Classification of Engineering Materials

October 26, 2020 by Electrical4U

Basic Classification of Engineering Materials

Basically Engineering Materials Can be classified into two categories-
1. Metals
2. Non-Metals
Metals
Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally
major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as mercury are also in
liquid state at normal temperature. All metals are having high thermal and electrical conductivity. All
metals are having positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Means resistance of metals increases with
increase in temperature.Examples of metals – Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin etc.
Metals can be further divided into two groups-
1. Ferrous Metals –
All ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials are having very high
permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core of electrical machines.
Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.
2. Non-Ferrous Metals –
All non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability. Example: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum
etc.
Non-Metals
Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exists in amorphic or mesomorphic forms. These
are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal temperature.
Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc.
As these non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for insulation purpose in
electrical machines.
Difference between Metals and Non Metals
Sl.
Property Metals Non-Metals
No.

All metals are having crystalline All Non-metals are having amorphic &
1. Structure
structure mesomorphic structure

State varies material to material. Some are gas

Generally metals are solid at normal
2. State state and some are in solid state at normal
temperature
temperature.

Valance electrons are free to move Valence electrons are tightly bound with
Valance electrons
3. within metals which makes them good nucleus which are not free to move. This makes
and conductivity
conductor of heat & electricity them bad conductor of heat & electricity

4. Density High density Low density

5. Strength High strength Low strength

6. Hardness Generally hard Hardness is generally varies

Malleability
7. Malleable Non malleable
mudah dibentuk

8. Ductility elastik Ductile Non ductile

 9. Brittleness rapuh Generally non brittle in nature Brittleness varies material to material

Generally do not possess metallic lustre (Except

10. Lustre kilau Metals possess metallic lustre
graphite & iodine)

Other classification of engineering materials:

Engineering materials can also be classified as below-

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Ceramic Materials
3. Organic Materials
Metals and Alloys
Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are have number of differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally
major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as mercury are also in
liquid state at normal temperature.
Pure metals are having very a low mechanical strength, which sometimes does not match with the
mechanical strength required for certain applications. To overcome this draw back alloys are used.
Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys are having good
mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example: Steels, Brass kuningan, Bronze perunggu, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.
Ceramic Materials
Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of inorganic compounds such as Oxides,
Nitrides, Silicates and Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional Structural, Electrical, Magnetic,
Chemical and Thermal properties. These ceramic materials are now extensively used in different
engineering fields.
Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete, garnet, Mgo, Cds, Zno, SiC etc.
Organic Materials
All organic materials are having carbon as a common element. In organic materials carbon is chemically
combined with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances. Generally organic materials are having
complex chemical bonding.
Example: Plastics, PVC, Synthetic Rubbers etc.

Electrical Properties of Engineering Materials

October 25, 2020 by Electrical4U
To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the knowledge of
Electrical properties of materials. The Electrical properties of a material are those which determine ability
of material to be suitable for a particular Electrical Engineering Application. Some of the typical Electrical
properties of engineering materials are listed below-
 Resistivity
 Conductivity
 Temperature coefficient of Resistance
 Permittivity
 Thermoelectricity

Resistivity
It the property of material which resists the flow of electric current through material. It is the reciprocal of
conductivity.
It is dented by ‘ρ’. Resistivity of a material of a conductor can be determined as below

ρ = R (A/l)
Where, ‘R’ is the resistance of conductor in Ω.
‘A’ is the cross sectional area of conductor in m2
‘l’ is the length of the conductor in meter SI unit of resistivity of is Ω¦-meter. Resistivity of some materials is
listed below
Sl. No. Element Resistivity at 20oC in Ω – m

1 Silver 1.59 × 10-8

2 Copper 1.7 × 10-8

3 Gold 2.44 × 10-8

4 Aluminum 2.82 × 10-8

5 Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8

6 Iron 1.0 × 10-7

7 Platinum 1.1 × 10-7

8 Lead 2.2 × 10-7

9 Manganin 4.82 × 10-7

10 Constantan 4.9 × 10-7

11 Mercury 9.8 × 10-7

12 Carbon (Graphite) 3.5 × 10-5

13 Germanium 4.6 × 10-1

14 Silicon 6.4 × 102

 15 Glass 1010 to 1014

16 Quartz (fused) 7.5 × 1017

Conductivity
It is the property of material with allow the flow of electric current through material. It is a parameter which
indicates that how easily electric current can flow through the material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. Conductivity of
material is the reciprocal of resistivity. Conductivity of material can be determined by,

σ = 1/ρ = l/(R.A)
Its SI unit is 1/(Ω-meter) or ℧/meter.
Dielectric Strength
It is the property of material which indicates the ability of material to withstand at high voltages. Generally
it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating voltage. A material having high dielectric
strength can withstand at high voltages. Generally, it is represented in the unit of KV/cm. Dielectric strength
of some insulating materials are listed below-
Sl. No. Material Dielectric Strength [KV(max.)/cm]

1 Air 30

2 Porcelain 80

3 Paraffin Wax 120

 4 Transformer oil 160

5 Bakelite 220

6 Rubber 280

7 Paper 500

8 Teflon 600

9 Glass 1200

10 Mica 2000

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material indicates the change in resistance of material with
change in temperature. Resistance of conductor changes with change of temperature.
The rise in resistance of a material with rise in temperature depends on following things,
1. R2 – R1 ∝ R1
2. R2 – R1 ∝ t2 – t1
3. Property of material of conductor.
Where, R1 is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t1oC and R2 is the resistance of conductor at
temperature of t2oC.
Hence, from above, R2 – R1 ∝ R1 (t2 – t1)
Or, R2 – R1 = α1 R1 (t2 – t1) ⇒ R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]
Where, α1 is temperature coefficient of resistance of material at temperature of t1oC. Its unit is /oC.
Temperature coefficient of resistance of material is also depends on temperature. emperature coefficient of
some materials are listed below,
Sl. No. Element Temperature Coefficient of Resistance in /oC

1 Manganin 0.00002

2 Constantan 0.00017

3 Nichrome 0.0004

4 Mercury 0.0009

5 Silver 0.0038

6 Copper 0.00386

7 Annealed copper 0.000393

8 Platinum 0.003927

9 Aluminum 0.00429
 10 Carbon (Graphite) – 0.0005

11 Germanium – 0.05

12 Silicon – 0.07

Thermoelectricity
If the junction, formed by joining to two metals, is heated, a small voltage in the range of millivolt is
produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect. This effect forms the basis of
operation of thermocouples and some temperature based transducers. This effect can be used to generate
electricity, to measure the temperature and to measure the change is temperature of objects.

Electrical And Electronics Engineering Materials (Types & Applications)

October 28, 2020 by Electrical4U
Materials are the part of our life and daily works since ancient time. Materials are the primary part of all
things surrounding us. In fact some materials have given the name to various ages in human history i.e.
Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Synthetic Materials Age, Smart Materials Age. The study of these
materials is called the Material Science.

Material science is associated with the study of composition, structure, characterization, processing,
properties, application and performance of various Engineering materials.
In modern scientific age, many technologies have already been developed and many more are under
continuously development to make the human life easy to live and comfortable.
The existence of such technologies basically depends on the availability of suitable materials. The
performance and quality of each and every engineering product is primarily governed by the material used
to manufacture the product.

Hence engineering materials play an important role in development and success of all engineering
technologies. For a more indepth discussion of electrical engineering materials and other fundamental
electrical concepts, we would recommend looking at some of the best books for electrical engineers.
Engineering Materials
The materials used for manufacturing of engineering products are called engineering materials. These
engineering materials are the back bone of all engineering products. The design, manufacturing,
commercialization and performance of any engineering product basically depends on the material being
used for that product i.e. semiconducting materials are the base of all electronics devices. Similarly the
existence of Electrical engineering machines and equipment completely depends on conducting, insulating
and magnetic materials.
In view of the above to become a successful engineering in any engineering field, we should have the
knowledge of engineering materials of respective field. The research and development of new engineering
material is a continuous process. Many institutions and laboratories are continuously working on
development of new materials to cope up with the continuous changing demands of industries.

As a result, new emerging materials such as smart materials, high-performance materials and intelligent
materials are continuously coming into picture. These new advance materials have a great effect on modern
age of technology.
Presently the research and development of new materials, to meet the engineering requirement is also
considering the effect of these materials on our environment. i.e. the radioactive material are very useful for
nuclear energy. But the radioactivity due to these materials have the very adverse effect on our
environment. Hence, to make these radioactive materials environment friendly, we have to make necessary
arrangements to stop the radioactivity by these radioactive materials.

Classification of Engineering Materials

These engineering materials can be classified based on the branch of engineering as below-

1. Mechanical Engineering materials – i.e. Iron, Steel etc.

2. Electrical Engineering materials –i.e. Conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators, Magnetic materials etc.
3. Civil Engineering materials – i.e. Cements, Iron, Stones, Sans etc.
4. Electronic engineering – i.e. Semiconducting materials
Electrical Engineering Materials
To be a successful Electrical Engineer, we should have a deep knowledge of Electrical Engineering materials.
Electrical Engineering material science is associated with the study of composition, structure,
characterization, processing, properties, application and performance of electrical engineering materials.
The existence and success of any electrical machine or equipment depends on the availability of suitable
electrical engineering materials such as conductors, insulators and magnetic materials etc.
Hence, before designing any electrical machine, we should have good knowledge of properties and
applications of electrical engineering materials. The performance of any electrical equipment is completely
governed by the quality of material used for that equipment. Therefore, to design a good and successful
electrical equipment, we should also have the knowledge of factors governing the quality of engineering
materials.
Based on the properties and applications the electrical engineering materials can be categorized as below-

1. Conductors – i.e. Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.

2. Semiconductors – i.e. Germanium, Silicon, GaAs etc.
3. Insulators – Plastics, Rubbers, Mica, Insulating Papers etc.
4. Magnetic materials – Iron, Silicon steel, Alnico, ferrites etc.

Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials

October 26, 2020 by Electrical4U
Materials used in the field of Electrical Engineering are called the Electrical Engineering materials. Based on
properties and area of applications, Electrical Engineering materials can be classified as below-
1. Conductors
2. Semiconductors
3. Insulators
4. Magnetic material
A classification chart of electrical engineering materials is shown in figure below
Conductors
Conductors are the materials which have very high conductivity. The number of free electrons are very high
in a conductor at room temperature, which is the basic reason of high conductivity of conductors.
Examples: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.
The number of free electrons are very high in silver, which makes the silver a best conductors of electricity.
The binding force on these free valance electrons by nucleus is very low. Due to which these electrons can
easily be freed from the nucleus and can participate in the flow of electricity.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials which have the conductivity between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors are the elements of group-III, group-IV and group-IV elements. Semiconducting materials
have covalent bond. At normal temperature the conductivity of semiconductors is very low. With increase
in temperature the conductivity of semiconductors increases exponentially.
Example: Germanium, Silicon, Gallium Arsenic etc.
Insulating Materials
The conductivity of insulating materials is very low. These material are having a very high resistivity which
makes them very suitable to insulate the current carrying parts from earthed metallic structure. In insulating
materials the electrons are tightly bounded with nucleus. Due to which they cannot be freed for movement
in materials. Due to which the resistivity of insulating materials is very high.
Example:- Plastics, Ceramics, PVC etc.
Magnetic Materials
These materials play an important role for existence of various electrical machines. The magnetic materials
having high permeability are used for building the core to from the low reluctance path for magnetic flux.
Magnetic materials can be further divided in following categories
  Ferromagnetic materials
 Paramagnetic material
 Diamagnetic materials
 Antiferromagnetic materials
 Ferrites
Ferromagnetic Materials
These materials are having very large and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. They are having
a strong attraction to external magnetic field and are able to retain magnetism even after removal of external
magnetic field. This property of materials is called magnetic hysteresis.
Example: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.
Paramagnetic Material
These materials are having very small and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. In the presence
of external magnetic field, these materials attain very small magnetism. Example: Aluminum, Platinum,
oxygen, Air etc.

Diamagnetic materials
These materials are having very weak and negative magnetic susceptibility to external magnetic field. On
application of external magnetic field these are repelled slightly by the external magnetic field. These
materials do not retain the magnetism after removal of external magnetic field. Mostly all metals i.e. silver,
copper, gold, hydrogen etc. are diamagnetic materials.
Antiferromagnetic materials
These materials are having a very small and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. In the
presence of external magnetic field these materials get slightly magnetized in the direction of the external
magnetic field. In these materials, atoms are having mixed parallel and anti parallel aligned magnetic dipole
movement.
Example: Cr, MNO, FeO, CoO, NiO, Mn etc.
Ferrites
These materials are having very large and positive magnetic susceptibility like ferromagnetic materials.
These materials are generally compounds which are having more complex crystal structures than a pure
material. As compared to ferromagnetic materials, ferrites are having lower magnetic saturation.
Example: Fe3O4, BaO.6Fe2O3 etc.

Physical Properties of Engineering Materials

October 25, 2020 by Electrical4U
To finalize the material for an engineering product or application, we should have the knowledge of
physical properties of materials. The physical properties of a material are those which can be observed
without any change of the identity of material. Some of these typical properties of a material are listed
below-
 Density
 Specific gravity
 State Change temperatures
 Coefficients of thermal expansion
 Specific Heat
 Latent heat
 Fluidity
  Weld ability
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Porosity
 Thermal conductivity
 Electrical Conductivity
Density of Materials
Density of a material or substance is defined as “the mass per unit volume”. It is represented as the ratio of
mass with volume of a material. It is denoted by “ρ”. Its unit in SI system is Kg/m3.
If, m is the mass of material in Kg, V is the volume of materiel in meter3.

Then the Density of material,

Specific Gravity of Materials

It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference material or substance. It
does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity calculation generally
water is considered as a reference substance.

State Change Temperatures

Generally a substance has three states called – solid state, liquid state, gaseous state. State change
temperature is the temperature at which the substance changes from one state to another state.
State change temperature are of following types-

Melting point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from solid state to liquid
state.
Boiling point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from liquid state to gaseous
state.
Freezing point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which a liquid changes from liquid to solid state.
Theoretically it is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may be observed some difference.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its dimensions change. Coefficient of thermal
expansion, represents the expansion in material with increase in temperature. Thermal expansion
coefficients are of three types, namely-

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion

The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of linear thermal
expansion”. It is denoted by “αL”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘Δl’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature. Unit
of αL is per oC.
Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion
The change in area of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of Area thermal
expansion”. It denoted by “αA”.
Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔA’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature.
Unit of αA is per oC.
Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion
The change in volume of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of volume thermal
expansion”. It denoted by “αV”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔV’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the temperature.
Unit of αA is per oC.
Specific Heat of Materials
Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass
of material by 1oC. It is denoted by ‘S’.

Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat given to material in Joule. Δt is rise in
temperature. Unit of specific heat in SI system is Joule/Kg oC.
Latent Heat of Materials
Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required/released by change in unit mass of
material from one state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by ‘L’. Latent heat is given by,

Where, ‘Q’ is the amount of heat required/released by material (in joule), ‘m’ is the mass of material (in Kg).
Unit of Latent heat in SI system is Joule/Kg.
Fluidity of Materials
It is a property of material which represents that how easily a material can flow in liquid state. It is the
reciprocal to viscosity of liquid material.

Weld Ability of Materials

It is the property of a material which presents that how easily the two pieces of material can be welded
together by applying pressure or heat or both.

Elasticity of Materials
It is the property of a material by which it regains its original dimensions on removal of load or force.

Plasticity of Materials
When we keep on increasing the load beyond the limit of elasticity, the material retains it molded state. This
property of materials is called plasticity.

Porosity of Materials
When a material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases within the material. When the
material is solidifies, these gases get evaporated and leave behind voids. The Porosity of material represents
the quantity of voids in solid materials.

Thermal Conductivity of Materials

It is the property of a material which represents that how easily the heat can be conducted by a material.
The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted by unit thickness
of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time when the temperature gradient across the material
piece is unity in steady state condition”.
Its unit in SI system is watts per meter per K.

Electrical Conductivity of Materials

It is the property of materials which represents that how easily the electricity can be conducted by the
material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. It is the reciprocal of resistivity of material. It unit is mho/meter.

Magnetic Properties of Engineering Materials

October 25, 2020 by Electrical4U

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the knowledge of
magnetic properties of materials. The magnetic properties of a material are those which determine the
ability of material to be suitable for a particular magnetic Application. Some of the typical magnetic
properties of engineering materials are listed below-
 Permeability
 Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis
 Coercive force
 Reluctance

Permeability
It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the magnetic flux is build up in the
material. Some time is also called as the magnetic susceptibility of material.
It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux
density. It is denoted by µ.
Hence, μ = B/H.
Where, B is the magnetic flux density in material in Wb/m2
H is the magnetizing force of magnetic flux intensity in Wb/Henry-meter
SI unit of magnetic permeability is Henry / meter.
Permeability of material is also defined as, μ = μ0 μr
Where, µ0 is the permeability of air or vacuum, and μ0 = 4π × 10-7 Henry/meter and µr is the relative
permeability of material. µr = 1 for air or vacuum.
A material selected for magnetic core in electrical machines should have high permeability, so that required
magnetic flux can be produced in core by less ampere- turns.
Retentivity
When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its grains get oriented in the direction of
magnetic field. Which results in magnetization of material in the direction of external magnetic field. Now,
even after removal of external magnetic field, some magnetization exists, which is called residual
magnetism. This property of material is called Magnetic retentively of material. A hysteresis loop or B-H
cure of a typical magnetic material is shown in figure below. Magnetization Br in below hysteresis loop
represents the residual magnetism of material.
Coercive Force
Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic field some magnetization exists in
material. This magnetism is called residual magnetism of material. To remove this residual magnetization,
we have to apply some external magnetic field in opposite direction. This external magnetic motive force
(ATs) required to overcome the residual magnetism is called “coercive force” of material. In above
hysteresis loop, – Hc represents the coercive force.
The material having large value of residual magnetization and coercive force are called magnetically hard
materials. The material having very low vale of residual magnetization and coercive force are called
magnetically soft materials.
Reluctance
It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic flux in material. It is denoted by R.
Its unit is “Ampere-turns / Wb”.
Reluctance of magnetic material is given by,

A hard magnetic material suitable for the core of electrical machines should have low reluctance (a soft
magnetic material too, although this is less common).

Magnetic Permeability
October 28, 2020 by Electrical4U
Definition of Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability is the ability of a material to respond to how much electromagnetic flux it can
support to pass through itself within an applied electromagnetic field.
In other word magnetic permeability of a material is the degree of magnetization capability.
Notation of Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability is expressed in μ that is a Greek Letter. In 1885, Mathematician Oliver Heaviside
had termed magnetic permeability as μ.
How to find out Permeability of any Material or Medium
In electromagnetism, H is known as the magnetizing force that signifies the ability of magnetic dipole
organizations in any material or medium by magnetic field density B. The relation between B and H is
directly proportional, i.e. B α H.
Or, B = μH, where, μ is the proportional constant of that material or medium and it is termed as magnetic
permeability.
Hence we can write,

So, in other word magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density (B) of a material to
its electro-magnetizing force (H).
Unit of Electromagnetic Permeability
The unit of Electromagnetic Permeability is Henry/meter or Newton/sq-ampere.

Permeability in Free Space

Permeability in free pace is denoted as μ0. Its value is 4ᴫ × 10-7 H/m. This value of permeability is taken as
standard value that is treated as permeability constant.
Permeability of another Medium or Substance
Permeability of another medium or substance is denoted as μ only. Relative permeability is the ratio of
permeability of any substance to that of free space and it is denoted as μr, i.e.
So, permeability of any medium or material is

Factors Effecting on Permeability

As permeability of any material depends on several factors:

1. Humidity
2. Temperature
3. Position in the medium
4. Frequency of the applied field
Classification of Materials as per Permeability
Diamagnetic: μr is less than 1, this material has opposition to external magnetic field.
Paramagnetic: μr is near about 1 but not exactly 1, this material is weakly attracted by external magnetic
field.
Ferromagnetic: μr is greater than 1, this material is strongly attracted by external magnetic field.
What is Complex form of Permeability?
Complex permeability comes into account for high frequency magnetic field effects. A phase lag is created
between H and B.

Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap

October 28, 2020 by Electrical4U
Magnetic Circuit
When a magnetic flux is circulated or follow through a closed area or path, is called the magnetic circuit or
when a magnetic field circulates in a closed path represented as lines of magnetic flux in a confined area is
called Magnetic Circuit. This magnetic circuit forms with permanent magnets or electromagnets and
confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron etc.
Magneto Motive Force (MMF)
A circulating force called Magneto Motive Force (MMF) or magnetic potential is responsible for
establishing magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. The MMF is equivalent to a number of wire carrying an
electric current and has units of ampere turns.
MMF is the property of certain substances or phenomena that gives rise to a magnetic field and is analogous
to electromotive force or voltage of electricity. If the flux is so divided that is enclosed to a portion of the
device and part to another, the magnetic circuit is called parallel magnetic circuit and if all the flux is
confined to a single closed loop, as in a ring-shaped electromagnet, the circuit is called a series magnetic
circuit.
Air Gap in Magnetic Circuit
Now if questioned what air gap in magnetic circuit is?, then the answer would be a prevention to the
saturation in general. Air is a kind of insulator to electricity as well as magnetism, i.e. area with negativity is
used for positive results. Like air, it can be as paint, gas, vacuum, aluminium etc. to prevent core saturation
depending upon application of use.
But sometimes in transformer the air gap fails to prevent saturation caused by excessive AC voltage
polarization.

Air is a non-magnetic part of a magnetic circuit that connects serially and magnetically all the other parts in
the circuit to make the flux to flow through the gap. Air gap has a significant character to enhance electrified
parts to move physically in magnetic fields, without touching each other.
The air gap in magnetic circuit means the magnetic resistance, i.e. reluctance to the magnetic flux density.
The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area and a magnetic property of the given material called its permeability. To calculate reluctance:
Magnetic Reluctance (R) = L/Aμμo
L = Length of circuit
A = Cross-sectional area of the circuit
μ = Permeability
μo = Relative magnetic permeability
The air gap is mostly used in applications where the magnetic saturation concludes as a high risk as
magnetic saturation causes loss of inductance, increasing of current, power loss in the circuit. But
implementation of air gap in a magnetic circuit influences the parameters of magnetic inductor also i.e.
addition of reluctance (air) in the circuit changes the B-H curve (allows driving the inductor at higher
current, therefore higher magnetic field strength, thus extending the range before magnetic saturation
occurs), decrease the inductance and increasing the saturation current of magnetic inductor. The problem
which an air gap solves in a core is the excessive flux produced with a high level of current in the windings.
Another phenomenon of flux in magnetic circuit is that most of the flux is confined to the intended path use
of magnetic cores (ferromagnetic material), but a small amount of flux always complete its path through the
surrounding air called the leakage flux. So whenever an air gap is put-up in magnetic core, flux fringes out
into the neighboring air path and such paths for flux called flux fringing resulting in non-uniform flux
density in the air gap and dropping of MMF. The largest is the air gap, the more is the flux fringing and vice
versa. A magnetic circuit resembles as a “conductor” so that the magnetic field can put along the desired
path. If a high permeability material is used, then very little energy will be stored in the magnetic core.
However, the air gap has an advantage of discontinuity and due to its low permeability stores significant
amount of magnetic energy, as compared to the same volume of magnetic core before the saturation.

Classification of Electrical Conducting Materials

October 25, 2020 by Electrical4U
Electrical conducting material are the basic requirement for electrical engineering products. The electrical
conducting material can be classified as below-
Based on Resistivity or Conductivity
 Low resistivity or high conductivity conducting material
 High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting material
A classification chart of conducting materials based on resistivity or conductivity is shown in figure below-
Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting Material
Material having low resistivity or high conductivity are very useful in electrical engineering products. These
material used as conductors for all kind of windings required in electrical machines, apparatus and devices.
These material are also used as conductor in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
Some of low resistivity or high conductivity materials and their resistivity are given in table below –
 Silver
 Copper
 Gold
  Aluminum
High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting Material
Materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting are very useful for electrical engineering
products. These material are used to manufacture the filaments for incandescent lamp, heating elements for
electric heaters, space heaters and electric irons etc.
Some of materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity are listed below:
 Tungsten
 Carbon
 Nichrome or Brightray – B
 Nichrome – Vor Brightray – C
 Manganin

Based on Area of Application

 Materials used as conductor for coils of electrical machines
 Materials for heating elements
 Materials for lamp filaments
 Material used for transmission line
 Bimetals
 Electrical Contact Materials
 Electrical Carbon Materials
 Material for Brushes used in Electrical Machines
 Materials used for fuses
A classification chart of conducting materials based on their applications is shown in figure below-

Materials Used as Conductor for Coils of Electrical Machines

Materials having low resistivity or high conductivity such as copper, silver and aluminum can be used for
making coils for electrical machines. However, looking to optimum conductivity, mechanical strength and
cost, copper is much suitable for making coils for electrical machines.
Materials for Heating Elements
Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as Nichrome, Kanthal, Cupronickel and Platinum
etc. are used for making heating elements. Materials used for heating elements must possess following
properties-

 High melting point

 Free from oxidation in operating atmosphere
 High tensile strength
 Sufficient ductility to draw the metal or alloy in the form of wire
Materials for Lamp Filaments
Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as Carbon, Tantalum and Tungsten etc. are used
for making incandescent lamp filament. Materials used for making incandescent lamp filament must
possess following properties-
 High melting point
 Low vapour pressure
 Free from oxidation in inert gas (argon, nitrogen etc.) medium at operating temperature
 High resistivity
 Low thermal coefficient of expansion
 Low temperature coefficient of resistance
 Should have high young modulus and tensile strength
 Sufficient ductility so that can be drawn in the form of very thin wire
 Ability to be converted in the shape of filament
 High fatigue resistance against thermally induced fluctuating stresses
 Cost should minimum
Material Used for Transmission Line
Materials used for making conductor for transmission line must possess following properties –
 High conductivity
 High tensile strength
 Light weight
 High resistance to corrosion
 High thermal stability
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low cost
Materials use for transmission lines are listed below-

 Copper
 Aluminum
 Cadmium-Copper alloys
 Phosphor bronze
 Galvanized steel
 Steel core copper
 Steel core aluminum
Bimetals
Many combinations of metals with different “Coefficient of linear thermal expansion” can be used to form
the bimetals. Some of the commonly used combinations for making bimetallic strips are listed below-

 Iron, nickel, constantan (high “Coefficient of linear thermal expansion”)

 Alloy of iron and nickel (low “Coefficient of linear thermal expansion”)
Electrical Contact Materials
The successful operation of electrical contacts is function of various factors. While selecting a suitable
material for electrical contact, we have to consider the factors. Some of most important factors of these are
listed below –

 Contact resistance
 Contact force
 Voltage and current
Electrical Carbon Materials
Carbon in widely used in electrical engineering. Electrical carbon materials are manufactured from graphite
and other forms of carbon.
Carbon is having following applications in electrical Engineering–
 For making filament of incandescent lamp
 For making electrical contacts
 For making resistors
 For making brushes for electrical machines such as DC machines, alternators.
 For making battery cell elements
 Carbon electrodes for electric furnaces
 Arc lighting and welding electrodes
 Component for vacuum valves and tubes
 For makings parts for telecommunication equipment’s
Material for Brushes Used in Electrical Machines
Before selecting the material for brushes, we should keep in our mind following requirements in a brush –
  Contact resistance
 Thermal stability
 Lubrication properties
 Mechanical strength
 Low brittleness
Material used for Brushes in electrical machines are listed below-

 Carbon
 Natural graphite
 Electro graphite
 Metal graphite
 Copper
Materials Used for Fuse Elements
Fuse element is primary requirement of a fuse unit. The fuse element should have following properties-
Low resistance – to avoid the undesirable voltage drop across the fuse element, so that it should effects the
normal functioning or performance of circuit or device or equipment
Low melting point – the fuse element must have low melting point. So that it blow out due to heating by
excess current during over load or short circuit.
Different types of metals and alloys are used for fuse element. Some of these elements are listed below –
 Aluminum
 Lead and tin
 Copper
 Silver
 Rose’ Alloys
 Wood alloys
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