UNIT - VI: Reproduction Chapter - 1: Reproduction in Organisms TOPIC-1 Asexual Reproduction Quick Review v vvv (i) v Life Span : Itis the period from birth to the natural death of an organism. Reproduction : Itis a process in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to itself. ‘Types of Reproduction : Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction. Asexual Reprodu ‘The production of offspring by a single parent is known as asexual reproduction. The offspring produced asexually are identical to one another and ako to their parent. Such morphologically and genetically similar individuals are known as clones. Itis usually found in unicellular organisms and also in simple plants and animals. Different Methods of Asexual reproduction Fission : In this, the parent cell divides into two or more individuals, Examples - Protists and Monerans, Fission is of two types : (a) Binary fission :Itis the division of parent cell into two individuals. Examples - Amoeba, Paramoecium. (b) Multiple fission : Itis the division of parent cell into many individuals. Example - Plasmodium. Budding : The formation of a daughter individual from a small projection, the bud, arising on the parent body is called budding, It occurs in Yeasts, sponges and Hydra. G5 Binary Fission in Amoeba Other Reproductive Structures : (a) Zoospores (motile spores)—Found in some algae, fingi and protists. (b) Conidia (non-motile spores)—Penicillium. (9) Gemmules (internal buds of sponges)—Sponges (Sponsilla) Vegetative Propagation : In certain plants, vegetative propagules (the units of vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset and bulb) arise from the nodes of modified stems. When the nodes come in contact with damp soil or water, they produce roots and new plants. Examples, (a) Eyes in potato—Emergence of small plants from the buds (‘eyes’) of the potato tuber (b) Rhizomes of banana and ginger. (0) Adventitious buds—Arise from the notches present at margins of leaves of Bryophyllum. (4) Bulbil—Fleshy bulb which function as vegetative propagules.Sporulation : During unfavourable conditions, some organisms get surrounded by a resistant, three layered, hard covering called cyst. The cyst consists of number of spores. These spores get liberated during favourable conditions and this process is called sporulation. e.g., Ameba. Fragmenlation : A type of asexual reproduction, where an organism splits into fragments and each fragment develops into a new organism e.., Spirogyra, sponges ete. ‘Terror of Bengal : Water hyacinth is known as terror of Bengal because it grows rapidly and enormously and hampers the growth of the native species and eliminates them, It is also known as “blue devil’, TOPIC-2 Sexual Reproduction Quick Review v v The sexual reproduction involves formation of the male and female gametes, either by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex. It results in offsprings that are not exactly identical to the parents or amongst themselves. Allliving organisms pass through three stages : Juvenile phase, Reproductive phase and Senescent phase. () Juvenile phase : It is period of growth of an individual organism after its birth and before it reaches its reproductive maturity. It is known as vegetative phase in plants. It (ii) Reproductive phase : Itis the phase of life cycle where the growth of the individual is slowed down but it develops the potentiality to reproduce. (iii) Senescent phase : It is the period when an organism grows old and loses its ability to reproduce. In higher plants, flowering indicates the end of vegetative phase and the beginning of the reproductive phase. Annual and biennial plants show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and senescent phases, butin perennial species itis very difficult to identify these phases. Some plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon. They flower only once in their life time and are called monocarpic. Examples, (a) Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime (after 50-100 years), produce large number of fruits and die. (b) Strobilanthus kunthiana (vern. Neelakuranji) lowers once in 12 years. als, juvenile phase is followed by morphological and physiological changes prior to active reproductive the early phase of life cycle. Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (e. g. poultry) can be made to lay eggs throughout the year estrus cycle : The females of placental manumals exhibit cyclic changes in the activities of ovaries, accessory ducts and hormones during the reproductive phase. These cyclic changes are called oestrus cycle. It is seen in non-primates such as cows, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger etc. Itis menstrual cycle in primates such as monkeys, apes and humans Seasonal breeders : The mammals which live in natural conditions exhibit reproductive cycles only during favourable seasons and are called seasonal breeders. Continuous breeders : The mammals that are reproductively active throughout their reproductive phase are called continuous breeders, Senescence (Old age) : > > > It is the last phase of life span and the end of reproductive phase. During this stage, the metabolism slows down which ultimately leads to death. In plants and animals, hormones are responsible for transition between juvenile, reproductive and senescence phases. Events in Sexual Reproduction PRE-FERTILISATION EVENTS This includes all events prior to the fusion of gametes. It comprises : a) Gametogenesis and (b) Gamete transfer. Gametogenesis, Itis the process of formation of male and female gametes (haploid sex cells). Homogametes/Isogametes : In this type, all gametes are similar ie., gametes cannot be categorized into male and female gametes. The fusion of two such gametes is called isogamy ie, Algae. Heterogametes : In this type, the male and female gametes can be distinguished. Male gamete is called the antherozoids or sperm and the female gamete is called the egg (ovum or oosphere) a.g. Humans. Union between non-motile egg or ovum or oosphere and motile sperm or antherozoid is called oogamy.Sexuality in Organisms > Bisexual/Monoecious plants : In these plants, male and female reproductive structures are found in the same plant > Unisexual/Dioecious plants : In these plants, the male and female reproductive structures are found on different plants In unisextal/monoecious/flowering plants, the male and female flowers are present on the same individual. es, Cucurbits & coconuts. Fungi may be homothallic (bisexual) or heterothallic (unisexual). Bisexual animals (hermaphrodites) : Earthworms, leech, sponge, tapeworm, ete. ‘Unisexual animals : Cockroach, higher animals, ete Cell Division during Formation of Gametes > Haploid parental body produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Itis seen in Monera, Fungi, Algae and Bryophytes. > Diploid parental body produces haploid gametes by meiosis of meiocytes (gamete mother cell). It is seen in Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperins é& animals. (b) Gamete Transfer > Male gametes need a medi > In simple plants such as Algae, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, the transfer of gamete takes place through water medium. > To compensate the loss of male gametes during transport, a large number of male gametes is produced. Inseed plants, pollen grains containing male gametes are transferred from anthers to stigma where they germinate to form pollen tube. Pollen tube carries male gamete to the egg or female gamete for fertilization. In bisexual or self-fertilizing plants, the transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is easy as anthers and stigma are located close to each other Example — pea In unisexual or cross pollinating plants, the pollinating agencies help in transfer of pollen grains to the stigma Pollen grains germinate on the stigma and the pollen tube carrying the male gametes reach the ovule and discharge male gametes near the egg, > In Dicecious animals, male and female gametes are formed in different individuals, organisms usually bear a specific method for gamete transfer i) FERTILISATION EVENTS > Itis the fusion of gametes to form a diploid zygote. Itis also known as syngamy. > Parthenogenesis : It is a phenomenon whereby egg formation takes place without fertilization. The adults produced by parthenogenesis are often haploid, and their cells do not undergo meiosis in forming new gametes. Eg, Rotifers, honeybees, some lizards and birds (turkey) ‘Types of Fer > Depending upon the site of syngamy, fertilization is of the followin (1) External fertilisation > In this type, fertilisation or syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), ie, outside the body of the organism Examples - Aquatic organisms like algae, bony fishes and amphibians, > Disadvantage : The offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators, threatening their survival up to adulthood. (2) Internal fertilisation > In this type, fertilisation or syngamy occurs inside the body. e.g. terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, animals like reptiles, birds, mammals and plants like Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms & Angiosperms. Large number of sperms are produced but the number of eggs is very low. (iii) POST-FERTILISATION EVENTS. } It includes the events after the formation of zygote. v vv % m to move lowards female gametes for ferlilisation. v ¥ v isation : two types : Zygote > Every sexually reproducing organism begins its life as a zygote. > Itis the vital link between organisms of one generation to the next. > ‘The development of zygote depends on the type of life cycle of the organism and the nature of environment. > In fungi and algae, zygote secretes a thick wall around itself which provide resistant to desiccation and damage. Itundergoes a period of rest before germination. > In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis into haploid spores that grow into haploid individuals, In organisms with diplontic cycle, zygote divides by mitosis and develops into diploid embryo,Embryogenesis > tis the process of the development of embryo from the zygote, > The zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation, > The cell division increases the number of cells in the embryo, > Celldifferentiation causes the modifications of groups of cells into various tissues and organs to form an organism. ‘Types of Animals based on site of development of embryo (i) Oviparous : Here, animals lay fertilized/unfertilized eggs. Examples - In reptiles & birds, the fertilized eggs covered by hard calcareous shell are laid in a safe place. After incubation, young ones hatches out. In most amphibians, unfertilized eggs are laid in water by female where they are fertilized by sperms produced by male. (ii) Viviparous : Here, the zygote develops into a young one inside the female body. Later, the young ones are delivered out from the body. Example - mammals, Because of proper care and protection, the chances of survival of young ones are greater in viviparous animal. (ii) In flowering plants, zygote is formed inside the ovule. After fertilisation, sepals, petals and stamens of flower wither and fall off The zygote develops into embryo and ovules develop into seeds. The ovary develops into fruits which develop a thick wall called pericarp, which is protective in function. After dispersal, seeds germinate under favourable condition to produce new plants. Know the Terms > Juvenile phase : It is the period of growth of an individual organism after its birth and before it reaches its ‘reproductive maturity, Reproductive phase :It is the phase in which an individual can give maximum number of births. Ageing or senescence phase : Itis the period when an organism grows old and loses the ability to reproduce. Reproduction is the process of formation of new individuals of a species from the pre-existing vy Clone : Morhologically and genetically similar individuals are called clone. Gametogenesis : Process of formation of gametes is gametaogenesis. Pollination : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is pollination. Meiocytes : These are specialized cells of diploid organisms which undergo meiosis to produce gametes. vvvvChapter - 2 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants TOPIC-1 Sexual Reproduction Flowering Plants k Review Q > Flowers are the site of sexual reproduction in flowering plants. > Parts of a typical angiospermic flower are : sepals, petals, stamens and pistils. > The four whorls of the flower are attached on a central axis called thalamus. v A flower can be bisexual (contains both male and female reproductive parts) or unisexual (Only either of the reproductive parts are present). Male Reproductive Structures Androecium (Whorl of Stamens) > Androecium consists of a whorl of stamens. > The number and length of the stamens are variable in flowers of different species. > Astamen has three parts namely, Anther, Filament and Connective. (@) Anther > Itis the terminal and bilobed part of stamens attached with filament. A bilobed anther is called dithecous. > Each lobe has two pollen sacs or microsporangia. Therefore the anther is tetrasporangiate. > A longitudinal groove runs lengthwise separating the theca(b) Filament > Itis the long and slender stalk part of the stamen. > Its proximal end is attached to the thalamus or petals of the flower, (9) Connective > The structure which connects the anther lobes together is known as connective. Transverse section of an anther > The anther is tetragonal in structure consisting of four microsporangia or pollen sacs located at the corners, two in each lobe. > The microsporangia develop to become pollen sacs. > They extend longitudinally throughout the length of an anther. > These are packed with pollen grains. Structure of microsporangium ot Pollen sac > Itis circular and is generally surrounded by wall layers namely, (a) Epidermis {b) Endothecium (©) 20r3 Middle layers (4) Tapetum. The first two layers perform the function of protection and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollens. The middle layers and the inunermost layer, (tapetum) nourishes the developing pollen grains. The cells of the tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and more than one nuclei When the anther s young.a group of compactly arranged homogenous cells called sporogenous tissues occuples the centre of each microsporangium, Microsporogenesis penne > When theanther develops, each cell of sporogenous tissue undergoes meiotic division to form microspore tetrads. > Each cell of sporogenous tissue is a microspore mother cell (MMC) or pollen mother cell (PMC). > The process of formation of microspores froma pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis s called microsporogenesis Dehiscence of anther > The microspores get arranged in a group of four cells and hence are microspore tetrad. > As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains. > From each microsporangitm, thousands of pollen grains are formed and released due to the dehiscence of anther. Pollen grain (Male gametophyte) > Pollen grain germinate and give rise to male gametophyte. > These are spherical, measuring about 25-50 micrometers in diameter > Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils due to the presence of sporopollenin, a tough, resistant and stable material. > A pollen grain has a two-layered wall namely, Exine and Intine, (a) Bxine > Bxineis the hard outer layer which is made up of sporopollenin. > The sporopollenin is one of the mast resistant organic materials. > Itcan withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali > It cannot be degraded by enzymes. ‘The exine has apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin is absent. (b) Intine > It is the inner, thin and continuous layer which is made up of cellulose and pectin. > Amature pollen grain contain two cells namely, vegetative cell and generative cell. (i) Vegetative cell > Itis the bigger cell having abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus. ii) Generative cell It is the smaller cell that floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. Itis spindle shaped with dense cytopiasm and a nucleus. The pollen grains are generally shed at the 2-celled stage in flowering plants, In other plants, the generative cell divides mitotically to give rise the two male gametes before pollen grains are shed in 3-celled stage. Onee they are shed, pollen grains have to land on the stigma before they lose viability ‘The period of pollen grains remaining viable varies and depends on the prevailing temperature and humidity. The viability of pollen grains of some cereals such as rice, wheat, etc is 30 minutes while some members of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae & Solanaceae have viability for months. > Pollen grains of some plants like Purthenium are allergic for some people leading to chronic respiratory disorders such as asthma, bronchitis, etc. Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food supplements, Pollen consumption in the form of tablets and syrups increases performance of athletes and race horses. Itis possible to store pollen grains for years in liquid nitrogen (196°C). The stored pollen can be used in pollen banks for crop breeding programmes. vyyy v vyyw vyy vy v vvFemale Reproductive Structure Gynoeciam (Pistil) > Itrepresents the female reproductive part of the flower. > Ifit consists of a single pistil or carpel, itis known as monocarpellary or if it has more than one pistil or carpel, it is called multicarpellary. > When there is more than one carpels they may be fused together then the pistil is known as syncarpous or may be free then itis known as apocarpous. > Each carpel has three parts namely, Stigma, Style and Ovary. (a) Stigma > It isa landing platform for pollen grains. (b) Style > Itisan elongated slender part beneath the stigma () Ovary > Itis the basal swollen part of the carpel. > Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity called locule where the placenta is located. > Placenta contains the ovules ar megasporangia. > ‘The number of ovules in an ovary may be one as see! watermelon, orchids, etc. Megasporangium (Ovule) > It isa small structure attached to the placenta by a stalk called funicle. The junction where the body of ovule and funicle fuse is called hilum. Each ovule has one or two and some times three protective coverings called integuments. Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip where a small opening called mictopyle is organized. Opposite to the micropylar end is the chalaza which is the basal part of the ovule. Within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called nucellus which contains reserve food materials. wheat, paddy, mango ete,, or many as seen in papaya, vvvvyy Inside the nucellus there is embryo sac, which is also called as the female gametophyte. > Anovule has single embryo sac usually formed from a single haploid megaspore. Megasporogenesis > The formation of haploid megaspores from the diploid megaspore mother cell (MMC) as a results of meiosis is called megasporogenesis. > Asingle megaspore mother cell is differentiated in the micropylar region of the nucellus. > The megaspore mother cell is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. > The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiotic division resulting in the production of four haploid megaspores. Female gametophyte (Embryo sac) > In most of the flowering plants, only one megaspore is functional while the other three degenerate. > The functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte or embryo sac > This method of embryo sac formation from a single megaspore is termed monosporic development. Development of Female gametophyte > The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei which move towards the opposite poles, forming two-nucleated embryo sac. yi ‘Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the formation of the four-nucleated and later the eight- nucleated stages oF the embryo sac. These divisions are strictly free nuclear, ée. nuclear divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation. Aiter eight-nucleate stage, the organization of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac takes place. Generally six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells > The remaining two nuclei called the polar nuclei are found below the egg apparatus in the large central cel. Distribution of the cells within the embryo sac The three cells consisting of two synergids and one egg cell which are grouped together at the micropylar end constitute the egg apparatus. ‘The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus. ‘The filiform apparatus helps to guide the pollen tubes into the synergid. ‘Three cells at the chalazal end organize as the antipodals. ‘Thus, a typical mature angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is eight-nucleate but seven-celled. v vv voy vvvTOPIC-2 Pollination and Fertilization Quick Review > The process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil is known as pollination. > There are few external agents which help the plants for pollination to take place. > The Pollination is of three types based on the source of pollens namely, (a) Autogamy (b) Geitonogamy ——_(¢) Xenogamy Autogamy > When the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, itis known as autogamy. > In flowers with exposed anthers and stigma, a complete autogamy is rare and hence the anthers and stigma should lie close to each other to enable self-pollination, Alongwith this there showld be synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. > Plants like Viola (common pansy), Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of flowers namely Chasmogamous flowers and Cleistogamous flowers. (a) Chasmogamous flowers > They are similar to flowers of other species (b) Cleistogamous flowers They do not open at all. Anthers and stigma lie close to each other ‘They are autogamous as there is no chance of cross-pollination ‘When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains come in contact with the stigma for pollination. Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence of pollinators. itonogamy: When the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant, it is, exposed anthers and stigma vyvvvy Gei v known as geitonogamy. > Itinvolves pollination with the help of a pollinating agent, Its structurally cross-pollination but genetically selt- pollination, > Itis genetically similar to autogamy because the pollen grains come from the same plant. Xenogamy > When the pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of a different plant, itis known as xenogamy. It brings about genetically different types of pollen grains to the stigma. Agents of pollination : > There are two type of agents of pollination namely : (a) Biotic agents (&) Abiotic agents Abiotic Agents > There are two abiotic agents namely, wind and water which help pollination to takes place. Pollination by Wind > ‘The pollination taking place by wind is called anemophily. > Wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and do not produce nectar > Wind poltinated flowers often have a single ovule in each ovary. > > Numerous flowers remain packed into an inflorescence. Examples - In Corn cob, the tassels are the stigma and style which wave in the wind to trap pollen grains, and also seen in grasses. Characteristics of Anemophilous flowers > The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen. > The pollen grains are light and non-sticky so that they can be transported in wind currents. > They often possess well-exposed stamens for easy dispersal of pollens into wind currents. > They have large, feathery and sticky stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains. Pollination by Water > The pollination taking place by water is called hydrophily. > tis limited to about 20 genera, mostly monocotyledons, > In Vallisneria, the female flowers reach the surface of water by the long stalk and the male flowers or pollen grains are released on to the surface of water These male flowers or pollen grains are carried by water currents and reach the female flowers.> Insea grasses, the female flowers remain inside the water and reach the stigma > The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species have a mucilaginous covering to protect from wetting. > Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. For example, in aquatic plants like water hyacinth, water lily, ete,, the flowers emerge above the level of water for entomophily or anemophily ie,, for pollination to takes place by insects or wind. > It is seen in Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses) ete. Biotic Agents > Some flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents like Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds and humming birds) bats, some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwvelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard) etc. When the pollination takes place by insects, itis known as entomophily. Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically adapted for a particular species of animal. When the animal comes in contact with the anthers and the stigina, its body gets a coating of pollen grains and when it comes in contact with the stigma, it results in pollination. ubmerged in water and the long, ribbon-like pollen grains are cartied vvy v Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to lay eggs as seen in Amorphophellus, the tallest flower. There is a very close obligatory symbiotic relationship between the species of moth (Prontba) and the plant Yucca, ‘They cannot complete their life cycles without each other. The math deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower gets pollinated by the moth, The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as the seeds start developing. > There ate many insects which consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination. They are called pollervnectar robbers Characteristics of Entomophilous Flowers v > Flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. > When the flowers are small, they form inflorescence to make them visible. > The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals ‘The pollen grains are generally sticky. ‘Outbreeding Devices (Devices for promoting Cross Pollination) > Inorder to avoid selt-pollination, cross-pollination is encouraged in plants as follows : (a) Avoiding Synchronization > Insome species, pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronized, > Either the pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive before the release of pollen ie,, the anther and stigma mature at different times. This phenomenon is called dichogamy. It prevents autogamy (b) Arrangement of Anther and Stigma at different Positions > Insome species, the arrangement of anther and stigma at different positions prevents autogamy. (0 Self-incompatibility > Itisa genetic mechanism which prevents pollen of one flower to germinate on the stigma of the same flower on. of the same plant duie to the presence of similar sterile genes in pollen and stigma (d) Production of Unisexual Flowers (Decliny) > Monoecious plants stich as castor and maize, where the male and the female flowers are present on the same plant prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. On the other hand, dioecious plants like papaya, where the male and female flowers are present on different piants prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy. Pollen-pistil Interaction > Itis a dynamic process involving pollen recognition followed by promotion or inhibition of the pollen, This interaction takes place through the chemical components produced by them. If the pollen is compatible, then the pistil accepts it and promotes post-pollination events. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of the germ pores. The contents of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube. ‘The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style and reaches the ovary. If the pollen is incompatible, then the pistil rejects the pollen by preventing pollen germination on the stigma or the pollen tube growth in the style. Insome plants, the pollen grains are shed at two-elled stage, the generative cell divides and forms the two male gametes during the growth of pollen tube in the stigma, ¥ In plants which shed pollen in the three-celled stage, the pollen tubes carries two male gametes from the beginning. v vyyvyy v> The pollen tube, alter reaching the ovary, enters the ovule through the micropyle chalaza/integuments and then enters ane of the synergids through the filiform apparatus > The filiform apparatus present at the micropylar part of the synergids guides the entry of pollen tube. > Aplant breeder can manipulate pollen-pist incompatible pollinations, to get desired hybrids. Asificial Hybridisation Itis one of the major approaches of crop improvement programme by using desired pollen grains for pollination. ‘This is achieved by emaseulation and bagging techniques, Emasculation is the removal of anthers by using forceps from the bisexual flower bud of female parent before the anther dehisces. The emasculated flowers are then covered witha suitable bag made up of butter paper to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This is called bagging. When the stigma attains receptivity, the mature pollen grains collected from anthers of the male parentare dusted on the stigma. Then the flowers are rebagged and allowed to develop the fruits. If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. ‘The female flower buds are bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes receptive, pollination is carried out using the desired pollen and the flower rebagged. ible Fertilisation The pollen tube after entering one of the synergids releases cytoplasm of the synergid. > One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus by the process of syngamy to form. a diploid cell called zygote. The other male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and fuses with them to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). As this involves the fusion of three haploid nuclei, itis called triple fusion. Since two types of fusions viz. syngamy and triple fusion take place in an embryo sac, itis called double fertilisation. ‘The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and develops into the endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo. Ttis an event unique in flowering plants. TOPIC-3 Post-Fertilization Changes and Special Modes of Reproduction vvy v vEvvy contents including, the two male gametes into the vyv v v Quick Review Post-fertilisation Events > The development of endosperm and embryo development and the maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) and ovary into fruit are post-fertilisation events. Endosperm Development The primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly by mitosis to form a triploid endosperm tissue. Endosperm cells are filled with reserve food materials which are used for the nutrition of the developing embryo. During the endosperm development, the primary endosperm nucleus undergoes successive mitotic nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclei. This stage is called free-nuclear endosperm. Then the endosperm becomes cellular due to the cell wall formation. For example, the tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm which is made up of thousands of nuclei and the surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm. Embryo Development > The embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated. > The zygotes divides only after the formation of certain amount of endosperm in order to provide nutrition to the developing embryo. > The development of embryo is similar in monocotyledons and dicotyledons upto octant stage. > The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the globular, heart-shaped and mature embryo. Dicotyledonous Embryo > Tthasa central embryonal axis and two lateral cotyledons. The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates into plumule (stem tip). The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledon is hypocotyl that terminates into radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered with a root cap. v vv vv vYMonocotyledonous Embryo > They possess only one cotyledon. > Inthe grass family, the cotyledon is called scutellum which is situated lateral to the embryonal axis. > Atits lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in an undifferentiated sheath called coleothizae. > The portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl > Ithas a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar structure called coleoptile. Seed > Seed is the final product of sexual reproduction, > Itis the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits > Itconsists of seed coat(s), cotyledons) and an embryonal axis. > The cotyledons are simple, thick and swollen due to storage of food as seen in most of the dicots. > Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or albuminous. Non-albuminous or Non-endospermic Seeds > These seeds have no residual endosperm as it i > Examples - pea, groundnut, beans. Albuminous or Endospermic Seeds > These seeds retain a part of endosperm as it is not completely used up during embryo development. > Examples, wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut, sunflower > Insome seeds like black pepper, beet etc, the remnants of mucellus is also persistent. Its ealled perisperm. > Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. > thas a small pore (micropyle) through which oxygen and water enter into the seed during germination. > As the seed matures, its water content gets reduced and the seeds become dry (10-15 % moisture by mass). The general metabolic activity of the embryo slows down. > The embryo may enter a state of inactivity (dormancy). > Iffavourable conditions are available suchas adequate moisture,oxygen and suitable temperature, they germinate. Fruit > The ovary develops into a fruit after pollination and fertilization. > The transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit proceeds simultaneously. > The wall of ovary develops into pericarp. > The fruits may be fleshy as seen in guava, orange, mango, etc., or may be dry as seen in groundnut, mustard, etc, > Many fruits have mechanisms for dispersal of seeds. > Fruits are of two types namely : (a) True fruits (b) False fruits ‘True Fruits > When the fruit develops only from the ovary and other floral parts degenerate and fall off, they are called true feuits. False Fruits > When parts of flower other than ovary also contribute to the fruit formation, they are called false fruits. Examples ~ apple, strawberry, cashew, etc. > In some species such as banana, the fruits develop without fertilisation, these fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits > Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of growth hormones. Such fruits are seedless, Advantages of Seeds > The pollination and fertilisation processes are independent of water while the seed formation is more dependable. Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats and help the species to colonize in other areas. They have food reserves and so young seedlings are nourished until they are capable of photosynthesis. ‘The hard seed coat protects the young embryo. Since seeds are the products of sexual reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations leading to variations. ‘The dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are crucial for storage of seeds, Itcan be used as food throughout the year and also to raise crop in the next season. Viability of Seeds after Dispersal Ina few species the seeds lose viability within a few months or live for several years, completely consumed during embryo development vyyvvyvy v Some seeds remain alive for hundreds of years. The oldest is lupine (Lupinus arcticus) excavated from Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy. > 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm (Phoenix dactylfera) discovered during the archeological excavation at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea. > >Apomixis and Polyembryony > Apomixisis (apo = with out; mixis = mixing together) means the production of seeds without fertilisation. > Itis seen in some species of Asteraceae and grasses. > Apomixisis a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction. > Occurrence of more than one embryos ina seed is called as polyembryony. Development of Apomictic Seeds > Insome species, the diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division and develops into the embryo without fertilisation. > In species like Citrus and Mango varieties, some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac divide and protrude into the embryo sac and develop into the embryos. Hence, in these species each ovule contains many embryos, Importance of Apomixis in Hybrid Seed Industry. > Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year. If the seeds collected from hybrids are sown, the plants in the progeny will segregate and lose hybrid characters. The production of hybrid seeds is costly. Hence the cost of hybrid seeds is also expensive for the farmers. > If the hybrids are made into apomicts, there is no segregation of characters in the hybrid progeny. This helps farmers to use the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year afler year without losing hybrid characteristics. Know the Terms > Microsporogenesis : It is process of formation of mircospores from a pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis. Megasporogenesis : Its the process of formation of the four megaspores from the megaspore mother cell (MMC) in the region of nucellus through meiosis. Self-Pollination or autogamy : Itis the transfer of pollen from anther to the stigma of the same flower Geitonogamy: Itis the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. Xenogamy : Itis the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant. Anemophily : Pollination by wind is called anemophily. Hydrophily : Pollination by water is called hydrophily. Otnithophily : Pollination by bird is called ornithophily. Chiropterophily : Pollination by bat is called chiropterophily. Entomophily : Pollination by insects is called entomophily. Pollen-pistil interaction : All the events — from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes enter the ovule —are together referred as pollen-pistil interaction Emasculation : It is the process of removal of anthers (using forceps) from the bisexual flower bud without affecting the female reproductive part ie,, pistil. Coleorrhiza : It is undifferentiated sheath that encloses the radicle and root cap in a monocot seed. Perisperm : Remnants of nucellus in matured seed are known as perisperm. ‘True fruits : Fruits that develop from the ovary are called true fruits. False fruits : Fruits that develop from the thalamus are called as false fruits. Parthenocarpic fruits : Fruits that develop without fertilisation are called parthenocarpic fruits. Apomixis : It is production of seeds without involving the process of meiosis and syngamy. vy v v vv vyvy v ¥ v vv vv vv =|=)Chapter - 3 : Human Reproduction TOPIC-1 Male and Female Reproduction System Quick Review Male Reproductive System > Itconsists of : (a) A pair of testes (b) Accessory ducts (c) Accessory glands (4) External genitalias ‘Testes are the primary sex organs that produce sperms and testosterone. Testes are contained in the scrotum located between upper thighs. The low temperature (2 - 2.5°C less than the normal internal body temperature) of scrotum helps for proper functioning of testes and for spermatogenesis. Each testis is oval in shape. Each testis has about 250 (200 - 300) compartments called testicular lobules, Each lobule is filled with connective tisste and contains 1-3 coiled yellow seminiferous tubules in which sperm are produced. Seminiferous tubule is lined internally with spermatogenic cells called spermatogonia or primary male germ cells and sertoli cells, or supporting cells. Spermotogonia undergo meiotic divisions and leads to sperm formation. Sertoli cells give shape and nourishment to developing spermatogenic cells and therefore also called as nurse cells. > The regions outside the seminiferous tubules are the interstitial spaces which contain small blood vessels and interstitial cells ot Leydig cells. The Leydig cells are endocrine in nature and secrete testicular hormones called androgens, Immunologically competent cells are also present. Accessory Ducts The duct system includes rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens. The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis. The vasa efferentia open into epididymis. The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends into the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder. It receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the ejaculatory duct ‘These ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra. The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus. Accessory Male Genital Glands > It includes paired seminal vesicles, prostate and paired bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands). } The secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma, which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes, > Seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid and form 60 - 70% of semen. > The secretion of bulbourethral glands is alkaline and is rich in mucus. It helps in the lubrication of the penis, supplies nutrient to sperms and provides an alkaline medium to counteract the acidity of the uterus. External Genitalia > The penis is the male external genitalia > Itis made up of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemination. > The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin, The Female Reproductive System > It includes a pair of Ovaries, Accessory ducts and External genitalia. Ovaries > They are the primary female sex organs which produce ova or the female gametes and having a number of steroid ‘ovarian hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. Ovaries are located on both side in the lower abdomen. Each ovary is about 2-4 em in length ‘The ovaries are connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma has outer cortex and inner medulla, Ovary contains groups of cells known as Ovarian or Graafian follicles. Each follicle carries a centrally placed ovum, Accessory Ducts > It includes two aviducts or fallopian tubes, a uterus and vagina > Each oviduct is 10-12 em long and has four parts namely, infundibulum, ampulla, Isthmus, and uterine part. (@) Infundibulum > Itis the funnel-shaped opening provided with many finger-like fimbriae for catching released ovum. > Ithelps to collect the ovum after its release from the ovary. (b) Ampulla > The infundibulum leads to the curved and dilated part called ampulla. (6) Isthmus > Itis the last straight part of the oviduct. > Tthas a narrow humen and joins the uterus. vyve vy v vy vv vyvvvvy vevvvvy(4) Uterine part > Itis about 1 em long part of oviduct which passes into the uterus. Uterus > v vy vv > > > Itis single and also called a womb. ‘The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear. Itis supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. ‘The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix, The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth canal The wall of the uterus is thick and muscular ant (2) The external thin membranous perimetrium (b) The middle thick layer of smooth muscle, myomet (¢) The inner glandular layer called endometrium, ‘The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes during menstrual cycle while the myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby. Vagina opens to the exterior between urethra and anus, The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich mucous membrane consisting of sensitive papillae and Bartholin’s glands. The secretions of Bartholin’s glands lubricate the penis during sexual act. differentiated into three layers of tissue namely, jum, External Genitalia > vvvy vy It includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris. The external genitalia are collectively called vulva. ‘Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. The labia majora are a pair of large thicker fleshy folds of tissue, which surround the vaginal opening. The labia minora are a pair of narrow fleshy folds of tissue found below labia majora. The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen. ‘The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse) or accidentally. ‘The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora above the urethral opening. Mammary Glands > > > > > > A pair of mammary glands containing glandular tissue and fat, is present in the chest region. Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli is stored in the cavities or lumen of alveoli The alveoli open into mammary tubules, The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct, Several mammary duets join to form a wider manumary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out. TOPIC-2 Gametogenesis and Menstrual Cycle The cells of alveoli secrete milk wi Quick Review Gametogenesis > The process of formation of gametes or sex cells is known as gametogenesis, Itincludes spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis > > > > Itis the process of formation of sperms in seminiferous tubules of testes. thas two stages namely, @) Formation af spermatids _(b) Spermiogenesis, During the formation of spermatids, the spermatogonia ie, Sperm mother cells or immature male germ cells produce spermatids. In spermiogenesis, the spermatids are transformed into sperm.‘Schematic Representation of Spermatogenesis AsPaerty [ins dilerentation Trimary spermatocytes Int mite © alsa Scconaary spermatocytes 2nd mii ative sh Spersatids — 1 some JS) J Each primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-1 and produces two haploid secondary spermatocytes. Fach secondary spermatocyte divides by meiosis-II and produces two haploid spermatids ‘Thus, four spermatids are formed from each primary spermatocyte. The spermatids, under the influence of FSH of anterior pituitary are converted into spermatozoa, The process is called spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, sperm head become embedded in the Sertoli cells and are finally released from seminiferous tubules, The process of release of mature spermatozoa from the sertolicells into the lumen of seminiferous tubules is known as spermiation. Hormones in Spermatogenes > Hypothalamus releases large amount of Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), > GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two gonadotropins namely Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). > LH acts on the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens which in turn stimulate the spermatogenesis. > FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some spermogenic factors which help in the process of spermiogenesis. Structure of Sperm > It isa microscopic structure. > Amature sperm measures about 60 pm (0.06 mm) long. > Aplasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm. > Sperm consists of four parts namely, head, neck, a middle piece and a tail region. (a) Head > Itis oval shaped, consisting of nucleus and acrosome. > Acrosome is formed from golgi complex which contains lytic enzymes, that help in fertilisation of the ovum. (b) Neck > Behind the head isa neck containing proximal and distal centrioles > The distal centriole of the neck is connected to axial filament. (©) Middle Piece > It is composed of axial filament surrounded by numerous mitochondria and cytoplasm. > Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility. (4) Tail > It consists of a central axial filament. > The sperm moves in fluid medium and female genital tract by the undulating movement of the tail. > Sperms are transported through the accessory ducts > The secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. ‘The seminal plasma and sperms together constitute the semen. The human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a coitus ejaculation. > Fornormal fertility at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size and 40% of them must show vigorous motility. vvvy v vvOogenesis > Itis the process of formation and maturation of ovum, It takes place in Graatian follicles. Itis initiated in embryonic stage when millions of egg mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each ovary. No oogonia are formed and added after birth. Cogonia multiply to form primary oocytes which enter into prophase-l of the meiosis and get temporarily arrested at that stage. Each primary oocyte gets surrounded bya layer of granulosa cells to form primary follicle, A large number of primary follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary. The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca to form secondary follicles, The secondary follicles get transformed into a tertiary follicle. Ithas a fluid filled cavity (antrum). The theca layer forms an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa, The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and undergoes first unequal meiotic division to form a large hapioid secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body. The secondary oocyte retains the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte. Itis unknown, whether the first polar body divides further ar degenerates. The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle (Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane (zona pellucida). > The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary. This is called ovulation. Structure of Ovum vVyvY vyyyy vvvy vyyy > Itis spherical or oval and non-motile female gamete. > Itis about 0.2 mm in diameter > Human ovum is non cleidoic (without shell) and alecithal (with out yolk). > Ovum has four membranes namely, {a) Plasma membrane (Oolemma) : Innermost layer (b) Vitelline membrane : Attached to plasma membrane. (6) Zona pellucida : Transparent non-cellular, thick, glycoprotein rich layer found outer tothe vitelline membrane. (a) Corona radiata : Outer layer formed of follicle cells. These cells are held together by mucopolysaccharide called hyaluronic acid. Menstrual Cycle The reproductive cycle in the human female and related primates is called menstrual cycle. ‘The first menstruation begins at puberty (at the age of 10-12 years) and is called menarche, vy In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 29/29 days, and the cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle. v One ovum is released during the middle of each menstrual cycle The cycle starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 days. > The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood vessels which form. the liquid that comes out through vagina, > Menstruation occurs only if the released ovum is not fertilised. > Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy or may also be caused due to some other underlying catises like stress, poor health ete. > The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase, > During follicular phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation. These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones. > The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the follicular phase, and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles. > Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14" day), > Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum (ovulation). > The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum. vv ‘The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone whichis essential for maintenance of the endometrium. During pregnancy, all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation, In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle. In human beings, menstrual cycle ceases at around 50 years of age and is termed as menopause. Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between menarche and ‘menopause, TOPIC-3 Fertilization and Post-Fertilization Events vv vv Quick Review Fertilization > The process of fusion of male gamete (sperm) with the female gamete (ovum) is called fertilization. > During copulation, semen is released through the penis into the vagina (insemination). > After insemination, the sperms swim through the cervix and enter into the uterus and reach the ampullary- isthmic junction of the oviduct where fertilization takes place. > The process of fertilization takes place as follows perms ~> vagina > cervical canal — uterus — isthmus L Fertilization < Ampullary-isthmic Junction Ovum (from ovary) + fimbriae > infundibulum — ampulla > Fertilization (sperm + ovum —> zygote) occurs only if ovum & sperms are transported simultaneously. So all copulations do not lead to fertilization and pregnancy. > As a sperm contacts with zona pellucida, it induces changes in the membrane that block entry of additional sperms. > With the help of enzymes of the acrosome, which dissolve the zona pellucida and plasma membrane of the ovum, the sperm enters into the cytoplasm of the ovum. This induces second meiatic division of the secondary oocyte to forma second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootid). > The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote. Implantation > The mitotic division (cleavage) starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of oviduct towards the uterus and forms 2,4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres. > The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a morula. > Morula continues to divide and transforms into a large mass of cells called blastocyst, which moves further towards the uterus. > The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer (trophoblast) and an inner group of cells (inner cell mass) attached to trophoblast. > The trophoblast layer then gets attached to endometrium and the inner cell mass gets differentiated to three germ Jayers namely, outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner endoderm forming 3-layered structure (gastrula) leading to the formation of embryo. > After attachment, uterine cells div le rapidly and cover the blastocyst. > Asa result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. Thi Pregnancy and Embryonic Development > After implantation, the finger-like projections called chorionic villi appear on the trophoblast whichis surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood. > The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and form a structural and functional unit between developing embryo and the maternal body called placenta > The placenta is a structural and functional unit between embryo (foetus) and maternal body. > Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. > The umbilical cord helps to transport substances to and from the embryo. is called implantation.Functions of Placenta > Itacts as barrier between the foetus and mother. > Soluble inorganic and organic materials, nutrients, hormones, antibodies, etc can pass through the placenta from the mother to foetus. > Ithelps in the gas exchange between mother and foetus. > Ithelps to eliminate nitrogenous wastes of foetus. > It acts as an endocrine gland by secreting several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), oestrogens, progesterone and relaxin. Pregnancy > During pregnancy, levels of estrogen, progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine ete are also increased in maternal blood. > They support the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintain pregnancy. > Three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults. > The stem cells in inner cell mass have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs. > Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months (for cats : 2 months, dogs :2 months, elephants : 21 months). Changes in Embryo during Pregnancy > After one month of pregnancy : Heart is formed. > End of second month : Limbs and digits are developed. > End of 12. weeks first trimester) : The major organs such as limbs, external genital organs ete.,are well developed. > During 5th month : First movement of foetus and appearance of hair on the head. > End of 24 weeks (second trimester) : Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and eye lashes are formed. > End of 9 months : Ready for delivery. Parturition (Labour) and Lactation > The process of giving birth to young ones after the gestation period of nine months is known as parturition. > Parturition is induced by neuroendocrine mechanism. > The signals originating from the foetus and placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection reflex), This causes the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary. > Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle contractions which in tum stimulate further secretion of oxytocin. This process is continued leading to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal. > After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off, > The placenta and remnants of umbilical cord are expelled from the maternal body after partu “after birth’. Lactation > The mammary glands produce milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation. > The yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum. > The colostrum contains several antibodies essential to develop resistance for the new born babies. Know the Terms > Spermatogenesis: Itis the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) {rom the immature germ cells in males. > Spermiogencsis : It is the process of transformation of non-motile, rounded haploid spermatid into a functional and motile spermatozoan. ‘Spermiation : It is the process when mature spermatozoa are released from the sertoli cells into the lumen of seminiferous tubules. ‘Oogenesis : Ibis the process of formation of a mature ovum from the oogonia in female, Menstrual cycle : The cyclic events starting from one menstruation till the next that take place during the reproductive period is called menstrual cycle. Fertilisation : The process of fusion of sperm and the ovum to forma single cell called zygote is called fertilization Morula : The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a Morula. Parturition : The birth of the fully developed foetus is termed as parturition, i vv vy v ooChapter - 4 : Reproductive Health Quick Review > The term ‘reproductive health’ simply refers to healthy reproductive organs with normal functions. According to WHO (World Health Organisation), the word ‘reproductive health’ means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction i, physical, emotional, behavioural and social. ¥ Thus,a society with people having physically and functionally normal reproductive organs and normal emotional and behavioural interactions among them in all sex-related aspects might be called reproductively healthy. > Problems Associated with Reproductive Health : (a) Rapid increase in human population called population explosion (b) Lack of awareness and sex education in people. (9) A number of myths and misconceptions about sex related aspects. (a) Common occurrence of sexually transmitted diseases due to lack of knowledge of hygiene of reproductive organs. (¢) Illegal abortions and female foeticides. (8) Sex abuse and sex related crime (g) Myths and misconceptions about sex related issues. > Strategies of Reproductive Health Programmes : To ensure total reproductive health, several programmes like reproductive health programmes and family planning were started in 1951. ‘The aim of Reproductive and Child Care Programme was to : (a) Create awareness in both males and females about various reproductive aspects with the help of audio-visual and print media by both Government and Non-Government agencies. (b) Provide sex education in schools to save the young generation from myths and misconceptions about sex related issutes, (0) Prevent and control sexually transmitted diseases by providing correct information about reproductive organs, adolescence and safe and hygienic sexual practices, v (d) Educate the fertile couples and those in marriageable age about birth control devices, pre-natal and post-natal care of mother and child, importance of breast feeding ete. (e) Provide awareness about related crimes. (9 Provide medical facilities and support like infrastructural faci support to decrease maternal and infantile mortality rates. {g) Lessen the problem of infertility by promoting the Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ARTS). Steps Taken to Maintain a Reproductively Healthy Society 1. Imposing a statutory ban on amniocentesis (analysis of aminotic fluid-Foetal Sex Determination) 2. To legally check implementation of immunization programs. 3. Creation of specialized health centers like infertility clinic for diagnosis and corrective treatment of some infertility disorders. 4, Better awareness abont sex related matters and sex-related problems ete. effects of population explosion, sexual abuses, sex discrimination and sex ies, professional expertise and material v 5, Increase in the number of medically assisted deliveries and better post-natal care. 6. Increase in number of couples with small families. 7. Better detection and cure of STDs. Reasons for Population Explosion : Tremendous increase in size and growth rate of population is called population explosion. Itis due to = 1. Rapid decline in death rate 2. More longevity, longer life span . Advanced medical facilities. v |. Developed techniques in agriculture 5. Better transport facilities, 7. Protection from natural factors. 8, Increase in number of people in reproductive age. 3 4. Prevention of diseases 6v Consequences of Population Explosion : Poverty, unemployment, shortage of food, unhygienic conditions, education problems, residential problems, pollution, crime, excessive consumption of natural resources ete. How to Control Over Population ? 1. People should be given education regarding advantages of small family and family planning methods. 2. Increasing the age of marriage. 3. Incentives to those families, which are adopting family planning methods. 4. Birth control through vasectomy and tubectomy. . Family planning programmes 1 Birth Control Measures : ‘The most important step to overcome this problem is to encourage smaller families by using various contraceptive methods. The contraceptive methods help to prevent unwanted pregnancies. An ideal contraceptive should be + User-friendly, easily available, effective and reversible. + With no or least side-effects. + Non-interfering with sexual drive, desire & sexual act. ‘They are grouped as follows : 1. Natural or ‘Traditional Methods : These methods of birth control depend upon the natural rhythms of a woman, These include the following methods {a) Coitus interruptus : This involves withdrawing penis by male partner before ejaculation so that semen is not deposited in the vagina. Itis aldest method of voluntary fertility control. This method has certain limitations: ‘+ Some sperms may be deposited in the vagina even before the sexual climax. + May develop physiological and psychological problems to both the partners. (b) Periodic abstinence: A week before and a week after the menstrual phase are supposed to be safe periods for sexual intercourse. It reduces the chances af pregnancy by about 80 percent. ‘The period from 12" to 18" day (both days inclusive of the menstrual cycle is called danger or risk or fertile period and unprotected sexual intercourse should be avoided during this period. (¢) Lactational amenorthoea : It has been noticed that during the period of intense lactation after the parturition, the mother does not undergo menstruation and ovulation so the chances of conception are nearly nil. Italso has no side effects but is effective only uplo a maximum period of six months after parturition. 2. Artificial Methods : This involves mecha (a) Condoms : These are rubber or latex sheaths which are put on penis before starting coital activity (copulation), These are popularly called ‘Nirodly. These check pregnancy by preventing deposition of sperms in the vagina. These can be self-inserted so as to give privacy to the user. These also prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) including AIDS, syphilis etc. Female condoms are also available called femidoms. phragms and cervical caps : These are mechanical barriers made of rubber and fitted in vagina of female to check the entry of sperms in uterus, These are reusable. (¢) Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs) : These are inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus through vagina These include + Non-medicated 1UDs («g., Lippes loop) ‘+ Copper releasing IUDs (e.g, Copper T) ‘+ Hormone releasing IUDs (eg, Progestasert) : Make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperms. + IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms. The Cu ions suppress motility and fertilising capacity of sperms. ‘+ TUDs are ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay pregnancy or spacing in children 3. Chemical Methods : These are of the following types : (i) Spermicidal tablets, jellies, paste and creams introduced in the vagina before coital activity. These kill sperms, Common spermicidal chemicals used are lactic acid, citric acid, potassium permanganate, zinc sulphate ete. (ii) Physiological (Oral) Devices : These are the hormonal preparation in the form of pills for females. The pills are usually small doses of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations in the form of tablets (pills) ‘ills are taken daily for 21 days starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation occurs) it has to be repeated in the same pattern as long as the female desires to prevent conception ‘+ They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms, + Tills are very effective with lesser side effects ‘© Saheli : It is a new oral contraceptive for the females. It was developed by Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) Lucknow. It contains a non-steroidal preparation. It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive value. h the slogan ‘Hum Do Hamare Do’ 1 or barrier methods. (b)@) © v v + Drawbacks of Oral Contraceptives : Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc. (ii) Injectables/Implants * Progesterone alone or in combination with oestrogen is used by females as injections or implants under skin. + Their mode of action is similar to that of pills and they are effective within 72 hours of coitus. 4, Sterilization or Surgical Methods : These methods block the gamete transport and so prevent conception. ‘These include the following measures : (a) Male sterilization : It is a permanent method of birth control in which either testes are surgically removed, called castration, or cutting of the vas deferens, called Vasectomy. The vas deferens is exposed and cut through, a small incision on the scrotum ta prevent the passage of sperms, (b) Female sterilization : Methods of female sterilization include : (i) Ovariectomy involves surgical removal of ovaries, (ii) Tubectomy involves cutting of fallopian tubes. (ii) Tubal ligation involves blocking of fallopian tubes by an instrument called laparoscope. Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) * Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called MTP or induced abortion. + 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all over the world (ie. 1/5th of total number of conceived pregnancies) MIP helps to decrease the population Because of emational, ethical, religious and social issues many countries have not legalised MTP. * Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to check indiscriminate and illegal female foeticides which are reported to be high in India. Importance of MTP + Toavoid unwanted pregnancies due to casual intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during coitus or «Bese in cases where continuation ofthe pregnancy could be harmful to the mother or to the foetus or both + MTPsare safe during the first trimester, (up to 12 weeks of pregnancy). 2nd trimester abortions are very risky. Problems Related with MTPs + Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally. + Misuse of amniocentesis (a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid) . MiPior female child causes sex imbalance in society. Amniocentesis + Itisa pre-natal diagnostic method to determine the sex of the developing baby. This method has both positive and negative application. This method is legally banned in India. Positive application + Ithelps to detect any genetically controlled congenital disease or any metabolic disorders in foetus. Negative application + People tse this method for female foeticide, which causes a sex-imbalance in the society. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse are called Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)/Venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive tract infections (RTI). E.g. Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and HIV leading to AIDS. Hepatitis-B and HIV are also transmitted (a) By sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc. () By transfusion of blood. (©) From infected mother to foetus. Except Hepatitis B, genital herpes, HIV and other diseases are completely curable if detected early and treated properly. Early symptoms : Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc., in the genital region. Absence or less significant early symptoms and the social stigma deter the infected persons to consult a doctor This leads to pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility, cancer of the reproductive tract etc. All persons are vulnerable to STDs. These ate very high among persons in the age group of 15-24 years,Prevention : y (a) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners. (b) Always use condoms during coitus, (0) Incase of doubt, go toa qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment. Infertility ‘+ Itis the inability of male or female to produce children. ‘© The reasons for this may be physical, conges Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) (Q)_In vitro fertilisation (IVF test tube baby programme) : In this method, ova from the wife/donor and sperms from the husband/donor are collected and are induced to form zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory. This is followed by Embryo transfer (ET). Itis of 2 types : (@) Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) : Transfer of zygote or early embryos (with up to 8 blastomeres) into fallopian tube, (b) Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT) : Transfer of embryos with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus, Embryo formed by in vivo fertilisation (fertilisation within the female) is also used for such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive v 1, diseases, drugs, immunological or even psychological. v (2) Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT) : Transfer of an ovum from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce ovum, but can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development. (8) Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) : A laboratory procedure in which a single sperm (from male partner) is injected directly into an egg (from female pariner). Then the fertilised egg is implanted into the woman's uterus. (4) Artificial Insemination (Al) technique + The semen collected from the husband or a healthy donor is atti uterus (IUI- intra-uterine insemination) of the female, ‘+ This technique is useful for the male partner having inability to inseminate female or low sperm counts etc. (6) Surrogacy + Here, a woman (surrogate mother) bears a child for a couple unable to produce children, because the wife is infertile or unable to carry, + The surrogate is impregnated either through artificial insemination or through implantation of an embryo produced by in vitro fertilisation. > Problems of ART ‘+ Itrequires high precision handling by specialized professionals and expensive instrumentation. Therefore, these facilities are available only in very few centres. Emotional, religious and social problems. Legal adoption is one of the best methods for couples looking for parenthood. ally introduced into the vagina or the Know the Terms > Medical Termination of Pregnancy : The Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is known as MTP > Amniocentesis : Itis a prenatal diagnostic technique that is used to determine the sex and metabolic disorders of the developing foetus in the mother’s uterus through the observation of the chromosomal pattern. > Sexually transmitted diseases : Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse are called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). > Infertility :Itis the inability of couple to produce baby even after unprotected intercourse. ¥ Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) : Itinvolves transfer of zygote or early embryos (with up to 8 blastomeres) into fallopian tube. > Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT) : It involves transfer of embryos with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus. > Artificial insemination (Al) technique: Its the method of transferring semen (sperm) collected from the husband ora healthy donor into the vagina or the uterus (TUT ~ intra-uterine insemination) of the recipient female. oo