1

Navigation:
is the process of directing movement of a craft from one
point to another point.

Any facility intended to Above information is called Navigation Aid.

2
 N
Heading: is angle, measured clockwise between
North and the direction in which the
aircraft is pointing

Track: is angle, measured clockwise between

North and the direction in which the
aircraft is moving.

Drift Angle: angle between heading and track

(DA) measured to port (left) or starboard
(right)

Desired Track: direction in which the pilot

wishes the aircraft to move

Track Angle Error: angle between track and

(TAE) desired track, usually quoted
as left or Right
TK
DA
HDG Wind direction
 N
Relative Bearing: Direction of a fixed object
(RB) measured clockwise from
Aircraft.

Magnetic Bearing: Direction of a fixed object

(MB) measured clockwise from
magnetic north.

= +

4
 Basic navigation
 The aircraft will be flying on a certain heading, but the prevailing wind speed and direction will modify this to
the aircraft track.
 The aircraft track represents the aircraft path across the terrain and will lead to the aircraft's destination or
next waypoint.

5
 N
Class Activity:

Plot & measure HDG, RB and MB

W E

S
A b b r. N o m e n cla ture D e fin itio n

HDG H e a d in g a n g le , m e a su red clo ckw ise b e tw e e n N o rth a n d th e d ire ctio n in w h ich th e

a ircraft is p o in tin g .

TK Tra ck d ire ction in w h ich th e a ircra ft is m o vin g

TA Tra ck A n g le a n g le , m e a su red clo ckw ise b e tw e e n N o rth a n d th e d ire ctio n in w h ich th e

a ircraft is m o vin g . A lso kn o w n a s C o u rse

DTK D e sire d Tra ck d ire ction in w h ich th e p ilo t w ish e s th e a ircra ft to m o ve

DA D rift A n g le a n g le b e tw e e n h e a d in g a n d tra ck m e a su red to p o rt (le ft) o r sta rb o ard (rig h t)

TA E Tra ck A n g le E rro r a n g le b e tw e e n tra ck a n d d e sire d tra ck, u su a lly q u o te d a s le ft o r R ig h t

GS G ro u n d S p e e d sp e e d o f th e a ircra ft in th e d ire ctio n o f th e tra ck in th e p la n e p a ra lle l to th e

e a rth's su rfa ce (m a p sp e e d ). C o m p a re w ith a ir sp e e d w h ich is th e sp e e d o f
th e a ircra ft re la tive to th e a ir m a ss th ro u gh w h ich it is m o vin g

W PT W a yp o in t a sig n ifica n t p o in t o n th e ro u te w h ich m a y b e u se d fo r re p o rting to A ir Tra ffic 7

C o n tro l, tu rn in g o r la n d in g
8
Variation
Variation is the angle between true north
and magnetic north. It is expressed as
east variation or west variation
depending upon whether magnetic north
(MN) is to the east or west of true north
(TN).

The north magnetic pole is located close to

71° N latitude, 96° W longitude and is about
1,300 miles from the geographic or true north
pole

9
10
Because a pilot may cross several time zones during a flight, a standard time system has
been adopted. It is called Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) and is often referred to as Zulu
time. UTC is the time at the 0° line of longitude which passes through Greenwich, England.

11
 Direction. The Earth spins on its own axis whilst travelling on its orbit around the sun;
 The geographic, or true poles are defined as the two points on the Earth’s surface through which the
spin axis passes.
 If you were looking down on the north pole from space, the Earth would be seen to be rotating anti-
clockwise.
 The direction north can then be defined as the direction one would have to travel from any point on the
Earth’s surface by the shortest route to reach the north pole.
 Great Circle. A great circle is an imaginary circle on the surface of the Earth whose radius is the same
as the Earth and whose plane passes through the centre of the Earth.
 Rhumb Line. A rhumb line is a regularly
curved line on the surface of the Earth which
maintains a constant direction with respect to
true North. As will be seen shortly, this
definition means that a rhumb line must cross
all meridians at the same angle.
 The distance from A to B along this rhumb
line is greater than along the great circle;
however, it is sometimes convenient to fly
along a track with a constant track direction.

12
 Classic dead-reckoning

Radio navigation

Air Navigation methods Independent navigation

Satellite navigation

Multiple-sensor navigation

13
Classic dead-reckoning:
Plotting aircraft position by calculations of speed,
course, time, effect of wind, and previous known
position.
Radio Navigation:
All uses of radio to determine location, obtain
heading information and warn of obstructions
or hazards.
Independent navigation :
Self-contained navigation that is not dependant to
any facility outside the Aircraft

Satellite Navigation:
Using a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS),
more usually a Global Positioning System (GPS)

Multiple-sensor Navigation:
Using a combination of all of the above methods.
14
 Chapter 1
Navigation Systems Overview

15
 Four course

ADF

VOR Localizer

ILS Glideslope

MLS Marker beacon

Radio Navigation
Weather Radar Omega

Hyperbolic Nav. Loran C

Radio Altimeter Decca

GPWS

16
This is the durable, low-frequency system that was used from the 1930s into the 1950s when VOR navigation
was introduced.
Four antennas are also used to establish beams for four-course low-frequency range patterns.
O.Scheller (Lorenz. A. G. Company) was granted a patent as early as 1904 for an instrument landing system.
With the use of four antennas, alternating, complimentary signals of A/N could be heard in two zones with the
letter A, and in two zones with the letter N.
In the overlapping zone a continuous sound is heard.
You may know this as the A and N system. if an
aircraft was off the beam to one side, the pilot heard
the Morse code sound for the letter A, dit(dot) dah
(dash). Off course on the other side of the beam, he
heard the Morse code sound for the letter N, dah dit.

When an aircraft was "flying the Beam," these two

Morse code sounds merged into a solid tone.

17
 A DF
A u t o m at ic D ir ec t io n F in d in g
Remember listening to a transistor radio.

As the radio is rotated the signal becomes Weaker or stronger, depending on its
orientation with respect to the distant transmitter.

that’s the principle on which ADF is based.

A u to m a tic d ire ctio n fin d in g (A D F ) in vo lve s th e u se o f a lo o p d ire ctio n fin d in g te ch n iqu e to
e sta b lish th e b e a r in g to a ra d ia tin g so u rce .
In the 1920s a simple loop antenna was used which could be rotated by hand. The pilot would
position the loop so that there was a null in the signal from the station to which he was tuned.

18
 VOR
V H F O m n i d ir ec t io n al R an g e

After ADF, a need for a more flexible and reliable aid soon became apparent .
The VOR system was accepted as standard by the United States in 1946 and later
adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as an international
standard.
A system called four-course low-frequency range was widely implemented in the United
States during t he 1930s; this gave four courses to or from each ground station and fitted
in quite nicely with a system of fixed airway.

The principle of VOR is ‘bearing measurement by

phase comparison'. A VOR transmitter sends two
separate signals which can be compared to provide
the directional information.

19
 Distance-measuring Equipment
(DME)

Distance-measuring equipment (DME) is a method of pulse ranging used in the 960–1215MHz

band to determine the distance of the aircraft from a designated ground station.

The aircraft equipment interrogates a ground-based

beacon and, upon the receipt of retransmitted pulses,
unique to the on-board equipment, is able to determine
the range to the DME beacon.

20
 Instrument Landing System
ILS
T h e IL S is a n a p p roa ch a nd la n d in g a id th a t h a s b e e n in w idesp re a d u se since th e 1 9 6 0s
a n d 1 9 7 0 s. T h e m a in e le m e n ts o f th e IL S in clu d e :

1. A lo c alizer antenna centered on the runw ay to provide lateral guidance .

2. A g lid es lo p e antenna located beside the runw ay threshold to provide vertical guidance .
3. M ar k er b eac o n s are located a t various points dow n the a pproach pa th to give th e pilot
inform a tion as to w hat stage on the approach has been reached. T hese are the oute r, m iddle
and inner m arkers.

21
 Microwave Landing System
MLS

The MLS is an approach aid that was conceived to redress some of the shortcomings of the ILS. The
specification of a time-reference scanning beam MLS was developed through the late 1970s/early
1980s, and a transition to the MLS was envisaged to begin in 1998.

However, with the emergence of satellite systems such as the

GPS there was also a realization that both the ILS and MLS
could be rendered obsolete when such systems reach
maturity.

22
 H y p er b o lic N av.
A hyperbola is by definition the locus of a point having a fixed diffe rence in range from tw o o ther fixed
points.

H yperbolic navigation system s enable an aircraft to fix its position by m ean s of tw o o r m ore
intersecting position lines.

E ach position line is established by com parin g electronically the diffe rence b etw een the rece ived
transm issions of tw o separated ground stations.

T he c o m p ar is o n d iff er en c e that is m easured in the aircraft m ay be of tw o form s:

T im e diffe rence of tw o synchronized pulse transm issions (e .g . L O R A N ). T his m e thod w ill be called,
for brevity, “P ulse Technique S ystem ”.

P hase diffe rence o f tw o phase-locked continuous w ave transm itte rs (e .g . D ec c a). T his m ethod w ill be
called “P hase C om parison S ystem ”.

+ 60 + 40 + 20 0 - 20 - 40 - 60

23
 Weather Radar

A weather radar is airborne pulse radar designed

to locate turbulent clouds ahead of the aircraft.

Clouds are invisible to radar but ice hail and rain

reflect the energy back To the aircraft radar
antenna. The size of the raindrops, the rainfall
intensity and the type of radar system installed all
affect the strength of the return.

Color radar uses different colors for different

intensity levels. Green, yellow and red are often
used with red indicating the highest intensity of
rainfall.

24
 Radio Altimeter

A radio altimeter displays the A/Cs absolute altitude above ground level. The Radio altimeters
(Radalts) are mostly used for low level flying where a high degree of accuracy is required(up to
2500 Ft.)

25
 INS/IRS
Independent
Navigation
Doppler Nav.

INS:Inertial Navigation system

IRS: Inertial Reference system

26
 Inertial navigation system
(INS)

In an inertial navigation system, velocity and position are obtained by continuously measuring and
integrating vehicle acceleration. Inertial navigation systems are self-contained and are capable of all-
weather operation.

27
 D o p p ler N av ig at io n

Whenever there is a relative motion between a transmitter and a receiver, a frequency shift occurs. This
frequency shift is proportional to the relative movement .
A Doppler navigation is a self contained dead-reckoning system giving continuous readout of
aircraft position usually related to waypoints.

Military aircraft have made use of such equipment since the mid- 1950s while civil use for
transoceanic navigation commenced in the early 1960s.

28
 S at ellit e N av ig at io n

In recent years, satellite navigation systems have revolutionized the concept of instrument navigation.
Developed as a military system by the United States and the Soviet Union, coupled with the computer systems
which have developed at the same time, they allow much more accurate and available position fixing for
aircrew. ICAO refers to them as 'global navigation satellite systems' or 'GNSS'. The planned European
augmentation system for GNSS-I, known as the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
(EGNOS), will provide differential positioning over wide areas. In addition, the European Commission is
working towards the development of a second generation regional GNSS, called Galileo.

29
 M u lt ip le-s en s o r N av ig at io n
The historical structure of airways over the world, where aircraft flew from one navigation aid to another,
was adequate while air travel was limited. As business and leisure air travel became more popular, and
more aircraft were built to use the airspace, the limitations of a system which channeled all the aircraft with
their different speeds along fixed routes became obvious. Fortunately, computer technology was able to
provide some solutions to these limitations.
Integrated navigation, as the name suggests, employs all of the features and systems described so far.
An integrated navigation solution using a multi-sensor approach blends the performance of all the
navigation techniques already described, together with GPS, to form a totally integrated system

30
 In t eg r at ed N av ig at io n
Integrated navigation, as the name suggests, employs all the features and systems described so far.
An integrated navigation solution using a multisensor approach blends the performance of all the
navigation techniques already described together with GPS to form a totally integrated system. In
this case the benefits of the GPS and IN derived data are blended to provide more accurate data
fusion, in the same way as barometric and IN data are fused.
Principle of sensor fusion where the short-term accuracy of inertial sensors is blended or fused
with the long-term accuracy of air data or barometric sensors.

31
Radar: Stands for Radio Detection and Ranging, Is an application of radio
waves, to Detect objects that cannot be observed visually.
Primary A Primary Radar Uses Pulses of radio Energy
Surveillance reflected from a target i.e. It uses one Frequency
Radar Throughout
Radar
Secondary A secondary Radar Transmits Pulses on one
Surveillance frequency, But receives on a different frequency, i.e.
Radar The object transmits its own energy.

SSR

PSR

32
 Traffic Collision and Avoidance System
The TCAS was developed in prototype form during the 1960s and 1970s to provide a surveillance and
collision avoidance system to help aircraft avoid collisions.

surveillance
system
TCAS TCAS detects the range bearing and altitude of aircraft in the
Elements near proximity for display to the pilots
collision
avoidance
 Terrain Awareness Warning Systems (TAWS)
Ground Proximity The GPWS takes inputs from aircraft sensors and
Warning System navigation equipment and feeds them into a
(GPWS) computer,. The CPU compares the inputs,
TAWS decides which are the most important for the
Forward-Looking
Terrain Avoidance phase of flight, and provides two levels of
(FLTA) warning to the pilot.
The first level, which of an ‘alert’, tells the pilot
that he is approaching a dangerous situation, and
should take action to return to a safe condition.
The second, more critical stage, is a ‘warning’,
which tells the pilot that he is already in a
dangerous situation, and must take an
immediate, standard, action to remedy it.

34
Radio Frequency Allocation

35
36
 Chapter 2
Radio Navigation

37
Automatic Direction Finding
ADF

38
This might be to a VHF beacon or a Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) operating in the 200-–
1800
kHZ band.

NDB(190- 535 KHz)

In addition ADF can be tuned to AM Broadcast (550-1800 KHz)
The aircraft ADF system comprises integral sense and loop antennae which establish the
bearing of the NDB station to which the ADF receiver is tuned.

39
 Basic principle
 consider the loop plane lying at
right angles to the incoming signal.
The two vertical elements of the
loop are equidistant from the NDB,
and no current will flow through the
loop since no phase difference
exists between the two vertical
elements.
 With the loop lying in the plane
of the incoming signal, a current will
be induced to flow through the loop
by the NDB signal by virtue of the
fact that one vertical element of the
loop is further from the NDB than
the other vertical element, and that
consequently a phase difference
exists between the two sides of the
loop with the result that there will
be a voltage difference between the
two vertical elements of the loop. A
voltage difference causes a current
flow, which will be in the direction
shown. 40
 Figure (b) shows the characteristic ‘figure
of eight’ polar diagram which would be
plotted if the signal strengths received by a
loop aerial were plotted as a transmitter
moved round the aerial at a fixed range
through positions A,B, C and D. It will be seen
that signal strength is maximum when the
transmitter is at positions A and C, and zero
when the transmitter is at positions B and D.
The ‘null’ produced in the latter cases is well-
defined and can be used to determine the
relative bearing of the transmitter from the
aerial with reasonable accuracy.
 However, there are two null positions at
180° to each other and therefore an ambiguity
exists, since the transmitter could be at either
B or D.
 To resolve this ambiguity a second,
sensing aerial is added, which is designed so
that the received signal produces an aerial
current of the same strength as the maximum
current in the loop aerial.
41
(a) (b)
 Goniometer
Continued refinements to ADF technology has brought it to its current state. The rotating receiving antenna
is replaced by a fixed loop with a ferrite core. This increases sensitivity and allows a smaller antenna to be
used. The most modern ADF systems have two loop antennas mounted at 90° to each other. The
received signal induces voltage that is sent to two stators in a resolver or goniometer. The goniometer
stators induce voltage in a rotor that correlates to the signal of the fixed loops. The rotor is driven by a
motor to seek the null. The same motor rotates the pointer in the flight deck indicator to show the relative
or magnetic bearing to the station.

42
 The search coil output, after amplification, is phase-shifted by 90° so as to be either in phase or out of phase
with the sense antenna output, depending on the direction of the NDB. Prior to adding to the sense signal the
phase-shifted loop signal is switched in phase in a balanced modulator at a rate determined by a switching
oscillator, usually somewhere between a 50 Hz and 250 Hz rate.

When the composite signal is

formed in a summing amplifier it
will be amplitude-modulated.

The amplitude modulation is

detected in the last stage of a
superhet receiver.

The motor will drive either

clockwise or anticlockwise towards
the stable null.
When the null is reached there will
be no search coil output hence no
amplitude modulation of the
composite signal so the reference
phase drive will be zero and the
motor will stop.
43
44
 Homing

Holding
Use of approach
NDB

En route
nav-aid

45
 HOMING
A procedure where you always keep the nose of the aircraft pointing directly to the station is
called homing to the station.

46
47
48
The Relative Bearing Indicator(RBI). The information shown on the RBI
at Figure is simply the angle subtended between the aircraft nose (zero
degrees relative) and the path of the incoming NDB signal. By convention
the pointed end of the needle always points towards the NDB.
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). A far more convenient way of
presenting ADF bearing information is on the Radio Magnetic Indicator
(RMI). If an aircraft is fitted with RMIs it is normal to present both ADF
and VOR bearings on the same instrument.

49
Calculation of Bearings using RBI

50
 Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)
 Slaved to the aircraft gyro-compass and presently indicates the aircraft heading of
060°(M) at the top of the instrument.

51
52
 Night Effect

Coastal
Refraction

Field Alignment
Error

Loop Alignment
Error

Quadrantal
ADF errors
Error (QE)

Station
Interference

Vertical or
Antenna Effect

Mountain Effect

STATIC
53
Mountain Effect
Hills and mountains reflect and re-radiate the
LF or MF signals of an NDB. Consequently, the
ADF in a low-flying aircraft may receive both
the great circle signal and a re-radiated signal
at the same time. This will result in an
erroneous bearing, as shown at Figure.

Quadrantal Error
The airframe itself tends to reflect, refract and
re-radiate the incoming signal. The result is
that the loop aerial will receive a signal directly
from the NDB together with a much weaker
signal which has been distorted by the aircraft
fuselage. The net effect is that the incoming
signal appears to bend towards the fuselage as
illustrated at Figure. Notice that it is signals
arriving on relative quadrantal bearings which
are most affected. Signals arriving on relative
cardinal bearings are not normally affected to
any significant degree. It is possible to
calibrate quadrantal errors out of the system
when the ADF is installed into the aircraft. 54
Coastal Refraction
Because radio waves travel marginally faster
over the sea than over the land, any radio wave
crossing the coastline at other than 90° will be
refracted. Figure shows the waves being bent
away from the normal when crossing from land to
sea. Notice that the further the signal is from the
normal, the greater the amount of refraction.

To minimise coastal refraction, bearings should

be taken when the aircraft is positioned such that
the signal from the NDB is crossing the coast at
an angle fairly close to 90°. If this is not possible
an NDB should be used which is as close as
possible to the coast. Figure illustrates why this is
so.

55
Night Effect
Within the LF and MF bands sky waves are not normally present by day, since the ionosphere is intensely
ionised and totally attenuates all LF and MF radio waves entering the layers. By night the ionosphere is partially
de-ionised and now NDB signals may survive to be refracted back to the surface of the Earth.

What is now happening is that both surface wave and sky wave signals from the NDB in use may arrive at the
aircraft together. It is likely that the two waves will be out of phase. Additionally, if the ionosphere does not lie
parallel with the Earth's surface, the two signals will arrive at the aircraft along different great circle paths. The net
result is that the ADF bearing will be in error.

Station Interference
In order to ensure that there is little or no interference
between NDBs operating on the same or similar frequencies,
both beacon location and frequency allocation are carefully
planned. Surface wave coverage of NDBs on the same
frequency should not therefore overlap. If it is not possible to
totally prevent this surface wave overlap situation, the NDBs
concerned are given promulgated ranges. This range, which
is published in the AIP, denotes the maximum range at which
the NDB signal should be considered as being free from
harmful distant station interference BY DAY. Figure illustrates
the significance of promulgated range.
56
Static Interference
Static interference is one of the largest sources of error in the operation of NDB/ADF systems. All kinds of
precipitation (including falling snow) and thunderstorms can cause static interference of varying intensity.
Precipitation static, reduces the effective range and accuracy of bearing information. Thunderstorm activity can
give rise to bearing errors of considerable magnitude and even to false ‘overhead’ indications. The electrical
emissions during a thunderstorm may well result in the ADF indicating the direction of the storm rather than the
NDB.
By night the skywaves from distant stations may well reach the aircraft, even though it is operating well within the
promulgated range of the beacon in use. It is for this reason that promulgated ranges are not valid by night. Figure
illustrates this very important fact.

57
58
 A R a d ia l (Q D R ) is a m a g n e tic b e a rin g F R O M a V O R b e a co n .

A VOR transmitter produces signals for 360° radials that an

airborne receiver uses to indicate the aircraft’s location in
relation to the VOR station regardless of the aircraft’s
direction of flight. The aircraft shown is on the 315° radial
even though it does not have a heading of 315°.

59
 Q Code and Radio Bearings
 The Q code was introduced as a shorthand to assist wireless telegraphy (Morse) operators.
 With the advent of voice communications networks (telephony), wireless operators disappeared from flight
decks and with them much of the Q code.

 QDM. The magnetic great circle bearing of the station from the aircraft. Sometimes defined as being the
great circle heading to fly to the station in still-air conditions.

 QDR. The magnetic great circle bearing of the aircraft from the station. The term radial is often used as an
alternative to QDR.

 QTE. The true great circle bearing of the aircraft from the station.

 QUJ. The true great circle bearing of the station from the aircraft.

60
 Basic Principles
 VOR operates in the VHF band between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz. The frequencies allocated to
VOR within this band are:
 108.0; 108.05; 108.2; 108.25; 108.4; 108.45 and so on (50 KHz spacing) up to 111.8 and 111.85
MHz giving 40 channels;
 112.0; 112.05; 112.1; 112.15; 112.2 and so on at 0.05 MHz (50 KHz spacing) to 117.9 and finally
117.95 MHz. MHz, giving a further 120 channels.

 The reason for the gaps (for example 108.1 and 108.15 MHz) between 108 and 112 MHz is that the
40 frequencies allocated to the ILS Localiser also lie between 108 and 112 MHz.

 All VORs transmit a three-letter morse identification code (1020 Hz amplitude modulation), which is
repeated six times a minute.

 Imagine a lighthouse which emits an omnidirectional pulse of light every time the beam is pointing
due north.

 If the speed of rotation of the beam is known, a distant observer could record the time interval
between seeing the omnidirectional flash and seeing the beam, and hence calculate the bearing of the
lighthouse.

 In reality VOR radiates reference phase (the omnidirectional light) & A variable phase signal (the
rotating beam)
 The bearing of the aircraft depends on the phase difference between reference & variable phases
(time difference between light & beam) 61
 R e f e r e n c e S ig n a l

 T h e sta tio n tra n sm its a n o m n id ire ctio n a l

co n tin u o u s w a ve sig n a l.

 T h a t sig n a l is a m p litud e m od u la ted b y a 9 9 6 0 H z

'su b-carrie r' w h ich itse lf is fre q u en cy m o du la te d
a t 3 0 H z.

 T h is o m n id ire ctio n a l ra d ia tio n h a s a circle a s its

h o rizo n ta l p o la r d ia g ra m

Frequency
30 Hz 9960 Hz
Modulation

Amplitude
VHF Tx
Modulation
62
 Var iab le o r D ir ec t io n al S ig n al

T h is is a lso tra n sm itte d o n th e sta tio n fre q u e n cy, b y a n a e ria l w h ich rotates e ith e r
p h ysica lly o r e le ctro n ica lly 3 0 tim e s p e r se co n d (3 0 H z A M ).

63
 Frequency
30 Hz 9960 Hz
Modulator

Amplitude
VHF Tx
Modulator

Modulation 1020 Hz
Goniometer Audio
Eliminator Ident.

Goniometer: Motor-driven instrument used with four

stationary aerials to deliver rotating signal field for VOR.
Modulation Eliminator: phase Synchronization
8
64
65
 The limacon itself is rotated at the rate of 30
revolutions per second and this has the effect of
amplitude modulating the carrier wave arriving at
an airborne receiver.
 At Figure (a), the aircraft to the east of the
beacon is receiving a signal of minimum strength,
since the shortest radius of the limacon is facing
the aircraft.
 At Figure (b), the amplitude of the
signal arriving at the aircraft is of
mean value, since the limacon has
rotated through 90°.
 At Figure (c), the signal is at maximum
amplitude, the limacon having rotated
through a further 90°.
 At Figure (d) the signal is back to a
mean value, and at Figure (e) the
signal is at minimum strength, since
the limacon has now rotated through
one complete revolution.

66
Each airborne receiver is now receiving both a
reference and a variphase signal and the
rotation of the limacon is so arranged that the
two signals are in phase to any observer on a
magnetic bearing of 360° from the VOR beacon.
The phase difference between the reference
and variphase signals will now relate directly to
the magnetic bearing of the receiver from the
beacon, see Figure bellow.

Signal Production in a VOR 67

 VOR AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
T h e a e r ia l.
F o r slower aircraft th e a e rial is a w h ip type fitte d o n th e fu se lag e a n d fo r high speed
a ircra ft it is a b la d e typ e o r is flu sh m o u n te d o n e ith e r sid e o f th e ve rtica l fin .

T h e r e c e iv e r.
T h is is a b o x fitte d in th e a vio n ics b a y.

T h e in d ic a t o r.
In fo rm a tio n d erive d fro m th e V O R sig n al re ce ive d a t th e a ircra ft m a y b e fe d to a flig ht
d ire cto r syste m o r to th e m o re sim p le d isp la ys su ch a s th e C D I (co u rse d e via tion
in d ica to r) o r th e R M I (ra d io m a g n e tic in d ica to r).

V-shaped, horizontally polarized, bi-pole antennas are commonly used for VOR and VOR/glideslope reception 68
69
 Manual VOR
Using (CDI or
HSI)

VOR Rx
types

Auto VOR
(Using RMI)

70
A mechanical HSI (left) and an electronic HSI (right) both display VOR information.
71
OBS:
The course selector is an azimuth dial that can be rotated to select a desired radial or to
determine the radial over which the aircraft is flying.

As the circle itself counts as the first dot this is a five dot display with each dot indicating
approximately a 2° displacement from the selected VOR bearing. Full-scale deflection therefore
represents 10°.

indicator shows a 'TO' or a 'FROM' flag depending on whether:

a) The aircraft's QDM is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case 'To‘ appears
b) The aircraft's QDR is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case 'From‘ appears

72
 Received signals are selected, amplified and detected by a conventional single or double superhet receiver.
 The detected output is a composite signal which must be separated into its component parts by means of
appropriate filtering circuits.
 The audio signal, 1020 Hz identification, is routed via an amplifier and possibly a volume control on the v.h.f.
nav. controller to the flight interphone sub-system of the AIS.

 The reference phase channel (CVOR)

consists of a 9960 Hz filter, a discriminator
to detect the 30 Hz FM.

 The 30 Hz reference signal (R) then

undergoes various phase shifts.

 For manual VOR operation, as

previously mentioned, we need to shift R by
the selected course. This is achieved by the
phase-shift resolver, the rotor of which is
coupled to the course or OBS knob.

 If they are in phase or 180 degree out of

phase there is no lateral movement of the
deviation bar.
73
74
 TRANSMISSION DETAILS

VOR beacons operate within the VHF band (30-300MHz) between 108.0 - 117.95 MHz. as
follows:

a) 40 channels, 108-112MHz:
This is primarily an ILS band but ICAO has allowed it to be shared with short range
VORs and Terminal VORs (TVOR):
108.0,108.05,108.20,108.25,108.40,108.45 ... 111.85 MHz
(VOR frequencies are given even decimal digits)
(108.1,108.15,108.30,108.35 ... 111.95 MHz are allocated to the ILS localizer.
Note that the first decimal is an odd digit)

b) 120 channels, 112-117.95:

112.0, 112.05, 112.1, 112.15 ... 117.95 MHz
The emission code is A9W

75
 The higher the transmitter
power the greater the
range.

THE FACTORS AFFECTING

The transmitter and
OPERATIONAL RANGE OF
receiver height
VOR

Nature of terrain

76
77
 DESIGNATED OPERATIONAL COVERAGE - (DOC)

To guarantee no co-frequency interference between the 160 frequencies available worldwide, it

would be necessary to separate co-frequency beacons by at least twice their anticipated line of
sight range. E.g. an aircraft at a height of 25,000' and the VOR situated at MSL.

Reception range (nm) Separation =

=1.25 X 158,113= 198nm
DOC=2 x 198= 396nm

78
Transmitter power, propagation paths and the degree of co-frequency interference protection
required, necessitate co-frequency beacons to be separated for planning purposes by an extra
1OO nm to about 500 NM. In practice a beacon is protected as far as is deemed necessary and
this is not always the anticipated line of sight reception range.

79
 Site error

Propagation error

FACTORS
'bends' or
AFFECTING VOR
'Scalloping
BEACON ACCURACY

Airborne
equipment errors

Pilotage
error
80
Site error is caused by uneven terrain such as
hills and man-made structures, trees and even
long grass, in the vicinity of the transmitter.
The error to radiated bearings is termed 'VOR
course-displacement error'. Ground VOR
beacon site error is monitored to ± 1°
accuracy.

Propagation error is caused by the fact that, having left the VOR site with ±1° accuracy, the
transmissions are further affected by terrain and distance.

At considerable range from the VOR 'bends' or 'Scalloping' can occur. VOR scalloping is defined as
an imperfection or deviation in the received VOR signal. It causes radials to deviate from their
standard track and is the result of reflections from buildings or terrain; it causes the Course
Deviation Indicator to slowly or rapidly shift from side to side.

Airborne equipment errors are caused by aircraft equipment assessing and converting the phase
differences to 10 of bearing ; maximum aircraft equipment error should be ± 3°.
The above errors are aggregate errors to give a total error of ±5° . In addition there is Pilotage
error is due to the fact that as an aircraft approaches the VOR the 10 radials get closer together.
81
 THE CONE OF CONFUSION AMBIGUITY

As the VOR is approached the radials converge and the VOR needle becomes more sensitive.
Near the VOR overhead the needle oscillates rapidly and the 'OFF' flag may appear momentarily;
also the 'TO/FROM' display alternates. This is all caused by the cone where there is no planned
radiation. This is known as the cone of ambiguity, confusion or silence.

82
 Types of VOR Transmitters

 Standard VOR: Widely used to define airways centrelines, transmitter power normally 200 watts.

 Terminal VOR (TVOR): Low-powered beacons used as airfield location aids. Widely used in some
parts of the world, in conjunction with DME, as a procedural approach aid.

 Broadcast VOR (BVOR): Broadcast VOR beacons provide bearing information in the usual
manner. Additionally, a voice modulation is superimposed on the carrier wave. The audio
information normally provides an Aerodrome Terminal Information Service (ATIS) giving present
weather, runway in use and serviceability state of the airfield and associated navigation aids.

 Test VOR (VOT): A VOT is a VOR, which operates on one of the normal VOR frequencies, and
provides a test signal for the pre-flight checking of VOR airborne equipment. Both modulating
waveforms are ‘phase locked’ together with 180° phase difference such that, no matter where an
aircraft is positioned in relation to a VOT, the indications on the flight deck will always show the
aircraft to be on the 180° radial from the ground facility.

 Doppler VOR (DVOR): VOR transmitter aerials should be sited on flat terrain to minimise site
errors. If such a site is not available, a complex aerial system may be employed to transmit the VOR
signal. This type of station is known as a Doppler VOR (DVOR) beacon and produces a signal which
is reasonably free of site errors even when the transmitter is sited in hilly terrain.
83
 Doppler VOR (DVOR)
A central aerial transmits an omnidirectional carrier wave, amplitude modulated at 30 Hz. In its simplest form, a
series of antennas arranged in a circle around the central aerial transmit a second signal. This second signal
consists of a separate continuous wave, 9960 Hz displaced from the station frequency, transmitted in turn from
each of 52 antennas on the circumference 30 times per second. This makes the signal appear to rotate at 30Hz.
The size of the aerial array produces the same effect as that of the FM signal from a basic VOR.

So In doppler VOR the reference signal is amplitude

modulated at 30 Hz, whilst the bearing signal is
frequency modulated at 30 Hz.

The error experienced by the VOR system is

ascribed to various sources.
This gives a total system error of ±4.5°.
Later Doppler VOR (DVOR) installations, which are
now widely used, will offer accuracies at least 10
times better than above.

84
RMI Presentation

85
Distance Measuring Equipment
DME

86
 DME
 Distance measuring equipment(DME) is a secondary radar pulsed ranging system operating
in the band 960-1213MHz. Frequency spacing is at 1MHz intervals.
 The main purpose of the equipment is to display to the pilot the range of his aircraft from a
fixed ground station.

 The origins of this equipment date back to the Rebecca-Eureka system developed in Britain
during World War II.

 International agreement on the characteristics of the current system was not Reached until
1959 but since then implementation has been rapid.
 A series of double pulses, or pulse pairs, is transmitted in all directions by the aircraft DME
equipment. Providing that the aircraft is within line of sight range of the ground DME station
(the transponder) the pulsed energy from the aircraft will be received, amplified and re-
transmitted by the transponder, again in all directions.

 The pulse train which has been re-transmitted by the transponder will arrive back at the
aircraft DME receiver. The airborne equipment measures the time interval between
transmission and reception of each pulse pair and, using this time interval and the known
constant speed of propagation, determines the slant range of the aircraft from the
transponder.
87
 The system provides slant range to a beacon at a fixed point on the ground.
 Many DME’s only display the slant distance, which is the actual distance from the aircraft to the
DME station. This is different than the ground distance due to the aircraft being at altitude. Some
DMEs compute the ground distance for display.

S (nm)
H (ft.)

G (nm)
88
 Giving range, DME alone can only be used for position fixing in a rho-rho scheme, three readings
being needed to remove ambiguity. With the addition of bearing information, such as that derived
from VOR, we have a rho-theta scheme DME and VOR in fact provide the standard ICAO short-range
navigation system. DME beacon may also be located on an airfield equipped with ILS.

TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) is a military system which gives both range and bearing with respect
to a fixed beacon.

Distance information from the DME

can be displayed on a dedicated DME
instrument or integrated into any of
the electronic navigational displays
found on modern aircraft. A dual
display DME is shown with its remote
mounted receiver. 89
 Basic Principle
DME beacons are able to service requests from a large number of aircraft simultaneously but are generally
understood to have the capacity to handle ~200 aircraft at once.

Specified DME accuracy is ±3 per cent or ±0.5 nm, whichever is the greater.

The aircraft equipment interrogates a ground-based beacon and, upon the receipt of retransmitted pulses
(unique to the on-board equipment), is able to determine the range to the DME beacon.

90
Once every 30sec the beacon transmits it’s identity which is detected by the pilot as a Morse
code burst of three letters at an audio tone of I350 Hz.

Question

1. With DME many A/C will be asking the beacon “what is my range” the beacon reply to all
of them, how each is to identify its own reply?

2. How to prevent the airborne DME interrogating an out of range beacon since this would be
wasteful of equipment life?

91
Jitter:
Transmission of DME pulses with random spacing, to avoid locking-on to another aircraft
interrogating same beacon.

Automatic Stand by:

Often referred to as signal-activated search When the aircraft is out of range of the beacon to
which the airborne DME is tuned on signals will be received. This state inhibits interrogations until
such time as the aircraft is within Range and signals are received.

Squitter:
If, however, we consider the beacon having just come on line or the first flight, after a quiet
period, approaching the beacon, we have a -chicken-and-egg situation: the beacon will not reply
unless interrogated; the interrogator will not Interrogate unless it receives signals.

92
Search:
During search the range-measuring circuits of the interrogator have not recognized those
pulses amongst the total received which have the same jittering pattern as the interrogation.

Track:
During track the range-measuring circuits, having acquired the reply pulses, follow their early
or late arrival as the aircraft moves towards or away from the beacon.

Memory:
If replies are lost an interrogator will not immediately revert to search or auto standby but will
enter its memory condition; this may be one of two types either static or velocity with static
memory the readout is maintained steady whereas with velocity memory the readout
continues to change at its last known rate. Memory time will normally will lie between 4 and
12 s.

93
 Interrogation
It is either identified as a channel number, such as 46X, or more commonly the VHF frequency
which is, or would be, used by a co-located VOR beacon.

The full TACAN interrogation frequency range is 1025- 1150MHz with 1 MHz spacing thus the
interrogation will be one of 126 possible frequencies depending on the channel selected.

The PRF is dependent on the mode of operation of the DME:

Search 40- I50 HZ Average
Track l0-30 HZ -Average
94
 Reply
DME ground equipment are designated as 'X' or 'Y' channels. 'X' channels are the most
common. The transponded signal is 63 MHz higher than the received signal. 'Y' stations reply at
63 MHz below the received signal, and the pulse pairs are differently spaced. 'X' stations are
paired with VOR beacon frequencies with whole number decimals (e.g. 114.30), whereas 'Y'
beacons are paired with frequencies using halved decimals (e.g. 114.35).

Maximum Range Limitations

It is for this reason that DME range display indicators generally do not exceed 300 nm (the max
range at which an aircraft at approximately 58,000 ft would receive a ground beacon whose
elevation is MSL). 95
 Airborne Equipment
 A block schematic diagram of a Boeing 737 DME system is shown at Figure bellow.

 There are two options for selecting DME station, one is by channel number, the other is by
paired VOR frequency.

 With the equipment shown at Figure bellow, the latter option is used. With the equipment
shown the function switch gives the operator the choice of displaying either slant range
(NM), time to station (MIN) or groundspeed (KT).

96
 Additional DME Functions
 By monitoring the rate of change of range, the airborne DME equipment is able to determine
the aircraft's groundspeed.
 By integrating slant range and groundspeed, the equipment is also capable of calculating
time to station (TTS).

A VOR on a frequency of 112.30 MHz is always paired with a

A VOR with DME ground station
DME on channel 70X (interrogation frequency 1094 MHz;
response frequency 1157 MHz). 97
 Symbols

Slant Range v Plan Range

98
Instr ument Landing System (ILS)

99
 Is Possible:
a) when the ceiling is more than 450 m
VFR (1500 ft); or
b) when the ground visibility is more
than 5 km.

Flight

an IFR flight shall be flown at a level

which is not below the minimum flight
IFR altitude established by the State whose
territory is over flown, or, where no
such minimum flight altitude has been
established:

100
For Aircraft operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), an instrument approach or
instrument approach procedure (IAP) is a series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly
transfer of an aircraft under instrument flight conditions from the beginning of the initial
approach to a landing, or to a point from which a landing may be made visually.

Precision approaches utilize both

lateral (localizer) and vertical
Precision (glideslope) information. (ILS , MLS ,
PAR , … )

IFR Approach
types

Non-precision approaches provide

Non-Precision lateral course information only. (VOR,
NDB , LDA , …)

101
102
 Runway visual r ange (RVR ). The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre
line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway
or identifying its centre line.(ICAO, Annex 14)

A Decision height (DH) or decision altitude (DA) is a specified height or altitude in the
precision approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual
reference, such as the runway or runway environment, to continue the approach has not
been acquired

Total ILS system is Comprised of Three main Parts ; each with a transmitter on the ground
and receiver and signal processor In the aircraft.
103
The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with all required ground and airborne systems components operative, are
• CAT I — Decision Height (DH) 200 feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet (with touchdown zone and
centerline lighting, RVR 1800 feet),
• CAT II — DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet,
• CAT IIIa — No DH or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet,
• CAT IIIb — No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than 150 feet, and
• CAT IIIc — No DH and no RVR limitation.
NOTE: Special authorization and equipment are required for CAT II and III.

104
 CAT II / CAT III DEFINITIONS ACCORDING TO ICAO, FAA, and JAA

Note about automatic landing: Automatic landing is not CAT III. An automatic landing system is only
equipment providing automatic control of the aircraft during the approach and landing and is not related to
particular weather conditions. This system is mandatory for all CAT III operations. However, it is a common
practice to perform automatic landing in good visibility but in that case, the ILS performance must be sufficient
and ILS signals protected

105
Localizer :
Provides Lateral Guidance to remain on the extended runway center line.
Localizer Specification
 Channel No. : 40
 Channel Spacing : 50 khz
 Frequency range : 108 – 111.95 MHZ (Only Numbers with tenth of megacycle count odd)
 Coverage : 25nm (may be reduced to 18nm Due to topographical features)
 Polarization : Horizontally polarized
 Modulating Frequency : 150hz & 90hz
 Depth of modulation in the center line : 20 %

Difference in Depth of modulation (D.D.M)

Deviation From the center line of the extended runway is given in D.D.M which can be stated
as follows :

*Percentage modulation of the larger signal Minus the Percentage modulation of the smaller
signal, Divided By 100 .
106
The localiser transmits two overlapping
lobes of electro-magnetic energy on the
same VHF carrier wave frequency. The
centre of the overlap area, the equisignal,
defines the ILS QDM.

ILS Aerial Locations

107
Localisers which are associated with normal glidepath transmitters provide coverage from the centre of the
localiser antenna to distances of:
(a) 25 nm within plus or minus 10° of the equisignal (centre) line.
(b) 17 nm between 10° and 35° from the equisignal (centre) line.

Typical Localiser Antenna Array

108
 Block Diagr am of Oper ation
 Since the localizer and VOR frequencies occupy the same band it is normal to have a v.h.f. navigation
receiver which selects, amplifies and detects signals from either aid, depending on the frequency selected.
 A conventional single or double superhet is employed.
 Signal separation is achieved by three filters: audio, 90 and 150 Hz.
 The 90 and 150 Hz signals are full wave rectified, the difference between the rectifier outputs driving the
deviation indication while the sum drives the flag out of view.
 The 90 and 150 Hz filters, together with the rectifiers and any associated circuitry, are often part of the so-
called VOR/LOC converter which may be within the v.h.C navigation receiver or a separate unit.

109
 GlideSlope :
Provides Vertical Guidance for the Aircraft in the landing Phase.

Specification:
 Channel No. : 40 (Paired with Localizer)
 Channel Spacing : 150 khz
 Frequency range : 328.6 – 335.4 Mhz (In the UHF band)
 Modulating Frequency : 150hz & 90hz
 Depth of modulation in the correct glide path : 40%

Glideslope antennas—designed to be mounted inside

a non-metallic aircraft nose (left), and mounted
110
inside or outside the aircraft (right).
 As with the localiser, the glidepath transmitter emits two overlapping lobes of electromagnetic energy
(designated A8W) on the same carrier wave frequency. The frequency range used to glidepath
transmissions lies in the UHF band, and in this case the lobes overlap in the vertical plane.
 Again the lobes are continuously amplitude modulated at 90 Hz and 150 Hz.

 Figure below shows the idealised radiation

pattern with the equisignal defining the
glidepath at a typical value of 3° above the
horizontal plane passing through the
touchdown zone.

111
 Glidepath coverage in azimuth is provided through an arc of 8° on either side of the localiser centreline
out to a range of 10 nm from the threshold.

 Glidepath coverage in elevation is provided through an arc of 1.35° above the horizontal to 5.25° above
the horizontal. These figures apply to a standard 3° glidepath installation, and are based on the formulae
which state that glidepath coverage (in elevation) is provided through an arc (measured from the horizontal)
of between glidepath angle x 0.45 and glidepath angle x 1.75, as illustrated bellow.

 The glidepath indication must be ignored if the approach angle is so shallow as to put the aircraft at a
height of 1000 feet or below at a range from touchdown of 10 nm or more.

112
 ILS Indication

A traditional course deviation indicator (CDI) is shown on the left. The horizontal white line is the
deviation indicator for the glideslope. The vertical line is for the localizer. On the right, a Garmin G-1000
PFD illustrates an aircraft during an ILS approach. The narrow vertical scale on the right of the attitude
indicator with the “G” at the top is the deviation scale for the glideslope. The green diamond moves up
and down to reflect the aircraft being above or below the glidepath. The diamond is shown centered
indicating the aircraft is on course vertically. The localizer CDI can be seen at the bottom center of the
display. It is the center section of the vertical green course indicator. LOC1 is displayed to the left of it.

113
 Mar ker Beacon :
A marker beacon radiates directly upwards using a carrier frequency of 75 Mhz. The
modulating signal depends on the function of the marker.
•Normally located at 4.5nm from runway threshold.
Outer Marker •Modulated with a 400 keyed to give two dashes per second.
•Causes Blue lamp to flash.

•Normally located at 3500ft from runway threshold

•Modulated with a 1300 keyed to give dot-dashe per 95 times per
Marker beacon Middle Marker minute
•Causes Amber lamp to flash.

•fan or 'Z‘ marker is a position aid for en-route navigation.

Z marker •Modulated with a 3000 Hz signal which causes a white lamp to
flash in the aircraft while station identification in Morse code is
fed to the AIS.

114
 Marker beacons radiate fan-shaped patterns of energy
vertically upwards. Figure shows an installation using three
marker beacons, although the inner marker is not often
used these days.

 The marker beacon transmissions are amplitude

modulated with dots and/or dashes at given tones. As the
aircraft flies through the radiation pattern associated with a
given marker beacon, the pilot will receive both aural and
visual indications

An outer marker transmitter antenna 4 –7 miles from the

approach runway transmits a 75 MHz signal straight up (left).
Aircraft mounted marker beacon receiver antennas are shown marker beacon instrument panel display lights.
115
(center and right).
116
Microwave Landing System (MLS)

117
Microwave Landing system is an approach aid that was conceived to redress some of
the shortcomings of ILS. Satellite –Base Systems Such as Wide Area Augmentation
system (WAAS) or Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) could cause
obsolescence of MLS and ILS in near Future.

Satellite-base
Systems

ILS MLS

118
ILS Disadvantages:

• It Provides a single Approach path along the extended center line of the Runway.
• Its Channel Number Being Limited To 40.
• It is Site Sensitive and subject to distortion and bending of the approach path due to
site irregularities.
• It is Prone To interference form Broadcasting Stations.
These Disadvantages Led to a new system known as MLS that uses Time Reference
scanning Beam. (TRSB)

For the pilot, the MLS presentation will be similar to ILS with
the use of a standard CDI or multi-function display.

Specification:
 Channel No. : 200
 Channel Spacing : 300 khz
 Frequency range : 5031 – 5090 Mhz (In the UHF band)
 Coverage : 20nm for normal Approach & 7nm back azimuth (go around)
 Modulating Frequency : 13.5hz (Azimuth) & 40.5hz (elevation)
 Scanning Area : ±40º azimuth , 20º elevation
119
The system may be divided into five functions :
(a) Approach azimuth;
(b) Back azimuth;
(c) Approach elevation;
(d) Range; and
(e) Data communications (Special Information)

120
The azimuth antenna provides lateral guidance during the approach. Azimuth station (AZ) coverage extends
40° on either side of the runway centreline, with a planned option of up to 60° on either side of the centreline,
and out to a range of 20 nm.

The azimuth coverage is illustrated

121
The back azimuth antenna, if provided, gives lateral guidance for missed approach and departure
navigation.

The back azimuth transmitter is essentially

the same as the approach azimuth
transmitter.

The equipment operates on the same

frequency as the approach azimuth but at a
different time in the transmission sequence.

122
The elevation station (EL) transmits signals on the
same frequency as the azimuth station. The
elevation station provides a wide range of
glidepath angles.

The glidepath angle which is required for the

approach by a specific aircraft is selected by the
pilot.

The EL signal coverage extends through the

AZ coverage, and so provides precision
glidepath guidance at all points where
azimuth guidance is available.

123
Range Guidance
The precision DME (DME/P) provides continuous range information out to a range of 22 nm omnidirectionally.
Accuracy is in the order of ±100 ft during final approach. The principle of operation is the same as conventional
DME, but since no new frequency allocations are available, the 200 channel capability has been provided by
pairing with existing ILS installations and by the adoption of further values of pulse-pair spacing.

Data Communications (Special Information)

The azimuth ground station includes data transmission in its signal format which includes both basic (i.e.
system data) and auxillary data (i.e. approach conditions). Basic data may include approach azimuth track and
minimum glidepath angle. Auxillary data may include such information as runway condition, windshear or
weather.

Frequencies
The number of available channels is 200, spaced 300 KHz apart from 5031.0 MHz to 5090.7 MHz (SHF). Since
the basic technique is that of time multiplexing, all functions can take place on a single channel.
each function in the time-spaced transmission format is a separate entity and is preceded by identification
preamble. The receiver can therefore recognise each element of the sequential transmission.
Both Basic and Auxillary data words are transmitted at a rate of once per second.

124
An MLS azimuth guidance station with rectangular azimuth
scanning antenna with DME antenna at left. An MLS elevation guidance station.
125
126
Hyperbolic Nav.

127
 H y p er b o lic N av.
H yperbolic navigation system s enable an aircraft to fix its position by m eans of tw o or m o re
intersecting position lines.
N o transm issions are required from the aircraft.
E ach p osition line is e stablished by com parin g electronically the difference betw een the received
transm issions of tw o separated ground stations.
T he position lines obtainable take the form of fam ilies of h y p er b o lae .
S im ilar com parisons using another pair of transm itte rs w ill give a second fa m ily of hyperbolic position
lines such that the intersection of tw o position lines w ill provide a fix.

Tim e d iff e r e n c e o f
P u ls e Te c h n iq u e
tw o syn ch ro n ize d
Sy s tem LORA N
p u lse tra n sm issio n s

T h e co m p a riso n
d iffe re n ce

P h a s e d iff e r e n c e o f
tw o p h a se -lo cke d P h a s e C o m p a r is o n
co n tin u o u s w a ve Sy s tem D ec c a
tra n sm itte rs

128
 Hyperbola

A hyperbola is by definition the locus of a point having a fixed difference in range from two other
fixed points.
+ 60 + 40 + 20 0 - 20 - 40 - 60

The two fixed points are the foci, which in this context are two transmitting stations.

Inspection of the values of these numbered rings

at their intersection points will enable the family of
hyperbolic lines of constant difference to be
drawn.

129
 Construction of Hyperbola
Figure shows the next hyperbola in the family. In this case any
point along the dotted hyperbola is 20 nm closer to A than to
B, hence the designation +20 nm. Notice that, at the base line,
this hyperbola is 10 nm from the right bisector.

Figure shows the mirror image of the previous hyperbola, but

in this case all points along the dotted hyperbola are 20 nm
closer to B than to A, hence the designation -20 nm.

Figure shows the complete family of

hyperbola drawn at every 20 nm difference
of distance. Notice that the base line
extensions (the base line extended beyond A
and B) are themselves hyperbola since any
point along either base line extension is, in
this case, 100 nm closer to one of the two
fixed points (A or B) than to the other.
130
 PULSE TECHNIQUE SYSTEM

The time taken by a radio pulse to travel a given distance is a measure of that distance. In one
microsecond (1μ sec) a radio pulse will travel 983.24 feet, and will take 6.184 μ sec to travel one
nautical mile. It is thus simple to calculate distance if the pulse travelling time is known.
The distance between the two blips represents the time difference between the two receptions,
say x μ secs., and if the time base is calibrated in μ secs this can be readily obtained. Expressed in
terms of distance it will be equal to MP - SP.
The Time difference between the receptions of the two pulses will indicate the difference in the
distances of the aircraft from the two stations. (LORAN)

131
This will be indicated by the appearance of a blip on
the indicator unit time base.

The subsequent reception of the transmission from

M will be indicated on the time base by a second
blip.

The distance between the two blips represents the

time difference between the two receptions.

This provides a position line on which the aircraft must

be if the observed time difference is c μs.

132
 Ambiguities
Unless it is possible to determine whether the transmission from S is being received before that
from M or vice versa, considerable ambiguity will arise.

The straight line joining stations being called the base line.
An aircraft at C, 125 μsecs from M, will receive the signal from M first and that from S, a matter of
375-125 μsecs later, that is, the blips will be 250 μsecs apart on the time base.
Now, if the aircraft moves to D, which is 125 μsecs from S, the time difference between the reception
of the pulses from M and S will again be noted on the time base as 250 μsecs although in this case
the pulse from S is received first.
A further difficulty arises when the aircraft lies midway between the two transmitting stations, at E.
Pulses from M and S will arrive at the aircraft simultaneously. The operator would see only one blip
and could not be certain that both stations were being received simultaneously. 133
 Delayed Pulsing

These ambiguities can best be overcome by introducing a delay at one of the stations.

For Example at S, so that the aircraft, no matter where it is situated, will always receive the M
pulse before the S.

An accurate electronic timer is maintained at the S station, the operation of which is regulated by
the reception of the pulses from the M station.

This regulation of the S station by the M station is known as synchronization. The M station is
referred to as the “master” station, and the S as the “slave” station.

This delay is not long enough to allow use at anything other than short ranges, so a further delay
is built in by each secondary transmitter, the 'secondary specific delay’.

134
 Typical Lattice Construction
It is necessary to provide a complete series of hyperbolae for the master and slave stations.

These hyperbolae must be plotted for convenient time difference values, bearing in mind that
confusion will be caused by a great many lines on the map.

In this way a complete family of hyperbola for the master and slave stations are produced, and
the finished series is called a lattice.

With a simple Master and Single Slave System it is only possible to obtain single position lines
from the lattice.

However, if a second slave station is introduced,

controlled by the same master, a second series of
hyperbolae will be produced. Then, if the two time
differences are measured simultaneously, two position
lines will be obtained and the point of intersection will
provide a fix.

Alternatively a separate master and slave system may be

introduced in a suitable position to provide the second
position line. 135
Loran-C chains are positioned in the Pacific area, the Mediterranean, Arabia, Northern Europe
and the North Atlantic 136
137
 LORAN-C
LORAN-C is a pulse hyperbolic navigation fixing system operating in the LF band at a frequency of
100 kHz. At this frequency surface attenuation is low and the surface wave diffracts at an optimum
rate, giving usable surface wave signals at ranges of up to 1000 nm.

With the advent of GPS, LORAN-C has a questionable future but may evolve as a reliable back-up to
that system.
Transmissions
LORAN-C uses 'chains' of stations to provide fixing coverage.
Each chain consists of one master and a group of up to four secondaries, transmitting with different
'secondary specific' delays.
The secondaries are designated W, X, Y, and Z in the order of their transmissions.
Some chains may not use the W slave, and a chain with only two secondaries will dispense with the
Z slave also.
The chain baselines are typically about 600-1000 nm long.
The signals are sent in groups of pulses.
To distinguish between chains each chain has its own 'group repetition interval' or GRI. which is the
time between the first pulse of each group.
138
To make matching easier, and to enable modern equipment to work automatically, the phases in
the various pulses of each group are switched in a fixed pattern for the master and each
secondary.

The equipment can therefore determine which signal it is receiving at any time, and disregard
any signals which are incorrect.

These incorrect signals may be signals which are missing a pulse, or be long-hop sky wave signals
from another Loran chain.

The phase switching permits accuracies of ± 10 μs.

139
 LORAN EQUIPMENT

1. Classic (Readout Unit and Receiver/CRT)

The CRT displays the nine "gated" pulses of the

master transmission and the eight pulses of the four
slave transmissions, two of which have been
selected and "gated".

The operator selected the two slaves that gave the

best position line cut to produce the most accurate
navigational fix.

The microsecond time difference values displayed

on the readout unit were plotted on the
appropriate LORAN C plotting chart.

140
 LORAN EQUIPMENT
(Cont.)

2. Modern Equipment

The latest equipments have receivers that can evaluate, simultaneously, up to eight slaves
from four chains. The computerized results are presented as latitude and longitude or along
and across track co-ordinates.

The chains and stations are acquired and deselected as required as the aircraft progresses
through its waypoints. These systems also possess powerful computers which store and
display useful navigation and performance data and can interface with GPS or INS to provide
FMS/RNAV systems.

Later automatic equipment displayed a digital time difference readout. However, modern
equipment can provide a direct input to a navigation computer and display position in any
way desired by the crew.

141
 RANGES

 1200 nm over water.

 900 nm over land.

Sky waves of varying strength can be used up to about 2500nm by night and also by day when
propagation conditions permit. In general the timings obtained from sky wave pulses will be
different from those obtained from ground wave pulses at the same location. The standard
method of allowing for these differences is to provide tabulated corrections on the Loran charts.

Factors affecting Range

Transmissions are adversely affected by
 Weather
 static build-up on an aircraft in precipitation (hence static-wick dischargers)
 natural and man-made "noise“
 require large aerial arrays with considerable power to transmit long range.

These disadvantages are minimized by using a 'multi-pulse' system. The master and slave pulses
are transmitted in groups of eight, the individual pulses in each group separated by 1000 μs with
the master group distinguishable by a ninth pulse at a 2000 μs interval; the duration of a pulse is
250-350 μs. 142
 Accuracy

 Traditionally, + 1 nm at a range of 1000 nm from the baseline.

 It is advertised as + 0.25 nm by the current system operators.

European Chains

The US Coastguard developed the original LORAN-C chains, but withdrew support from those
outside the United States in 1994.

Several European nations formed NELS (North-west European LORAN-C System) as a

consortium to establish a new chain structure and to run the system in Northern Europe.

Chayka

A similar system called Chayka was developed by the Russians during the Cold War. It is
compatible with LORAN-C, and the Russian chains provide an extension into Eastern Europe.
They are expected to remain in service until at least 2010.

143
Weather Avoidance

144
Clouds types

145
 Weather avoidance
Storm scope
(Lightning
detectors)
Satellite or other
source weather
radar information
Weather Radar
that is uploaded to
the aircraft from an
outside source

Weather
avoidance

146
AWR is used to provide the pilots with information regarding both weather ahead as well as navigation.

AWR is a primary pulse radar and use:

the echo principle to depict range and
the searchlight principle to depict relative
bearing of the targets
The radar information can be displayed on a
dedicated unit or shown (on modern aircraft) in
combination with the aircraft route on the EFIS
navigation display (ND).

Information on cloud formations or terrain features, is displayed on the indicator's screen as a range
from the aircraft and a bearing relative to its heading.
AWR FUNCTIONS
detect the size of water droplets and hence deduce where the areas of turbulence are within the cloud.
determine the height of cloud tops by tilting the radar beam up or down.
map the terrain below the aircraft to provide navigational information and high ground avoidance.
provide a position fix (range and bearing) from a prominent feature. 147
Airborne Equipment

148
 Antenna
The antenna shape can be
parabolic or
flat plate
which produce both:
 conical beam or pencil-shaped beam for weather and longer range ( > 60 nm) as well as
fan-shaped or cosecant square beam for short range mapping.
The radar antenna is attitude-stabilized in relation to the horizontal plane using the aircraft's
attitude reference system.
The pencil beam used for weather depiction has a width of between 3˚ and 5 ˚

149
 The beam width must be as narrow as possible for efficient target resolution.

Where λTX = wavelength in use

D = diameter of aerial dish

A narrower beam would give better definition but would require a larger antenna which becomes
impractical in an aircraft. Therefore, it is essential to use shorter wavelengths.
150
 Radar Frequency
The optimum radar frequency is one that has a wavelength comparable to the size of the objects
which we wish to detect, namely the large water droplets and wet hail. (3 cm across)
The typical frequency adopted by most commercial systems is 9375 MHz, +/- 30 MHz

Beam Coverage

151
 Control And Display

Monochrome Cloud Display And Avoidance Courses

Color Weather Display

A dual mode control panel allows

separate control and display on the left or
right HSI or navigational display.

152
 Reflecting Levels

In color weather radar systems the weather targets are color-coded according to the intensity of
the rainfall as follows:

BLACK Very light or no returns Less than 0.7mm/hr

GREEN Light returns 0.7 - 4mm/hr
YELLOW Medium returns 4 - 12mm/hr

RED Strong returns Greater than 12mm/hr

MAGENTA Turbulence Due to rainfall intensity 153

 MAPPING OPERATION
Therefore coastlines, built up areas, skyscrapers, bridges and power stations etc. will give very bright
returns. Ice has jagged edges which reflect but snow is a poor reflector and masks ground features.
Flight over high ground can produce a false image of a series of lakes due to the radar shadow
caused by the mountains/hills.

For short-range mapping the MAP mode should be selected on the function switch.
It will probably be fairly obvious that, when using the ground mapping modes of a AWR to illuminate
a particular ground feature, the tilt setting must be increased in the downwards direction as the
selected range decreases.

154
 Lightning Detectors
 Lightning detection is a second reliable means for identifying potentially dangerous weather.
Lightning gives off its own electromagnetic signal. The azimuth of a lightning strike can be calculated
by a receiver using a loop type antenna such as that used in ADF.

 The range of the lightning strike is closely associated with its intensity. Intense strikes are plotted
as being close to the aircraft.

155
Radar Altimeter (Radio Altimeter)
RADALT

156
 Height
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from a
specified datum. (Normally associated with QFE and height above aerodrome level).

Altitude.
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from MSL.
(Normally associated with QNH).

Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.

Absolute Altitude
Alternatively known as Absolute Height, meaning the height of the aircraft above the surface
immediately below.
157
 Altimeter Settings
The meaning of the terms aircraft altitude or height is complicated by the various
references used from which the height can be measured:

QFE. The atmospheric pressure at the elevation of an aerodrome or runway threshold

which, when set on the altimeter sub-scale, will cause the altimeter to read zero.

QNE. The indicated height on landing when the altimeter sub-scale is set to 1013.2 mb, in
other words the pressure altitude of the runway.

QNH. The setting on the sub-scale of an altimeter which will cause the instrument to
indicate the height of the aircraft above MSL, when the aircraft is on the ground. It is
normally set by civilian aeroplanes operating in the vicinity of an aerodrome.

Standard Pressure Setting. An altimeter sub-scale setting of 1013.2 mb.

Flight Level. A surface of constant pressure which is related to the standard atmosphere
pressure level of 1013.2 mb. It is referred to in terms of the pressure altitude divided by
100. Thus, FL300 equates to a pressure altitude 30,000 ft.
158
160
 Conventional

Barometric
Sensitive
Altimeter
Altimeter
Low-range Encoding
Radio Altimeter Altimeter

161
162
 A barometric altimeter senses the static pressure at aircraft level and gives a reading dependent on
the difference between this pressure and the pressure at some reference level.

 For aircraft flying above about 3000 ft, the reference of paramount importance is that level
corresponding to a pressure of 1013.25m bar( 29-92in.Hg), the so-called mean sea level.

 The radio altimeter measures the height of the aircraft above the ground.

163
 Pulse Radar
Altimeter
RADALT types
Continuous
Wave Radio
Altimeter

164
 Pulse Radar Altimeter

Radar altimeters use conventional pulse radar techniques. The time taken for a short pulse to
travel to the ground and back is measured and displayed on an indicator.
The main difference from a ‘conventional’ range finding system is that two aerials are used.
Typical frequency : 4.3 GHz

Continuous Wave Radio Altimeter

Uses a technique similar to the Doppler principle. However, instead of sending a fixed frequency,
it sends a continuously, regularly, changing frequency and measures the time taken between
transmission and reception of each frequency

The carrier frequency: 4.3 GHz, is frequency modulated by a further signal of about 300 Hz to
produce varying frequencies between about 4200 MHz and 4400MHz .

Change of freq = Rate of change of freq X Time taken

165
 Search

states of operation Lock / Follow

Memory

166
 Limit Height Indicator

In some displays there is a limit height indicator used when flying below 1000 feet. The
height the pilot wishes to fly is selected on the limit switch, which operates a system of lights
on the height indicator as follows:

(a) Amber : Flight is being made above the height selected.

(b) Green : Flight is made ± 15 feet of the selected height.
(c) Red : Flight below the selected height.

The decision height, DH200, in the lower right corner of this

EADI display uses the radar altimeter as the source of
altitude information.

167
 Decision Height Indicator.

A more recent alternative to the ‘traffic light system’ is available, where the indicator is
equipped with a decision height (DH) selection/control knob.

The DH control knob may incorporate a ‘press to test’ facility. Either pre-flight, the DH knob is
used to position the DH ‘bug’ at the required decision height setting.

When the aircraft descends below the set decision height, the DH lamp comes on, and in some
systems an audio tone is also produced.

Most aircraft now incorporate the decision height warning into the GPWS or EGPWS.

168
 Fixed Error

ERRORS Mushing Error

169
170
 Chapter 3
Independent Navigation

171
Inertial Navigation System
INS

172
INS is a self-contained, all-weather Navigation system that:

Velocity and position are obtained by continuously measuring and integrating vehicle
acceleration.

Integrator Integrator
accelerometer a v x

First in the military field and then in the commercial market place, inertial navigation
systems (INS) became a preferred method for achieving long-range navigation such that
by the 1960s the technology was well established.

173
 Gyro Stabilization

ACCELEROMETERS

INS main parts

INTEGRATORS

Display

174
The accelerometers in each reference frame, must be capable of maintaining that
orientation during aircraft maneuvers.

Gyros are therefore mounted on the platform to detect platform rotation and control
platform attitude.

Three single degree of freedom gyros are normally used.

The platform rotations detected by the gyros are used to generate error signals,
proportional to change in platform attitude, which are used to motor the platform back to
its correct orientation.

175
The Stable Platform – Aircraft Heading True North

176
 Effect of Earth Rotation and Vehicle Movement

to make Gyros ‘Earth stable’, they must be corrected for:

 Earth rate
 Transport wander

Earth rate:
Apparent tilt of gyro due to rotation of Earth; vertical component = topple, horizontal = drift

Transport wander:
Apparent wander (either drift or topple) also occurs whenever the gyro is transported east or
west across the surface of the Earth. This apparent wander is specifically termed transport
wander.
177
 ACCELEROMETERS
Dynamic range: typically ± 20 g

Sensitivity: typically 1 x 10-6 g

Linear response

Simple Spring and Mass Accelerometer

The deflection of the mass is proportional to the

acceleration.

Pendulous Accelerometer

The pendulous mass is free to move only

along the sensitive axis.

178
Electronic integrators are more accurate,
but are capable of integrating continuously
for only limited periods of time. Miller
Integrator
The electro-mechanical integrators are less
accurate, but can integrate indefinitely.

The Miller integrator is therefore used to integrate

Analogue
accelerations
Integrators

INTEGRATORS
The Velodyne

Digital
Integrators Velodyne converts a voltage input into an output
of shaft rotation proportional to the integral of the
applied voltage.
179
180
 The Mode Selector Panel
 The traditional INS system comprises two control panels for control and display plus an Inertial
Reference Unit (IRU) which contains the gyros, accelerometers, integration circuits etc. The
simpler of the two control panels, the mode selector unit (MSU).
 Standby. In this mode power is supplied to all parts of the system. It is normal to insert the
start position (the aircraft's ramp position in latitude/longitude to the nearest tenth of a minute
of arc) at this stage. Remember that an accurate latitude is essential for successful platform
alignment.
 Align. Having inserted the start position, with the aircraft stationary and with a stable power
source, the align mode can now be selected to enable leveling and gyro-compassing to
commence.
 Ready Nav. When the levelling/alignment
process is complete the green Ready Nav
light will be illuminated, to indicate that
the system is now ready for use in the
navigation mode.
 Nav. Selection of the navigation mode
means that the INS is open for business,
and the aircraft can now be moved.
 Att Ref. This position is normally for use
following a computer/processing failure.
181
 INS CONTROL AND DISPLAY PANELS

An interface panel for three air data and inertial reference systems on an Airbus (Figure ‘a’). The
keyboard is used to initialize the system. Latitude and longitude position is displayed at the top.

182
(a) (b)
This integrated system comprised the following units:

1. Dual sensors:
 VOR for bearing information;
 DME for range information;
 Air data computer (ADC) for air data;
 Provision for a dual GPS interface.

2. Controls and displays:

 Control and display unit (CDU);
 Electronic flight instrument system/flight director (EFIS/FD);
 Mode selector unit.

3. Other major systems receiving INS data for stabilization or computation:

 Weather or mission radar;
 Flight management system (FMS);
 Autopilot.

183
For reasons of both availability and accuracy, systems were developed with dual and triple
INS installations

This type of system would be representative of an INS installation of a large aircraft before
the availability of satellite sensors in the 1990s

184
Doppler Navigation System

185
A Doppler Navigation System uses the Doppler principle to measure an aircraft's ground speed
and drift.

The Doppler radar functions by continuous measurement of Doppler shift and converting the
measured values to groundspeed and drift angle.
In early systems the aircraft's departure point was loaded into a navigation computer, which then
converted the aircraft's heading and Doppler ground speed/drift inputs into a continuous display
of aircraft position; this was then displayed as latitude and longitude, and or as distance to go
along track and position left or right of track, in nautical miles.

186
 A Doppler navigation system:

a) is completely self-contained and requires no ground based navigation aids.

b) is usable worldwide.

c) is most accurate overland.

d) is less accurate during flight over the sea because the surface winds, tides and currents
move the surface in random directions.

e) sometimes fails to measure a ground speed and drift during flight over a smooth, glassy
sea.

187
The latest improved Doppler Navigation Systems combine the inherent accuracy of Doppler
ground speed and drift measurement with information from:

 Decca,
 Inertial Reference Units,
 Loran C,
 Global Positioning Systems and
 VOR/DME,

in various combinations to suit customer requirements, These navigational inputs also help to
eradicate the errors of the original Doppler Navigation Systems, caused by inaccurate heading
reference and degradation, or loss, of Doppler ground speed and drift when flying over large
expanses of water.

188
 DOPPLER PRINCIPLE

Whenever there is a relative motion between a transmitter and receiver a frequency shift
(change) occurs which is proportional to their relative motion. This change in frequency, fd, is
known as the Doppler shift, Doppler effect, or Doppler frequency.

189
The stationary transmitter T broadcasts at a carrier frequency of f Hz. The stationary
receiver R receives f waveforms each second at the constant speed of electro-magnetic
waves.

190
191
192
 Single Beam
Systems Fixed
Twin Beam Aerials

Doppler Systems Rotating

Aerials Three-Beam Aerials
Systems Fixed
Four-beam Aerials
Systems Rotating
Aerials

193
 Single Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Twin Beam
Systems
Doppler Rotating
Aerials Aerials
Three-Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Four-beam
Systems
Rotating
Aerials

These represent the earliest thoughts on aerial deployment with Doppler equipment and are
no longer in use.

A beam is transmitted to the fore of the aircraft towards the surface. When the reflected signals
are received and fd is available, the aerial is rotated until the value of fd is maximum.

the angle through which the beam is thus displaced is the measure of drift and the fd is the
direct measure of the aircraft’s ground speed.

194
 Single Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Twin Beam
Systems
Doppler Rotating
Aerials Aerials
Three-Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Four-beam
Systems
Rotating
Aerials

The Doppler shifts observed in two beams can be

combined to give an automatic derivation of drift
and groundspeed. The beams may be fixed to
the aircraft axes or rotated in azimuth.

One beam is directed forward, the other abeam

of the aircraft.

The two values are compounded to give drift and

ground speed.

195
 Single Beam
Systems Fixed
Twin Beam Aerials
Doppler Systems Rotating
Aerials Three-Beam Aerials
Systems Fixed
Four-beam Aerials
Systems Rotating
Aerials

The two beams at a fixed angular

distance are rotated about the fore-
and-aft axis of the aircraft until the fd
produced by both the beams is of
equal value. Then the bisector of the
angle between the two beams is the
aircraft’s track and the ground speed.

196
 Single Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Twin Beam
Systems
Doppler Rotating
Aerials Aerials
Three-Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Four-beam
Systems
Rotating
Aerials

A third beam could be directed, say, vertically down to sense

and eliminate errors due to vertical motion, but such systems
are not generally used. Many modern dopplers are in fact three
beam systems, but take the form of a Janus four-beam system
in which one beam, being redundant is removed.

197
 Single Beam
Systems Fixed
Twin Beam Aerials
Doppler Systems Rotating
Aerials Three-Beam Aerials
Systems Fixed
Four-beam Aerials
Systems Rotating
Aerials

198
 Single Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Twin Beam
Doppler Systems Rotating
Aerials Three-Beam Aerials
Systems Fixed
Four-beam Aerials
Systems Rotating
Aerials

Four beams are transmitted from two transmitters. One transmitter transmits beams 1 and 3
simultaneously.

Half a second later the second transmitter transmits beams 2 and 4.

Beams 1 and 3 produce a component of ground speed in direction forward port and beams 2 and
4 in direction forward starboard.

Since the angle between the beams is known, drift and ground speed can be computed.

199
 Single Beam
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Twin Beam
Doppler Systems Rotating
Aerials Three-Beam Aerials
Systems
Fixed Aerials
Four-beam
Systems Rotating
Aerials

This is perhaps the most popular system. The transmission pattern is similar to the four-beam
fixed aerial system. One aerial sends a beam forward and to the right while the other aerial of
the pair sends the beam rearward and to the left. A few seconds later the other pair of aerials
sends a beam forward left and rearward right.

The returning signals from each pair are mixed together to produce a Doppler beat frequency.

200
Janus Aerials. A name given to the aerials which transmit forward as well as rearward, and comes
from the Greek god who could simultaneously look forward and behind. These aerials are used
with advantage in various ways:

To Reduce Errors due to the Transmitter Frequency Wandering

To Reduce Pitch Errors

Beam Shape
The description of the doppler beams so far has assumed pencil
beams depressed by σ in a vertical plane and displaced by φ in a
horizontal plane, both with respect to the aerial axis. In practice
the beams are produced by linear arrays, and are conical about the
waveguide axis. The semi-angle of the cone is defined as the
‘depression angle’, and usually denoted by θ.

201
 the angle of depression is assumed to be 60° and the beamwidth is 4°.

The beam width varies between 1° and 5° depending on the type of the equipment and
because of this, the reflected signals are not composed of a single frequency but a spectrum of
frequencies.

A unit in the receiver called the frequency tracking unit finds the fd by dividing the energy
content envelope in two equal halves.

202
 Airborne Equipment

These figures show a typical Doppler Aerial installation and

flight deck display as used on many older aircraft types.

203
 Chapter 4
Satellite Navigation (SATCOM)

204
205
 Satellite Basics
Johannes Kepler's three laws quantified the mathematics of plane try orbits which apply equally
to the orbits of satellites:
First Law: a satellite's orbit describes an ellipse with the earth at one of the foci.

Second Law: a satellite sweeps out equal areas in equal time.

206
Third Law: The square of the satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average
distance.
Using these laws, and given a starting point, the satellites - space vehicles (SVs) calculate their
positions at all points in their orbits.

The SV s' orbital position is known as ephemeris.

POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEM

GNSS use an Earth referenced three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with its origin at
the center of the earth.

207
Because the systems are global a common model of the Earth was required.

The World Geodetic Survey of 1984 (WGS84) was selected as the appropriate model for GPS and
all GPS terrestrial positions are defined on this model and referenced to the Cartesian
coordinate system.

All maps and charts for aviation in Europe and North America and, no doubt elsewhere, are
constructed from the WGS84 model.

Where other models are required a mathematical transformation is available between the
models.

208
 The four basic information elements provided by GPS are:
(a) Latitude
(b) Longitude
(c) Height
(d) Time

In recent years, satellite navigation systems have revolutionized the concept of instrument
navigation. Developed as a military system by the United States and the Soviet Union.
ICAO refers to them as 'Global Navigation Satellite Systems' or ‘GNSS’

The planned European augmentation system for GNSS-I, known as the European Geostationary
Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), will provide differential positioning over wide areas.

In addition, the European Commission is working towards the development of a second

generation regional GNSS, called Galileo.

Geostationary:located in a fixed position (about a high-altitude satellite that is always located in one fixed point in relation to Earth

209
The receiver uses four SV s and constructs a three dimensional fix using the pseudo-ranges from
the 4 SV s.

The intersection of two range spheres will give a circular position line.

210
The introduction of a third range sphere will produce two positions several thousand miles
apart.

One position will be on or close to the surface of the earth, the other position will be out in
space, so it would be possible to use just three pseudo-ranges to produce a position, by
rejecting the space position.
211
 THE GPS SEGMENTS

GPS comprises three segments:

 The Space Segment

 The Control Segment and

 The User Segment

212
 THE SPACE SEGMENT

 comprises a constellation of 24 SV s in 6 orbital planes, 21 SV s are operational and the other 3

are in-space spares

 The orbits have an average height of 10,898 nm (20,180 km) and have an orbital period of 12
hours.

 The orbital planes have an inclination of 55°

and are equally spaced around the Equator.

 The spacing of the SV s in their orbits is such

that an observer on, or close to the surface
of the Earth will have between five and eight
SVs in view, at least 5° above the horizon.

 The SV shave 4 atomic clocks ( 2 each of cesium

and rubidium standard) with an accuracy of
1 nanosecond.

213
The SV s broadcast pseudo-random noise (PRN) codes of one millisecond duration on two
frequencies in the UHF band. Each SV has its own unique code.

L1 Frequency: 1,575.42 MHz transmits:

 the coarse acquisition (C/A) code repeated every millisecond with a modulation of
1.023MHz.
 the precision (P) code, modulation 10.23 MHz repeats every seven days.
 the navigation and system data message at 50 Hz. The navigation and system data message
is used by both the P and C/A codes.

L2 Frequency: 1227.6 MHz transmitting the P code. The second frequency is used to
determine ionospheric delays.

214
215
Only the C/A code is available to civilian users, although the USA have stated their intention
to provide a second frequency for civilian users in the near future.

The P code is provided for the US military and approved civilian users and foreign military
users at the discretion of the US DOD.

The P code is replaced by a Y code when anti-spoofing measures are implemented. The Y
code is encrypted and therefore only available to users with the necessary decryption
algorithms.

216
 SV clock error

Info. on
SV clock time ionospheric
conditions

Info.
contained Supplementary
SV position
in the PRN information
codes

217
The two services provided are:

 The standard positioning service (SPS) using the CIA code.

 The precise positioning service (PPS) using the P code.

THE CONTROL SEGMENT

The GPS control segment comprises:

 A Master Control Station

 A Back-up Control Station
 5 Monitoring Stations

218
The monitoring stations check the SV’s internally computed position and clock time, at
least once every 12 hours.

Although the calculation of position using Keplerian laws is precise, the SV orbits are
affected by the gravitational influences of the sun, moon and planets and are also affected
by solar radiation, so errors between the computed position and the actual position occur.

When a positional error is detected by the ground station, it is sent to the SV for the SV to
update its knowledge of position.

Similarly if an error is detected in the SV clock time this is notified to the SV, but, since the
clocks cannot be adjusted, this error is included in the SV broadcast.

219
 THE USER SEGMENT

The User Segment is all the GPS receivers using the space segment to determine position on and
close to the surface of the Earth.

These receivers may be stand-alone or be part of integrated systems.

220
 Sequential
receivers

types of Multiplex
Receiver receivers

Multi-channel
receivers

221
Specifically, for the aircraft technician, the user
section consists of a control panel/display, the
GPS receiver circuitry, and an antenna. The
control, display and receiver are usually located
in a single unit which also may include VOR/ILS
circuitry and a VHF communications transceiver.
GPS intelligence is integrated into the
multifunctional displays of glass cockpit aircraft.

222
223
 The navigation message is contained in
one frame comprising 5 sub-frames.

Each sub-frame transit time : 6 sec

→ total frame takes 30s for the receiver
Frame 1 → SV clock error, to receive

frames 2 & 3 → the SV ephemeris data,

frame 4 → ionospheric propagation model data, GPS time and its correlation with UTC.
Frame 5 → transmit current SV constellation almanac data.

A series of 25 frames is required to download

the whole almanac. The almanac data is
usually downloaded hourly and is valid from 4
hours to several months dependent on the
type of receiver.

Almanac: yearly publication (includes a calendar, lunar cycles, etc.);

publication containing statistical information.

224
Because the orbits are mathematically defined, an almanac of their predicted positions can be
and is maintained within the receivers.

Thus, when the receiver is switched on, providing it knows its position and time to a reasonable
degree of accuracy it will know which SV s to expect and can commence position update
immediately.

If the almanac is corrupted, out of date or lost it takes 12.5 min. to download from the SVs.

When the receiver position is significantly in error it will not detect the expected SV s. In this
case it will carry out a systematic search to determine which SVs are in view, this search is
known as “sky search”.

Similarly, when the receiver does not know its position it will carry out this search. “Sky search”
may include download of the almanac.

225
The GPS receiver internally generates the PRN code and compares the relative position of the two
codes to determine the time interval between transmission and reception.

226
a fourth range position line is needed because of the way the receiver compensates for receiver
time errors.

The receiver has an accurate crystal oscillator to provide time, (does not compare with the
accuracy of the SV clocks,)

the receiver can set up 4 linear simultaneous equations each with 4 unknown quantities (X, Y,
Z, and T)

Note: some receiver can also produce a three dimensional position using three SV s with an
input of altitude.

227
 Receiver
Tropospheric noise error.
Multi-path
propagation
reception.
error.
Geometric
Ionospheric
dilution of
propagation
precision
error.
(GDOP).

Effect of
SV Clock
aircraft
Error.
maneuver.

GPS
Ephemeris
Errors ERRORS Selective
availability

All errors are at the 95% probability level.

228
 INTEGRITY MONITORING

The ICAO specification for radio navigation systems, requires a 2 second warning of failure for
precision systems (e.g. ILS) and 8 second warning for non-precision systems.

Therefore differential systems are under development which will determine any degradation in
accuracy and allow a timely warning of the failure or degradation of the information provided.

229
 DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)

If the SV information degrades, the GPS receiver has no means of determining the degradation.
Consequentially the safety of flight may be seriously endangered.

Air based augmentation

systems (ABAS)

kinds of Ground based augmentation

DGPS systems (GBAS)

Space based augmentation

systems (SBAS)

230
 Air based augmentation systems (ABAS)

To determine, at the receiver, if any of the data from any of the SVs is in error requires the use of a fifth SV.
By comparing positions generated by the combinations of the five SVs it is possible to detect errors in the
data, and hence which SV is in error.

The GPS term for this is receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. (RAIM)

This function enables the aircraft GPS receiver to monitor the integrity of incoming satellite signals, to
identify the satellite responsible for an erroneous signal, and to remove that satellite from the navigation
solution.

A sixth satellite signal enables the receiver to identify the satellite which is giving the erroneous signal and
to remove it from the navigation solution. This is called Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE).

In airborne equipment comprising a stand alone GPS receiver, the RAIM must be functioning before the
GPS can be used as the primary navigation reference for flight under IFR.

In airborne equipment where a GPS receiver provides data to an integrated navigation system (a flight
management system or a multi-sensor navigation system), either the GPS receiver must be providing RAIM
or the multi-sensor navigation system must be providing a level of integrity which is equivalent to that given
by RAIM, before the GPS can be used as the primary navigation reference for flight under IFR.
231
 Ground based augmentation systems (GBAS)
 GBAS is a local area DGPS (LADGPS) implemented through a local area augmentation system
(LAAS).
 This is by removing ephemeris and SV clock errors and minimizing ionospheric and
Tropospheric errors.
 It is specifically established to provide CAT II and III precision runway approaches.
 LAAS requires there to be a precisely surveyed site on the aerodrome & a means of
transmitting the corrections to aircraft operating close to the aerodrome.
 The data is transmitted from an aerial close to the runway threshold and is
formatted in such a way that the GPS receiver in the aircraft reads the
transmission as being from a SV situated on the aerodrome.
 This pseudo-SV is known as a pseudolite (pseudo- satellite).

 In practical terms, this means that locations where the WAAS is unable to meet existing
navigation and landing requirements (such as availability), the LAAS will be used to fulfill those
requirements.
 LAAS will also provide the user with a navigation signal that can give an all weather ground
navigation capability enabling the potential use of LAAS as part of a surface navigation system and
input to surface surveillance / traffic management systems. 232
 Local Area Augmentation System
 The LAAS ground reference
stations will be installed at
precise locations at an airport.
The ground reference stations
receive and collect GPS
positioning data. The GPS data
are then sent to the central
processing station, which
compares the calculated
positions with the known precise
locations to determine the errors
of the GPS. The GPS corrections
are then transmitted to aircraft
in the vicinity of the airport.

 It is fully expected that the full

configuration will pinpoint the
aircraft’s position to within one
meter or less.

233
 Ground based augmentation systems (GBAS)

The LAAS has the potential to provide the necessary accuracy to achieve category 3C type
operations.

234
 Space based augmentation systems (SBAS)
SBAS is a wide area DGPS (WADGPS) implemented through a wide area augmentation system
(WAAS).
The European geostationary navigation
overlay system (EGNOS)

Systems under
The USA WAAS
development

The Japanese MSAS

235
 Wide Area Augmentation System
There are 2 segments making up SBAS:
The space segment which comprises the GPS and GLONASS constellations and the INMARSAT geo-
stationary SVs.
 The ground segment, comprising reference stations (RS), regional control stations
(RCS) and master control stations (MCS) or navigation earth stations (NES).
 RS measure the accuracy of the SV data and the ionospheric and Tropospheric effects on the SV
transmissions.
As with LAAS the RS are precisely surveyed sites containing a GPS receiver and an accurate atomic clock.
Each RS is linked to a RCS. The RCS will be linked in turn to MCS or NES.
Signals from GPS satellites are received by the wide area ground reference stations (WRSs). Each of these
precisely surveyed reference stations receive GPS signals and determine if any errors exist. These WRSs are
linked to form the WAAS network. Each WRS in the network relays the data to the wide area master station
(WMS) where correction information is computed. The WMS calculates correction alogorithms and assesses the
integrity of the system. A correction message is prepared and uplinked to a Geostationary Communication
Satellite via a ground uplink system (GUS). The message is then broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1,
1575.42MHz) to receivers on board aircraft which are flying within the broadcast coverage area of the WAAS.
The communications satellites also act as additional navigation satellites for the aircraft, thus, providing
additional navigation signals for position determination.
236
 Wide Area Augmentation System

The WAAS will;

(a) improve basic GPS accuracy to
approximately 7 meters vertically and
horizontally.
(b) improve system availability through
use of the geostationary communication
satellites carrying the necessary
equipment to generate ‘GPS like’
navigation signals.
(c) provide important integrity
information about the entire GPS
constellation. Figure illustrates the main
features of a WAAS.

237
 Wide Area Augmentation System
The RS determine their GPS position from the SV data.
The wide area augmentation system (WAAS) is used to refine GPS positions to a greater degree of
accuracy. A WAAS enabled GPS receiver is required for its use as corrective information is sent from
geostationary satellites directly to an aircraft’s GPS receiver for use.

238
 Wide Area Augmentation System

 The RS now, since it knows its own position and receives the SV ephemeris, clock time and
any clock error corrections, back calculates the true position and time at the SV and determines
the range error for each SV.

 It also determines if there are significant errors which render any of the SV s' information
unusable, hence providing an integrity check on the system. This range error will not deviate
significantly over a considerable range (400+ km), neither will the relative effects of the
ionospheric and Tropospheric propagation.

 The data (SV errors and integrity assessment) is sent via the RCS to the MCS (located at the
NATS at Gatwick) where it is formatted for use by suitable equipped GPS receivers. The data is
then sent to Goonhilly Down to be uplinked for broadcast on the East Atlantic and Indian Ocean
INMARSAT geo-stationary SVs navigation broadcast channels.

The GPS receivers incorporate the data into the calculations and achieve both enhancement
of position and failure warning.
Whilst the accuracy of GPS will be greatly enhanced by WADGPS, it cannot and is unlikely to
achieve the accuracy required for category 1 type operations, these will continue for the
foreseeable future to require the provision of LAAS. (The best decision height achieved to date
is about 300 ft, and this is unlikely to be improved upon in the near future)
239
240
LAAS

241
 Chapter 5
Multiple Sensor Navigation

242
Area Navigation

243
 RNAV BENEFITS

can plan to fly more direct routes could be

possible

Fast aircraft may be able to overtake slower ones

laterally by changing routes,

Aircraft departing from aerodromes can be routed away

from previous traffic which may be slower or have a
lesser rate of climb by directing them to phantom
waypoints

244
The crew select a series of 'waypoints' which are their planned turning points or timing points. Such
waypoints may be referred to as 'phantom stations'.

using two, or ideally

rho-rho (ρ-ρ) fix.
more, DME ranges.

Less Accurate
Basic RNAV using a VOR radial
rho-theta (ρ-θ) fix.
Concept and a DME range,

from two VOR

theta-theta(θ-θ)
stations.

245
In a basic system, the pilot must manually select the VOR and DME stations he wants the
computer to use, and identify them as normal.

Display
Basic
Components
Control unit

The CDl or HSl displays lateral displacement (distance to one side) from planned track.

In RNAV mode, the horizontal dots represent a distance to the side of the track. Each dot
represents one nautical mile displacement.

The pilot must select the range and bearing of the phantom
waypoint from each of the inputs on the CDU.

The unit in turn will display a digital readout of these ranges

and bearings, and in addition usually of the track and range
to the selected waypoint.
246
 RVAV Inputs

Any accurate navigation aid can provide an input to a RNAV system.

 one or more inertial navigation systems (INS).

 Loran-C may
 Doppler
 GPS

Air data inputs are also required by modern systems to provide the V-NAV commands.

These different types of input with their different error characteristics

complement each other.

247
 General area navigation system

 An RNAV system is programmed to calculate the most accurate continuously updated position
possible by using the various radio navigation inputs however, should these not be available, it will
continue in dead reckoning mode until such information is restored.

 A general block schematic

diagram of an area navigation
system

248
 Navigation
Computer Unit.

Practical RNAV
Flight Data Storage
System
Unit.
Components

Control Display
Unit

249
 Navigation Computer Unit
NCU

Takes the inputs from navigation aids to provide the lateral navigation (L-NAV) directions.

It compares all the available inputs in a system called ‘hybrid navigation’, & uses a technique
called 'Kalman filtering‘ to arrive at the most probable present position for the A/C.

250
 Flight Data Storage Unit
FDSU

The modern systems no longer require the pilot to select the navigation inputs he wishes to use
(although he may if he so wishes).

Nor need he dial in the range and bearing of his phantom waypoints.

FDSU contains the position and protected ranges of all navigation aids throughout the world, or at
least along the route to be flown.

When the pilot selects his phantom waypoint on the CDU the NCU selects the stations which will
give the most accurate fix from the FDSU.

251
 Flight Data Storage Unit
FDSU
The FDSU in current systems also contains a wealth of information about :

aerodromes and positions of points on them, Air Traffic Services routes, company routes,
standard arrival routes (STARs), and standard instrument departure procedures (SIDs).

It contains information on magnetic variation around the globe, and this can be applied by the
NCU when selected by the pilot.

The database of aerodromes also includes runway threshold and even parking stand positions.
This means that the FMS can be set up to the stand position, and automatically updated as the
aircraft starts its take-off run.

The updates are required every 28 days.

The FDSU also contains the aircraft's performance details to add to the air data inputs to provide
V-NAV guidance. Such information includes economic performance as well as maximum
performance details, and can even take account of differences in fuel pricing between
aerodromes.

252
 Control Display Unit

The display part can give a digital indication of:

 computed position in latitude and longitude.

 position of the next selected waypoint,
 distance to run to it,
 groundspeed made good along track,
 estimated time of arrival at the next waypoint.

The CDU normally also feeds the navigation

display of the EFIS.

When the A/C is fitted with a FMS, the NCU forms

part of the more extensive flight FMC.

253
Figure illustrates an RNAV route of flight from airport A to airport B. The VOR/DME and VORTAC
stations shown are used to create phantom waypoints that are overflown rather than the actual
stations. This allows a more direct route to be taken. The phantom waypoints are entered into the
RNAV course-line computer (CLC) as a radial and distance number pair. The computer creates the
waypoints and causes the aircraft’s CDI to operate as though they are actual VOR stations. A mode
switch allows the choice between standard VOR navigation and RNAV.

254
 V-NAV
Using the aircraft performance information stored in the FDSU, possibly as amended by the
engine management system, the NCU can calculate the optimum flight level for the particular
phase of flight.

As fuel and therefore mass reduces during

the cruise, the FMS will indicate the best
time to change levels if a cruise climb is
not practicable. A display showing the
vertical profile of the flight may be
selected on an FMS with this facility.

Typical VNAV Climb / Cruise Profile 255

The airspace where RNAV can be used is specifically designated. Inside that airspace, aircraft are
required to carry RNAV equipment which complies with particular specifications.

B- RNAV
RNAV
Designated
Airspace
P-RNAV

Equipment complying with the definition of Basic RNAV or B-RNAV must be accurate to within
±5 nm in lateral track keeping for 95% of the time.

The accuracies to be expected by Air Traffic Control from Precision RNAV or P-RNAV equipment
are more exacting. The quoted figure is ± 1 nm across the intended track for 95% of the time
256
The ability to accurately determine and track
the position of aircraft
 Surveillance basic concept

The ability to accurately determine and track the position of aircraft.

An aeronautical surveillance system provides position and other related information to

 air traffic service (ATS) providers or

 airborne users on an aircraft or vehicle involved in the ATM process.

In most cases, an aeronautical surveillance system provides its user with knowledge of “who” is “where” and
“when.”

Other information provided may include velocity, other identifying characteristics, or intent.

258
Air Traffic Control
(ATC)
Flight plan: Specified information provided to air traffic services
units, relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.

Telecommunication Network (Reporting

Office)

Flight Plan Air Traffic Service Unit (Controller)

Pilot in Command

260
Squawk Code: a four digit code given by the air traffic controller to the pilot prior to taxi.
Pilot sets this code in the ATC transponder control panel and identify its position.

The pilot normally selects a code at the transponder only when requested to do so by air traffic
control. There are however occasions when the pilot should automatically select certain codes,
as follows:

(a) Code A7700 is selected to indicate an emergency situation.

(b) Code A7600 is selected to indicate a radio failure.
(c) Code A7500 is selected to indicate an unlawful interference with the flight (hijack).

261
Air Traffic Service Unit:

Ground

Tower

ATC Units
Approach

ACC

262
263
Radar: Stands for Radio Detection and Ranging, Is an application of
radio waves, to Detect objects that cannot be observed visually.

264
Primary Surveillance Radar:
A PSR does not Rely on the active Co-operation of the target. Electromagnetic
(e.m.) Radiation is pulsed From a directional antenna on the Ground. By
Measuring The time taken, and Noting the Direction of radiation, the Range &
Bearing of the Target are Found.

PSR Disadvantages:
More Radiating Energy is Required, Compared to SSR.
 Targets Other than aircraft will be displayed (Clutter) .
 Individual aircraft cannot be identified.
 An aircraft Altitude is unknown unless a separate height-Finding Radar is used.
 No Information link is set up.

265
A plan position indicator (PPI) for ATC
primary radar locates target aircraft
on a scaled field. SSR

PSR

Combined SSR And PSR Set

266
 Secondary Surveillance Radar:

Problems with PSR System, Led to the Development of a military secondary

Surveillance Radar (SSR) Known as Identification Friend or Foe (IFF). This
System has Since been Further developed and extended to cover Civil as well
military air traffic. The special equipment carried on the aircraft is the Air
Traffic Control (ATC) Transponder.

Aircraft radar beacon transponder antennas transmit

and receive UHF and SHF radio waves. 267
Air Traffic Control (ATC) :

268
 A traditional transponder control head (A), a lightweight digital transponder (B), and a remote altitude
encoder (C) that connects to a transponder to provide ATC with an aircraft’s altitude displayed on a PPI radar
screen next to the target that represents the aircraft.

 For each aircraft equipped with an altitude encoder, the transponder also provides the pressure altitude of the
aircraft to be displayed adjacent to the on-screen blip that represents the aircraft.

269
270
Interrogation :
The basic interrogation signal is transmitted at a frequency of 1030 MHz and
consists of a pair of pulses, each pulse having a width of 0.85 μs. The
separ ation of the pulses (Pulse Spacing) deter mines the mode of
inter rogation.

271
Transponder (Reply):

A transponder will reply to a valid interrogation, the form of the reply

depending on the mode of interrogation.
In every reply two pulses of r.f. 1090 MHz, spaced 20.3 μs apart are
transmitted, these are the frame or bracket pulses F1, and F2.
Special Pulse Identification

272
Coding (Identification):

There are Up to 12 information Pulses Between Framing Pulses (F1 & F2) .
These pulses are in Four Groups of Three Designated A,B,C & D. Within a
group, the pulses are annotated 1,2 and 4.

273
The presence or Absence of 12 information pulses make a Specific Pattern
through which it is possible to transmit 212 (4096) codes, the code being set on
the controller.
For Example to transmit a code of 4167 the transmitted pulses would be:

Coding (Altitude):
The flight level of the aircraft referenced to a pressure of 1013.25 mbar (29.92
inHg) is encoded automatically in increments of 100ft. The maximum encoded
Range is from -1000 to 126700f t inclusive. With 100 ft increments this
requires1278 different code Combination.
274
the Dl pulse is not used and, further, at least one C pulse is Transmitted but
never C l and C4 together in a single reply. Thus for each eight possible A
group combinations of pulses we have eight B group five C group and four D
group, giving 8 X 8 X 5 X 4 = 1280

The Transponder shall Automatically report Aircraft height when subjected to

mode C interrogation. The code sequence in this mode is referred to as
Gilham Code.

275
 False Target:

Fruiting

ATC Errors

Garbling

276
Side Lobe Suppression (FAA 3 pulse SLS):
Every radar transmission suffers from ‘side lobes’, which send energy out in
directions other than that of the main beam. It would be possible for an aircraft
to receive one of these side lobes and respond to that signal.

277
The field strength for P2 is such that an aircraft within the Pl/P3 main lobe will
receive P2 at a lower amplitude than Pl/P3 where as else where P2 will be
greater. The condition for a reply/no reply are:

278
 Mode S transponder
Mode 'S' is intended to provide a data link of information between aircraft and ATC, reducing the
need for verbal communication. In a Mode 'S' interrogation, the initial two pulses are followed by a
long pulse consisting of a string of up to 112 bits (Binary digits).
Mode S is sometimes referred to as mode select. It is a data packet protocol that is also used in
onboard collision avoidance systems. When used by ATC, Mode S interrogates one aircraft at a
time. Transponder workload is reduced by not having to respond to all interrogations in an airspace.
Additionally, location information is more accurate with Mode S. A single reply in which the phase of
the transponder reply is used to calculate position, called monopulse, is sufficient to locate the
aircraft. Mode S also contains capacity for a wider variety of information exchange that is untapped
potential for the future. At the same time, compatibility with older radar and transponder technology
has been maintained.

Mode S Advantages:
More accuracy in altitude reporting.
 Elimination of Garbling and Fruiting.
 Improve Surveillance accuracy
 Data link will relieve voice Communication Channel
279
Air traffic control radar technology and an onboard radar beacon transponder work together to
convey and display air traffic information on a PPI radar screen. A modern approach ATC PPI is
shown. Targets representing aircraft are shown as little aircraft on the screen. The nose of the aircraft
indicates the direction of travel. Most targets shown above are airliners. The data block for each
target includes the following information either transmitted by the transponder or matched and
loaded from flight plans by a flight data processor computer:
call sign, altitude/speed,
origination/destination, and
aircraft type/ETA (ZULU time).
A “C” after the altitude
indicates the information
came from a Mode C equipped
transponder. The absence of a
C indicates Mode S is in use.
An arrow up indicates the
aircraft is climbing. An arrow
down indicates a descent.
White targets are arrivals, light
blue targets are departures, all
other colors are for arrivals
and departures to different
airports in the area.
280
ICAO AIRCRAFT ADDRESS

A unique combination of 24 bits that is available for assignment to an aircraft for the
purpose of air-ground communications, navigation and surveillance.

Note.— The aircraft address is sometimes referred to as the Mode S address, the aircraft
Mode S address, or the 24-bit address.

281
Interrogator Code

In order to allow effective operation of Mode S ground sensors with overlapping coverage
areas, a discrete identification code, known as an IC (or Interrogator Code), is allocated to
each sensor. The IC field is included in all of its interrogations and in every reply that it sent to
them.

282
 Basic Principle Acquisition and Lockout

the sequence of events that occurs when lockout to an interrogator code is initiated.

1. The Mode S interrogator (IC=x) rotates clockwise sending all-calls during the all-call periods.
At point 1, the target shown has not yet entered coverage and no replies are received.

2. Aircraft enters sensor coverage and receives all-call interrogation (containing IC=x in a control
field).

3. Aircraft transponder generates all-call replies containing sub-fields with the 24-bit ICAO
aircraft address and the IC that was in the original received interrogation.

4. The ground sensor receives the all-call reply and decodes the aircraft address and position
and has now acquired the target. It then sends selective interrogations during following roll-call
periods.

283
5. The selective roll-call interrogations contain control information that instructs the transponder
to disregard further all-calls from all sensors using that IC.

6. The transponder will then ignore all-call interrogations from all sensors using IC=x for a period
of 18 seconds. The sensor will normally reset the lockout timer with all selective surveillance
interrogations, hence ensuring that all-call lockout is assured throughout as the target travels
through the coverage of the sensor.

284
So in compatible with conventional interogation

There are three interrogation types in a mode S SSR system:

1. ATCRBS all call: This interrogation consists of P1, P3 and a 0.8 μs P4 pulse. P2
SLS is transmitted as normal. All ATCRBS transponders reply with the 4096
identification code for mode A interrogations and altitude data for mode C. Mode S
transponders do not reply on this interrogation.

2. ATCRBS/mode S all call: This interrogation is identical to the former except P4 is

1.6 μs long. ATCRBS transponders reply with the 4096 code or altitude data as per
the ATCRBS all call. Mode S transponders reply with a special code, which contains
the identity and the aircraft’s discrete address.

3. Mode S discrete interrogation: This interrogation is directed at a specific mode S

transponder-equipped aircraft. The interrogation consists of P1, P2 and P6. P2 is
transmitted via the directional antenna and hence is the same amplitude as P1 and
P3. This effectively suppresses ATCRBS transponders from replying. P6 is actually a
DPSK data block that contains either a 56-bit or 112-bit message.

285
 Collision Avoidance Systems

 The ever increasing volume of air traffic has caused a corresponding increase in concern over collision
avoidance.
 Ground-based radar, traffic control, and visual vigilance are no longer adequate in today’s increasingly
crowded skies. Onboard collision avoidance equipment, long a staple in larger aircraft, is now common in
general aviation aircraft. New applications of electronic technology combined with lower costs make this
possible.

286
Traffic Collision and Avoidance System

TCAS
The TCAS was developed in prototype form during the 1960s and 1970s to provide a
surveillance and collision avoidance system to help aircraft avoid collisions.
 Principle of operation

TCAS is based on the beacon interrogator and operates in a similar fashion to the ground-based SSR.

Surveillance
System
TCAS Elements
Collision
Avoidance

TCAS detects the range, bearing and altitude of aircraft in the near proximity for display to the pilots.

288
 Principle of operation – Cont.
TCAS transmits:
• a mode C interrogation search pattern for mode A and C transponder equipped aircraft and receives
replies from all such equipped aircraft. In addition,

• one mode S interrogation for each mode S transponder equipped aircraft, receiving individual
responses from each one.
Unique
Range Bearing Altitude
reply
mode A
Mode C
mode S
Whenever another aircraft receives an interrogation, it transmits a reply and the TCAS computer is able to
determine the range from the time taken to receive the reply.

The directional antennae enable the bearing of the responding aircraft to be measured.

TCAS can track up to 30 aircraft but only display 25, the highest-priority targets being the ones that are
displayed. 289
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 Classes Of TCAS
TCAS exists in two forms: TCAS I and TCAS II.

TCAS I indicates the range and bearing of aircraft within a selected range, usually 15.40 nautical miles
forward, 5.15 nautical miles aft, and 10.20 nautical miles on each side. The system also warns of aircraft
within ±8700ft of the aircraft’s own altitude.
TCAS I, provides information on other traffic in the vicinity which may become a threat.
So it provides Traffic Advisory (TA) .

TCAS II is a more sophisticated system.

TCAS II, which extends this capability by presenting avoidance maneuver advice but only in the vertical
plane.
So it provides Resolution Advisory (RA).

TCAS II provides the information of TCAS I, but also analyzes the projected flightpath of approaching
aircraft. If a collision or near miss is imminent, the TCAS II computer issues a Resolution Advisory (RA).
It is required internationally in aircraft with more than 30 seats or weighing more than 15,000 kg.
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294
Traffic collision and avoidance system (TCAS) uses an aircraft’s transponder to interrogate and receive replies
from other aircraft in close proximity. The TCAS computer alerts the pilot as to the presence of an intruder
aircraft and displays the aircraft on a screen in the cockpit. Additionally, TCAS II equipped aircraft receive
evasive maneuver commands from the computer that calculates trajectories of the aircraft to predict potential
collisions or near misses before they become unavoidable.

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TCAS Terminology – Cont.
Collision Area.
A volume of airspace defined by the TCAS computer that varies in size according to the closure rate.

Caution Area.
A volume of airspace which begins 35 to 45 seconds before an intruder aircraft is predicted to enter the TCAS
aircraft's collision area.

Warning Area.
A volume of airspace which begins 20 to 30 seconds
before an intruder aircraft is predicted to enter the
TCAS aircraft's collision area.

Proximate Traffic.
Any transponder replying within a 6 nm radius and
±1200 ft vertically of the TCAS aircraft.

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 TCAS Terminology – Cont.
Traffic Advisory (TA)
Indications showing approximate positions relative to own aircraft in the horizontal plane (azimuth), or in
both the horizontal and vertical planes, of transponding aircraft in the vicinity which may become a threat.

Intruder.
An aircraft operating SSR mode A, mode C or
mode S that is predicted to enter the TCAS
aircraft's collision area.

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 TCAS Terminology – Cont.
Resolution Advisory (RA)
An aural and visual recommendation of maneuvers or maneuver restrictions in the vertical plane to resolve
conflicts with aircraft transponding SSR mode C (altitude).

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 TCAS Terminology – Cont.
Corrective Advisory
A resolution advisory that advises the pilot to deviate from the current rate of climb or
descent.

Preventive Advisory
A resolution advisory that advises the pilot which rates of climb or descent need to be
avoided.

TCAS information
displayed on an
electronic vertical speed
indicator(VSI).

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TCAS may be referred to as Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS), which is the international name
for the same system. TCAS II with the latest revisions is known as Version 7. The accuracy and reliability of this
TCAS information is such that pilots are required to follow a TCAS RA over an ATC command.

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 Chapter 7
Terrain Awareness Warning Systems
(TAWS)

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Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) is the cause of many accidents.

The term describes conditions where the crew are in control of the aircraft, but owing to a misplaced sense of
situational awareness, they are unaware that they are about to crash into the terrain.

CFIT accidents usually occur during poor visual conditions, often influenced by other factors, e.g. flight crew
distraction, malfunctioning equipment or air traffic control (ATC) miscommunication.

The outcome of these investigations was that many CFIT accidents could be avoided with a ground proximity
warning system (GPWS).

A system was developed in 1967 to alert pilots that their aircraft was in immediate danger of CFIT.

This system was further developed into the enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS) by adding
a forward looking terrain avoidance (FLTA) feature, made possible via global positioning system (GPS)
technology.
This chapter describes the generic name given to this type of protection: terrain awareness warning system
(TAWS). 302
 System overview
The terrain awareness warning system (TAWS) comprises aircraft sensors, a computing function and warning
outputs.

The computer receives numerous inputs from on-board sensors and processes these to determine if a
hazardous situation is developing.

TAWS can be considered as a ground proximity warning system (GPWS) combined with forward-looking
terrain avoidance. (FLTA)

Early ground proximity warning systems were based on aircraft sensors that detected:
● barometric altitude
● vertical speed
● radio altitude.

The TAWS computer function creates a four

dimensional position comprising: latitude,
longitude, altitude and time.
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 Ground Proximity Warning
System (GPWS)
Terrain Awareness and
Warning System
(TAWS)
Forward-Looking Terrain
Avoidance (FLTA)

304
 System overview
Cautions and warnings are provided to the crew depending on the level of CFIT threat; these include visual
indications and audible announcements.
Equipment is classified either as Class A or B depending on the level of protection that the system provides.
In general terms, passenger carrying aircraft require TAWS-A , smaller aircraft require TAWS-B;
Forward-looking terrain avoidance (FLTA) produces alerts from obstacles ahead of the aircraft using a terrain
data base, GPS position and other reference data, e.g. aircraft speed etc.
The ground proximity warning system produces alerts from the terrain below the aircraft and configuration
inputs, e.g. gear and flap settings during approach and landing.
FLTA features in Class A and B TAWS are identical and provide the same level of safety for the aircraft. The
primary differences between Class A and B TAWS are in the GPWS features and terrain awareness display.
Class A TAWS can be considered as being autonomous , i.e. all the aircraft reference inputs are from
independent sources. Class B TAWS derives much of its references from within the TAWS computer
In summary, the following sensor inputs and displays are required by Class A TAWS, but not Class B:
● radar altitude ● air data ● gear position ● map display.

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System overview

306
Ground Proximity Warning System
GPWS

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 Alert , tells the pilot that he

Inputs from aircraft sensors

and navigation equipment
is approaching a dangerous
situation.

Processor

Warning, which tells the pilot

that he is already in a
dangerous situation.
GPWS Inputs

 Absolute Altitude by The radio altimeter

 A vertical speed sensor, digitizing the VSI information
 The position of the landing gear
 The position of the flaps or other high lift devices
 The ILS glide path
 Attitude and heading reference system. 308
 Mode 1
Mode 2A
Mode 2
Mode 2B
Mode 3
GPWS
Mode 4A
Modes
Mode 4
Mode 4B
Mode 5

Mode 6

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 Mode 1: excessive descent rate

 An excessive rate of descent when the radalt is indicating less than 2500 ft provides the first alert. The alert
uses the words ‘Sink rate, sink rate’. The warning uses the words ‘pull up, pull up’, usually coupled with a
‘whooping’ noise and a flashing lamp.
 Amber and red text messages consistent with the aural messages are given on the navigation display.

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Baro altitude decrease rate (feet per minute)
 Mode 2: excessive terrain closure rate
 This depends on the same inputs as Mode 1, with the addition of the position of the undercarriage and
flaps. If the rate of descent is high below a radalt height of 1800 ft with gear and flap up, the alert Mode 2A
is given.
 The same alert, but described as Mode 2B, is given if the high sink rate occurs below 790 ft, even with gear
and flap in the landing configuration. The alert uses the words ‘Terrain, terrain’, and the warning is the
same as in Mode 1.(‘pull up, pull up’)
 Entering the Mode 2 A envelope will cause the repeated ‘ TERRAIN-TERRAIN ’ aural alert to sound. This is
followed by the ‘ PULL UP ’ warning if the closure rate is too large.

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GPWS Mode 2 profiles: (a) excessive terrain closure rate, (b) excessive terrain closure rate, flaps and gear down
 Mode 2: excessive terrain closure rate
 In Mode 2B If the terrain closure rate penetrates the warning zone, an aural ‘PULL UP’ voice message is
produced together with a red text message consistent with the aural message.
 Mode 2 is inhibited below a minimum terrain clearance, typically 30 feet.

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GPWS Mode 2 A envelopes: (a) excessive terrain closure rate (airspeed <220 knots), (b) excessive terrain closure rate (airspeed >220 knots)
 Mode 3: negative climb rate or altitude loss after take off or go around
This applies after take-off or go-around, when the aircraft has started climbing and gear and/or flap has been
selected up. If the aircraft subsequently descends (sinks), the alert sounds. The alert words are either ‘DON’T
SINK, DON’T SINK’ or ‘TOO LOW TERRAIN’. The warning is again the same as Mode 1.(‘pull up, pull up’)
 Mode 3 does not have a warning zone; it is inhibited below a minimum terrain clearance and barometric
altitude.(30 feet)

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 Mode 4: flight into terrain when not in landing configuration
 An alert sounds if the aircraft is below a certain height without being in the landing configuration. Mode 4A
applies below 500 ft with the gear up, Mode 4B if below 200 ft with the flap up. Mode 4 alerts use the
words ‘Too low - Gear / Flaps’ (as appropriate). The warning for Mode 4A is the same as Mode 1, but for
Mode 4B the warning is ‘Too low - terrain’

GPWS Mode 4 profiles: (a) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration –gear up, (b) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration –gear
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down/flaps up, (c) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration (take-off or go-around)
 Mode 4: flight into terrain when not in landing configuration

GPWS Mode 4 envelopes: (a) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration – gear up, (b) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration – gear
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down/flaps up, (c) flight into terrain when not in landing configuration (take-off or go-around)
 Mode 5: excessive downward deviation from an ILS glide slope
 This mode uses ILS glidepath information. If the aircraft descends below the glideslope to such an extent
that the instrument gives more than ½ of full scale deflection fly up demand, Mode 5 alerts the pilot with the
word ‘Glideslope’ and an amber text message.

GPWS Mode 5: (a) excessive downward deviation from an ILS glide slope profile, (b) excessive downward deviation from an ILS glide slope envelope
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 Mode 6 Altitude callouts
 When the aircraft descends to 500 feet above runway elevation, a voice message of ‘Five hundred’ is
given; there are no text messages generated with this Mode. Within Mode 6, some manufactures offer
predetermined altitude callouts.
 This mode can also incorporate other optional features such as bank angle protection.

GPWS Mode 6 bank angle

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GPWS Mode 6 altitude callouts
 Forward-looking terrain avoidance (FLTA)
False alarms and the inability of the inputs to identify terrain ahead of the aircraft were two limitations of a
GPWS which required improvement.
This TAWS feature uses aircraft position, altitude and flight path information together with details of terrain,
obstacles and known runways in the database.
The search to eliminate or reduce these problems led to the development of EGPWS (Enhanced GPWS) using
a computer database containing terrain structure, and a GPS receiver to provide warning of trouble ahead.
The first TAWS on the market, called the enhanced ground proximity warning system. (EGPWS)

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 The CPU compares all that information with the radio altitude as in GPWS, and also with its databases of
the ground profile in the area towards which the aircraft is flying. These databases are provided for general
terrain worldwide, for obstacles in certain areas, and for all major aerodromes in progressively more
accurate form.

TAWS Inputs

 Absolute Altitude by The radio altimeter

 A vertical & horizontal speed & rates of change from ADC and also static air temperature (SAT)
 The position of the landing gear & flaps or other high lift devices
 The ILS glide path
 attitude, track angles, headings, and groundspeed from The FMS, inertial reference system (IRS), or
attitude, heading and reference system (AHRS)
 If an IRS is not available, accelerometers can provide accelerations in all dimensions
 An angle of attack (AOA) or stall warning system also provides information

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Mode differences

Mode 1
Mode 2A
Mode 2
Mode 2B
Mode 3
GPWS
Mode 4A
Modes
Mode 4
Mode 4B
Mode 5

Mode 6

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 Mode 4
This mode provides alerts and warnings of insufficient terrain clearance if the aircraft is not in the landing
configuration. Mode 4A alerts of descent below 500 ft with gear up. Mode 4B alerts of descent below about 250
ft with flap up. Mode 4C adds alerts if the radio altimeter reading decreases below a certain proportion of its
previous value after take-off. The actual height values at which the particular alerts are triggered vary with
airspeed

Mode 5

This mode is related to the ILS glideslope. The commercially available EGPWS provides two levels of alerting.
A so-called ‘Soft’ alert, ‘Glideslope’ at half volume with the ‘caution’ light, is given when below 1000 ft radio
altitude and more than 1.3 dots below the glideslope. As the deviation below the glideslope increases, the alert
becomes progressively more frequent. When 2½ dots below the glideslope (the ½ of full scale deflection fly-up
command), the alert becomes ‘hard’, and ‘glideslope’ is heard at full volume, signifying the change to a
‘warning’. Below 150 ft, the alerts are desensitized. In EGPWS, Mode 5 alert bands vary with rate of descent
and can be inhibited automatically for back beam approaches or manually by the crew.

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 Mode 6

This is a programmed warning facility giving voice ‘callouts’ at selected radio altimeter readings. Apart from
the call of ‘Minimums’ or similar, heights in numbers of feet are called out. Other calls can be ‘approaching
minimums’, or similar. Various tones can be played over the audio system as different heights are passed. In
EGPWS, Mode 6 also provides alerts of excessive bank angle. The limit set varies as radio altitude, reducing
rapidly below 150 ft. The alert consists of the words ‘Bank angle, bank angle’.

Mode 7

If fitted in EGPWS, this mode is designed to provide alerts if the aircraft encounters wind shear below
1500ft. A typical wind shear warning addition to TAWS is described later.

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 Wind shear Alerts and Warnings (EGPWS)

Some commercially available EGPWS systems are available with a wind shear detection system. It
compares airspeed information from the air data computer (ADC) with groundspeed information from the
navigation computer to detect changes in wind affecting the aircraft, and likely wind shear turbulence.

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 EGPWS Display

The CPU decides what terrain is likely to encroach on the aircraft’s flight path, and displays it on the

 EFIS screen, or
 on an AWR screen if available and EFIS is not fitted.

This may be termed the TAD (terrain awareness and alerting display).

Terrain is shown in shades colors, rather like the AWR display:

Safe Caution Danger

When the EGPWS decides that an alert should be given (about 1 min from collision), the terrain which
caused the alert changes to solid yellow. An EGPWS warning (30 s from impact) generates a solid red
image.

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 Pilot Actions
Generally, if the pilot receives a TAWS alert he should stop any descent and climb as necessary to eliminate
the alert. Then he should analyze all available instruments to determine the best course of action. At a suitable
point, he should advise ATC of the situation. If he receives a TAWS warning, he must apply maximum
available power, disengage the autopilot, and ’smoothly but aggressively’ increase pitch attitude towards the
’stick shaker’ or pitch limit indicators, to obtain maximum climb angle. The climb must be continued until the
warning is eliminated and safe flight is assured, advising ATC of the situation.

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