is that database normalized?" or "Is that in BCNF?" All too
often, the reply is "Uh, yeah." Normalization is often brushed
aside as a luxury that only academics have time for. However,
knowing the principles of normalization and applying them to
your daily database design tasks really isn't all that complicated
and it could drastically improve the performance of your DBMS.

In this article, we'll introduce the concept of normalization and

take a brief look at the most common normal forms. Future
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articles will provide in-depth explorations of the normalization

process.
What is Normalization?
Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a
database. There are two goals of the normalization process:
eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data
in more than one table) and ensuring data dependencies make
sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are
worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.
The Normal Forms
The database community has developed a series of guidelines for
ensuring that databases are normalized. These are referred to as
normal forms and are numbered from one (the lowest form of
normalization, referred to as first normal form or 1NF) through
five (fifth normal form or 5NF). In practical applications, you'll
often see 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF along with the occasional 4NF.
Fifth normal form is very rarely seen and won't be discussed in
this article.

Before we begin our discussion of the normal forms, it's

important to point out that they are guidelines and guidelines
only. Occasionally, it becomes necessary to stray from them to
meet practical business requirements. However, when variations
take place, it's extremely important to evaluate any possible
ramifications they could have on your system and account for
possible inconsistencies. That said, let's explore the normal
forms.
Modification Anomalies
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In relational database design, we not only want to create a

structure that stores all of the data, but we also want to do it in a
way that minimize potential errors when we work with the data.
The default language for accessing data from a relational
database is SQL. In particular, SQL can be used to manipulate
data in the following ways: insert new data, delete unwanted
data, and update existing data. Similarly, in an un-normalized
design, there are 3 problems that can occur when we work with
the data:
INSERT ANOMALY: This refers to the situation when it is
impossible to insert certain types of data into the database.
DELETE ANOMALY: The deletion of data leads to
unintended loss of additional data, data that we had wished to
preserve.
UPDATE ANOMALY: This refers to the situation where
updating the value of a column leads to database inconsistencies
(i.e., different rows on the table have different values).
To address the 3 problems above, we go through the process of
normalization. When we go through the normalization process,
we increase the number of tables in the database, while
decreasing the amount of data stored in each table. There are
several different levels of database normalization:
 1st Normal Form (1NF)
 2nd Normal Form (2NF)
 3rd Normal Form (3NF)
 Bryce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
 4th Normal Form (4NF)
 5th Normal Form (5NF)

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The opposite of normalization is denormalization, where we

want to combine multiple tables together into a larger table.
Denormalization is most frequently associated with designing
the fact table in a data warehouse.
1st Normal Form Definition
A database is in first normal form if it satisfies the following
conditions:
 Contains only atomic values
 There are no repeating groups
An atomic value is a value that cannot be divided. For example,
in the table shown below, the values in the [Color] column in the
first row can be divided into "red" and "green", hence
[TABLE_PRODUCT] is not in 1NF.
A repeating group means that a table contains two or more
columns that are closely related. For example, a table that
records data on a book and its author(s) with the following
columns: [Book ID], [Author 1], [Author 2], [Author 3] is not in
1NF because [Author 1], [Author 2], and [Author 3] are all
repeating the same attribute.
1st Normal Form Example
How do we bring an unnormalized table into first normal form?
Consider the following example:

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This table is not in first normal form because the [Color] column
can contain multiple values. For example, the first row includes
values "red" and "green."
To bring this table to first normal form, we split the table into
two tables and now we have the resulting tables:

Now first normal form is satisfied, as the columns on each table

all hold just one value.
2nd Normal Form Definition
A database is in second normal form if it satisfies the following
conditions:
 It is in first normal form
 All non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
primary key

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In a table, if attribute B is functionally dependent on A, but is

not functionally dependent on a proper subset of A, then B is
considered fully functional dependent on A. Hence, in a 2NF
table, all non-key attributes cannot be dependent on a subset of
the primary key. Note that if the primary key is not a composite
key, all non-key attributes are always fully functional dependent
on the primary key. A table that is in 1st normal form and
contains only a single key as the primary key is automatically in
2nd normal form.
2nd Normal Form Example
Consider the following example:

This table has a composite primary key [Customer ID, Store ID].
The non-key attribute is [Purchase Location]. In this case,
[Purchase Location] only depends on [Store ID], which is only
part of the primary key. Therefore, this table does not satisfy
second normal form.
To bring this table to second normal form, we break the table
into two tables, and now we have the following:

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What we have done is to remove the partial functional

dependency that we initially had. Now, in the table
[TABLE_STORE], the column [Purchase Location] is fully
dependent on the primary key of that table, which is [Store ID].
3rd Normal Form Definition
A database is in third normal form if it satisfies the following
conditions:
 It is in second normal form
 There is no transitive functional dependency
By transitive functional dependency, we mean we have the
following relationships in the table: A is functionally dependent
on B, and B is functionally dependent on C. In this case, C is
transitively dependent on A via B.
3rd Normal Form Example
Consider the following example:

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In the table able, [Book ID] determines [Genre ID], and [Genre
ID] determines [Genre Type]. Therefore, [Book ID] determines
[Genre Type] via [Genre ID] and we have transitive functional
dependency, and this structure does not satisfy third normal
form.
To bring this table to third normal form, we split the table into
two as follows:

Now all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent only

on the primary key. In [TABLE_BOOK], both [Genre ID] and
[Price] are only dependent on [Book ID]. In [TABLE_GENRE],
[Genre Type] is only dependent on [Genre ID].

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF or 3.5NF)

The Boyce-Codd Normal Form, also referred to as the "third and
half (3.5) normal form", adds one more requirement:
 Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.

 Every determinant must be a candidate key.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Finally, fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional
requirement:
 Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.

 A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies.

NB: - Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative.

For a database to be in 2NF, it must first fulfill all the criteria of
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a 1NF database.

Debre Markose Poly Technic College

Department of Database Administration
Mid exam for Design a Database

I. Write true or false.

1)The main limitation of database approach is it require
technical person.
2)DBMS provides for creating, updating and storing data
rather than retrieving data in a database.
3)Authorization service is providing to create an account and
account restriction in a database.
4)DDL commands are used to setup a database.
5)Metadata is stored collection of information about a
database.
II. Choose the best answer from the given
alternatives.
1. One of the following is not true about database.
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A. Database is an organized data that are related.

B. Databases are relevant to every business.
C. DBMS are software package which is used to
create and manipulate.
D. Database is a storeroom for collection of
computerized data files E. None
2. One of the following is not characteristics of
database.
A. How to organize data
B. Accessing data is alternatively
C. Efficient and effective data retrieve
D. All
3. Which one of the following is not true about limitation of
manual approach?
A. Prone to error C. Hard to compile
information
B. Difficult to modify D. None
4. Which one of the following is incorrect about traditional
approach?
A. It is a centralized computerized data C. There is
data duplication problem
B. Application dependent D. Limited
data sharing
5. Which one of the following is not true about database
approach?
A. Data can be shared C. Inconsistency
can be avoided
B. Redundancy can be increased D. Improved
decision support
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III. Matching
“A” “B”
1. Physical design A. Concise description of data, data
type and relationship b/n the data
2. Logical design B. The structure of the data in a
database
3. Conceptual design C. storing database for selected DBMS
4. Schema D. accessing database by different users
simultaneously
5. Transaction services E. Implementing the specific data
model
IV. Give short answer accordingly
1. List down at least three DBMS facilities.
2. List down at least four DBMS components.
3. List down database development life cycle sequentially.
4. List down at least three major database users.
5. Mention and discus database administrator’s function on a
database.

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