MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND

ORGANISATIONALBEHAVIOUR

KMBN-101- UNIT 3
Fundamentals of Individual Behaviour
Study of human behaviour is very complex. It is affected by various
environmental factors. It is based on various cultural factors in which an individual
is brought up and various social systems in which he is working.
Individual behavior can be defined as a mix of responses to external and internal
stimuli. It is the way a person reacts in different situations and the way someone
expresses different emotions like anger, happiness, love, etc.
Individual Behavior Framework

On the basis of these elements, psychologist Kurt Lewin stated the Field theory and
outlined the behavior framework. This psychological theory studies the patterns of
interaction between an individual and the environment. The theory is expressed
using the formula.

B = F(P,E)
Where, B: Behavior, F: Behavior Function, P: Person, and E: Environment around
the person.

Say for example, a well payed person who loses his job in recession may behave
differently when unemployed.

Causes of Individual Behavior

Certain individual characteristics are responsible for the way a person behaves in
daily life situations as well as reacts to any emergency situations. These
characteristics are categorized as −

1. Inherited characteristics
2. Learned characteristics
1. Inherited Characteristics
The features individuals acquire from their parents or from our forefathers are the
inherited characteristics. In other words, the gifted features an individual possesses
by birth is considered as inherited characteristics.
Following features are considered as inherited characteristics –
Color of a person’s eye.
• Religion/Race of a person.
• Shape of the nose.
• Shape of earlobes
2. Learned Characteristics
Nobody learns everything by birth. First our school is our home, then our society
followed by our educational institutions. The characteristics an individual acquires by
observing, practicing and learning from others and the surroundings is known as
learned characteristics.
It consists of the following features:
• Perception: Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.
• Values: Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.
• Personality: Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.
• Attitude: Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

Determinants of Personality
The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a
mask. It is the combination of an individual thoughts, characteristics, behaviors,
attitude, idea and habits.Every individual defines personality in different way which
includes trait factors and physical appearance. It is a sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with others.

Definition-
1) Freud Luthans- Personality means how a person affect others & how he
understand & views himself as well as thepattern of inner and outer
measurable traits and the personality interaction.
2) Raymond Bernard Cattell- Personality as the traits that predict a person’s
behaviour.
3) G. W. Allport- “Personality is a person’s pattern of habits, attitudes, and traits
which determine his adjustment to his environment.”
4) Arnold W. Green- “personality is the sum of a person’s values (the objects of
his striving, such as ideas, prestige, power and sex) plus his non- physical
traits (his habitual ways of acting and reacting).”
5) Young- “Personality is the totality of behaviour of an individual with a given
tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations.”

Personality Determinants

Personality is not determined by a single factor, but by an accumulation of many

factors. Some of those factors are psychological, while others are physical,
biological, and hereditary.
 a) Heredity- Heredity is transmitted through genes, which determine hormone
balance, which later determine physique and subsequently the personality.
Heredity refers to acquiring from parents certain biological, physical and
psychological commonalities, which are further reflected in physical stature,
facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and even reflect.
They often decide energy level.
b) Environment- Every individual is born and brought up in a particular
environment. Environment leaves an imprint on the personality of an
individual. It is commonly seen that a doctor’s son preferring his father’s
profession and a child of a soldier enters into Defence Services. Environment
should be viewed from the point of view of norms, ethics and value that are
observed and the attitude displayed by the social group.
c) Situation- Individual has to interact with number of problems in a given
situation, which does not remain constant. There is therefore a need to
recognise the person-situation interaction. It can be social learning activity of
personality. Thus personality is situational; the uniqueness of each situation
and any measure of personality must be examined

Types of Personality- Three types of personality

1) Extrovert Personality: This type has the tendency to live mostly outside the
like to live with others. Those individuals are highly socialized and have contact
with outside people in the society. They want to join other groups who are more
in number. These types of people are drivers, excessive drinkers, smokers,
robbers, thieves, wicked persons etc.
2) Introvert Personality: Introvert is opposite to extrovert. Those people are
always live alone in their rooms and do not want to go outside. They have their
own imaginary world. They are teachers, scientists, thinkers and philosophers.
3) Ambivert Personality: Between extrovert and introvert personalities there is a
third one type called ambivert. People belonging to this type enjoy both the
groups and attend them. They have middle mind and want to live in both
parties. Sometimes they join outside people but sometimes they live in their
own rooms.
4) Type A: People having Type A personality are always moving, walking and
eating rapidly. They feel impatient with the speed the events take place. They
always strive to do two or more thing at any one time and cannot cope with
leisure. They are generally obsessed with work involved with numbers.
5) Type B: People possessing Type B personality never suffer from sense of
urgency and take thing as it comes coolly. They do not discuss achievement
and leave it to the superiors to identify it. People having B type of personality
play for fun and relaxation rather than to show off. These people have the
tendency to relax without guilt

Personal Effectiveness
Personal effectiveness is a branch of the self-help movement dealing with success,
goals, and related concepts. Personal effectiveness integrates some ideas from “the
power of positive thinking” and positive psychology but in general it is distinct from
the New Thought Movement. Our personal effectiveness depends on our innate
characteristics – talent and experience accumulated in the process of our personal
development.
If the same ability is used many times in the same situation, then it becomes a habit
that runs automatically, subconsciously.
Here are some skills that will greatly increase the efficiency of any person who owns
them:
1) Determination- It allows you to focus only on achieving a specific goal without
being distracted by less important things or spontaneous desires. It may be
developed with the help of self-discipline exercise.
2) Self-confidence-It appears in the process of personal development, as a result
of getting aware of yourself, your actions and their consequences. Self-
confidence is manifested in speech, appearance, dressing, gait, and physical
condition. To develop it, you need to learn yourself and your capabilities, gain a
positive attitude and believe that by performing right actions and achieving right
goals you will certainly reach success. Check out these practical tips on how to
increase self-confidence.
3) Managing Stress-It helps combat stress that arises in daily life from the
environment and other people. Stress arises from the uncertainty in an
unknown situation when a lack of information creates the risk of negative
consequences of your actions. It increases efficiency in the actively changing
environment. It requires problem-solving skills.
4) Problem-solving skills-They help cope with the problems encountered with a
lack of experience. It increases efficiency by adopting new ways of achieving
goals when obtaining a new experience.
5) Creativity- It allows you to find extraordinary ways to carry out a specific action
that no one has tried to use. It can lead to a decrease or an increase of costs,
but usually, the speed of action is greatly increased when using creative tools.
It requires the ability to generate ideas.
6) Generating ideas- It helps you achieve goals using new, original,
unconventional ideas. The idea is a mental image of an object formed by the
human mind, which can be changed before being implemented in the real
world. For generating ideas you can use a method of mental maps, which
allows you to materialize, visualize and scrutinize all your ideas, which in turn
contributes to the emergence of new ideas.
Seven principles of personal effectiveness- The path to personal effectiveness
captured by acronym- ADDRESS- (A)-Accecpt responsibility, (D)- Define Sucess
(D)- Develop a system you trust, (R)- Recruit your stake holder, (E)- Embade rutins
& Rituals, (S)- Steer meeting & Interaction, (S)- Stay on track under pressure.

Attitudes Meaning and Types

An attitude may be defined as the way aperson feels about somthing like person,
place or anything.An Attitude is a favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction
toward something or someone, exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings, or intended
behaviour.
Definitions-
1) According to Katz and Scotland- “Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to
evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way”.
 2) Stephen P. Robins- “ An attitude are evaluatify statememt either like or
dislike concerning object, people or event.”
3) Gordon Allport- “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon
the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”
4) Thurstone said- “An attitude denotes the sum total of man’s inclinations and
feelings, prejudice or bias, pre-conceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and
other any specific topic.”
5) Anastasi- attitude as, “A tendency to react favorably or unfavorably towards a
designated class of stimuli, such as a national or racial group, a custom or an
institution.”
An attitude issued in a generic sense, as to what people perceive, feel and express
their views about a situation, object or other people. Attitude cannot be seen, but the
behaviour can be seen as an expression of attitude.

Types of Attitude

1. Positive Attitude
This is one type of attitude in organizational behaviour. One needs to understand
how much a positive attitude it takes to keep the work moving and progressing. It
means that keeping a positive mindset and thinking about the greater good, no
matter whatever the circumstances are. A positive attitude has many benefits which
affect out other kinds of behaviour in a good way. For example, a person who has
a positive attitude and mindset will look for the good in other person’s no
matter how bad they behave or how bad is their attitude. The former person
thinks about the greater good and that is why he is called a person with a
positive attitude.

These persons generally don’t care about the hurdles in life. They nurture their skills
daily and overcome almost anything and everything that comes in their way. These
persons know about their earlier mistakes and instead of being ashamed of them,
they have vowed not to repeat the same thing. If you have a positive attitude, then
you should have some list of attitudes.

(a) Confidence: Confidence is good attitude and one of the basic things in the list of
positive attitudes. Generally, people with a plus or positive mindset are rewarded
with this automatically. Confidence is necessary to approach life with zest.

(b) Happiness: Happiness is the next type of attitude in the list of positive attitudes
and behaviours. A happy mind is an abode for all the good things to self. Confident
people are quite happy as they are not worried about results, interviews, etc and
other similar things in life that are meant to test us.

(c) Sincerity: An individual with a positive mindset is often found to be quite sincere.
He or she is aware of the work to be done, and they know that the only way out of a
situation is through it. Sincerity is one trait that you should never let go off or
compromise.

(d) Determination: A determination is one of the primary rewarding points for a

person with a positive attitude. A right dose of hard work, effort and determination
 are essential to get things the way you want. A person who is driven and properly
determined will overcome all impossibilities.

2. Negative Attitude
A negative attitude is something that every person should avoid. Generally, people
will negative attitude ignore the good things in life and only think about whether they
will fail. They often find a way out of tough situations by running away from it. They
often compare themselves with other persons and find the bad in them only. In short,
he is exactly the opposite of the one with a positive mindset. There are certain bad
effects that a person with a negative mindset has to face.
(a) Anger: A person with a negative mindset is often found to be angry most of the
time. Sometimes there might not be any kind of specific reason behind their anger.
Anger is the root cause of self-destruction. While some amount of anger is good,
extreme cases of anger only lead to destruction.
(b) Doubt: A person can question himself but he or she should never doubt
themselves. Unfortunately, if you have a negative mindset, then you will often doubt
yourself. Self-doubt will lead to no progress and will often lead to low confidence.
(c) Frustration: A negative person is a frustrated person. As said earlier, attitude
defines the person and that is why if you are frustrated that will show on your face
and you will be facing some serious difficulties. Frustration will not help you build
your career. It is an irritant and will keep preventing you from taking any positive step
forward.

3. Neutral Attitude
This is another type of attitude that is common. That mindset is a neutral one. There
is no doubt. Neither is there any kind of hope. The people generally tend to ignore
the problems in life. They wait for some other individual to take care of their
problems. They generally have a lazy life and they are often unemotional. It is as if
they don’t think about anything that much and doesn’t care for the same as well.
They never feel the need to change themselves as they can simply live with the way
they are.
He or she will feel disconnected quite often and that is why having a neutral attitude
is very bad and should be fixed as soon as possible. However, a person with neutral
attitude if changes can only go to the path of a positive attitude. In most cases, it has
been seen that the attitude adjustment metal therapies have led persons to a road
filled with positive feelings only.

Components of Attitude: Attitudes are simply expressions of much we like or

dislike various things. Attitudes represent our evaluations, preferences or rejections
based on the information we receive.

It is a generalized tendency to think or act in a certain way in respect of some object

or situation, often accompanied by feeling. This can include evaluations of people,
issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they
can also be uncertain at times.
3 components of attitude are:

• Cognitive Component.
• Affective Component.
• Behavioral Component.
 1) Cognitive Component: The cognitive component of attitude is related to
value statement like beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would
associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It
refers that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies
are cute’, ‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.
2) Affective Component: Affective component is the emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude.
It is related to the statement which affects another person. It deals with
feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as
fear or hate.[I do not like Maya because she is not hard working, or I like Mina
because she is hard working.] Using the above example, someone might have
the attitude that they love all babies because they are cute or that they hate
smoking because it is harmful to health.
3) Behavioral Component: Behavior component of an attitude consists of a
person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object. It refers to
that part of attitude which reflects the intention of a person in short run or long
run. Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to
kiss the baby’,[I do not like Maya because she is not hard working is an
affective component, I therefore would like to disassociate myself with her, is
a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid Maya.]
Attitude is composed of three components, which include a cognitive component,
effective or emotional component, and behavioral component. Basically, the
cognitive component is based on the information or knowledge, whereas the
affective component is based on the feelings. The behavioral component
reflects how the attitude affects the way we act or behave. It is helpful in
understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitudes and
behavior.
In an organization, attitudes are important for their goal or objective to succeed.
Each one of these components is very different from the other, and they can build
upon one another to form our attitudes and, therefore, affect how we relate to the
world.

Theory of Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

Formation of Attitude- Formation of attitude depends on the following factors-
a) Psychological Factor- These are made up of person’s perception, ideas,
beliefs, values, information etc. It has a crucial role in determining a person’s
attitudes. exm- all superiors are exploitative.
b) Family Factors- During childhood, a person spends a major part of his life
time in the family. Thus, he learns from the family members who provide him
with ready-made attitudes on a variety of issues such as education, work,
health, religion, politics economics etc.
c) Social Fators- Societies differ in terms of language, culture, norms, value
beliefs etc, all of which influance a person’s attitudes.
d) Organisational Factors- Such as nature of job, office layout, fellow workers,
quality of supervision, monetary rewards associated with the job, informal
groups, paly an important role in shaping the job attitudes of a person.
 e) Economic Factors- A person’s attitude towards a host of issues such as
pleasure, work, marriage, working women etc, influences by economic factors
such as his economic status in society.
Theory of Attitude Formation
1. Cognitive Consistency Theories- Research has generally concluded that people
seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their
behaviour. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the
individual to an equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent.
This can be done by either altering the attitude or the behaviour or by developing a
rationalization for the discrepancy.
The cognitive consistency theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise
between related beliefs, bits of knowledge and evaluation about an object or an
issue. Though various consistency theories differ in several respects, all of them
have a common object that is reducing the inconsistency and returning the individual
to the equilibrium state. For example an individual may buy an old car while
praising the new model. Reconciliation like, ‘why invest more for a new model’,
or ‘the old model is as efficient as the new one, because the same had been
sparingly used’.

2. Functional Theory
The functional theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the
motivational structure of the individual.
This theory focuses on two things:
(i) The meaning of the influence situation in terms of both the kinds of motives that it
arouses
(ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.

3. Social Judgment Theory

The social judgment theory was originally formulated by Sherif and Hoveland. This
theory attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitude
related objects and how these judgments mediate attitude change. Thus, a person’s
initial attitude towards an issue, serves as an anchor for the judgment of attitude
related stimuli. The person’s initial attitude on an issue provides a point of reference
against which he evaluates other opinions.
4. Congruity Theory- This theory was developed by C. E. Osgood and P. H.
Tannenbaum. The flow of the theory are on changes in the evaluation of a sources
and a concept that are linked by an associative or dissociative assertion. This theory
building on the notion of positive and negative attitudes and add a concept of
attitude strength. Congruity exist when a source and concept which are positively
associated have exactly the same evaluations. Congruity is a stable state and is also
said to exist when a source and concept which are negatively associated have
exactly the opposite evaluation attached them.

Attitude Change
Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not
stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject
to change by social influences, as well as by the individual’s motivation to maintain
cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or
 attitude and behavior conflict. It has been suggested that the inter-structural
composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single
node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be
possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined.
These three processes represent the different levels of attitude change:-

1. Compliance
Compliance refers to a change in behavior based on consequences, such as an
individual’s hopes to gain rewards or avoid punishment from another group or
person. The individual does not necessarily experience changes in beliefs or
evaluations of an attitude object, but rather is influenced by the social outcomes of
adopting a change in behavior. The individual is also often aware that he or she is
being urged to respond in a certain way.

2. Identification
Identification explains one’s change of beliefs and affect in order to be similar to
someone one admires or likes. In this case, the individual adopts the new attitude,
not due to the specific content of the attitude object, but because it is associated with
the desired relationship. Often, children’s attitudes on race, or their political party
affiliations are adopted from their parents’ attitudes and beliefs.
3. Internalization
Internalization refers to the change in beliefs and affect when one finds the content
of the attitude to be intrinsically rewarding, and thus leads to actual change in beliefs
or evaluations of an attitude object. The new attitude or behavior is consistent with
the individual’s value system, and tends to be merged with the individual’s existing
values and beliefs. Therefore, behaviors adopted through internalization are due to
the content of the attitude object.

GROUP BEHAVIOUR
A group is collection of two or more individuals, working for a common goal and are
interdependent. They interact significantly to achieve a group objective.A group
behaviour can be stated as a course of action a group takes as a family. For
example: Strike.
Individuals form groups. They live in groups. They move in groups. They work in
groups. Groups are important. They influence work and work behaviour. They cannot
be ignored. They exert significant influence on the organisation. They are
inseparable from organisation. They are useful for the organisation.
Definition-
1) Edgar H. Schien- A group may be defined as a social phenomenon in which
two or more person decide to intract with one other, share common ideology
and perceive themselves as a group.
2) Marvin Shaw – a group comprises of two or more person who intract with one
another in such a manner that each person influences & is influenced by each
other person.
3) Devid H. Smith- A group is a set of two or more individual who are jointly
characterised by a network of relevent communication.
A group is a two or more individual who intract regularly with each other to
accomplish a common purpose or goal.
Types of Groups
There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and
informal groups.
A) Formal groups—those defined by the organization’s structure, with
designated work assignments establishing tasks. It is collection of employees
who work together to contribute towards achievement of organizational
objective. Formal groups are formed based on the work and human resources
required by skill, knowledge and experience to achieve organizational task.
a) The behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed
toward organizational goals.
a. An airline flight crew is an example of a formal group.
b. These groups are permanent in nature.
c. They have to follow rule- regulations & policy of the organization.
Different Types of Formal Groups-
a) Permanent and Temporary Formal Groups.
b) Command Group such as sections, department etc.
c) Functional Groups are classified according to functions of the members of the
groups such as clerks, typists, etc. These groups possess the authority of
both command groups and functional groups. Functional groups can again be
classified into :

a) Team group specifies no fixed role to its members.

b) Task group specifies a fixed time job to each of its members.
c) Technological group is allotted the roles by the management.
d) Status Groups involve the members of the same status in the
organization.

B) Informal Groups- Groups which are not formal are informal. In other words,
these are groups that are neither formally created nor controlled by the
organization. These groups are natural formations in the work environment
that appear in response to the need for social contact.

Informal groups arise spontaneously and voluntarily to satisfy the various social
needs, not likely to be fulfilled by the formal organization. The members of such
groups are called informal groups.
The features of such groups are as under:
(a) Informal groups are formed by various members themselves, it has no official
sanctity.
(b) These groups are formed based on commonality of culture, religious function,
liking for each other and common interests.
(c) They represent the human side of an organization. Club, co-operative society,
Referance group
(d) The group exist without any rigid rules. Their common interest is bond for
existence.
 Stages of Group Development
The Five-Stage Model-

1) Forming -It is an orientation stage. This stage is marked by a great deal of

caution, confusion & ucertainty about the group purpose, structure &
leadership.
2) Storming- Members accept the existence of the group, but there is
resistance to constraints on individuality. Under this stage member comes
to result who control the group.
3) Norming-There is now a strong sense of group identity. Under this stage
member works together & developing close relationship.
4) Performing-This is thehighest level of the group maturity at this stage is
marked by team work,role clarity task accomplishment.
5) Adjourning- In this stage the group prepare for its disbandment. It may be
either after meeting their goal or members leave.

Interpersonal skill (IPS) – Interpersonal skill means those skill which helps
to know others easily with the help of these skills we can easily familiar to every
personal of an any organisation & it is also benificial to org^n.
Interpersonal skills cannot be learned solely from a textbook. They come naturally to
some people, while other people have to work at cultivating them. In many
organizations, employees with strong interpersonal skills are valued for their
pleasant demeanor and positive, solution-oriented attitude. These employees are
team players, who work well with others to achieve a goal
IPS can be develop by following ways-
a) Developing positive thinking
b) Emphasis of developing healthy relationship
c) Adopt a problem solving approach
d) Involving subordinates in decision making process
e) Evaluating the result
f) Successfull implementation of decision.
 Improving Interpersonal Skills
Steps for improving interpersonal skills include expressing appreciation for team
members and support staff, practicing empathy, moderating disputes quickly to
contain them, and planning rather than saying or writing the first item that comes to
mind. Active listening can be practiced by repeating back to a speaker what they
said to make sure true communication is taking place. There are also classes and
training that teach these skills.

Interpersonal Skills in the Workplace

In this competitive marketplace, businesses seek to employ those who not only have
the proper experience and knowledge but have strong interpersonal skills that fit well
within a company’s culture. Strong interpersonal skills, such as negotiating, problem-
solving and knowledge-sharing, are the main job requirement, as employees must
be able to work well with others to achieve company objectives. Interpersonal skills
may also include:

• Teamwork
• Verbal and written communication
• Dependability
• Responsibility
• Empathy
These interpersonal skills can lead to productivity and success and, therefore,
contribute to your company’s growth.

Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis, a theory that combines elements of psychology into a
therapeutic approach, can benefit a workplace. It is a social psychology and a
method to improve communication. It is the analysis of transaction. It is a theory of
communication and interpersonal interaction. T.A. Was originally develoved by Eric
Bern in 1950’s.
TA is basically the study of how people take on certain behaviors, either by accident
or from their early caretakers or authority figures and then continue to play them out
in their adult lives.
An understanding of Transactional Analysis can give hope for the person in that they
can change their script and choose the way they want to re-write their own life plan,
without hanging on to inappropriate behaviors of the past.

“Transactional analysis is a technique used to help people better

understandtheir own and other’s behaviour, especially in interpersonal
relationship.”
Transactional Analysis is primarily concerned with the following-
1. Analysis of ego states
2. Analysis of transactions
3. Analysis of life positions
1)Analysis of ego states- Ego state is an important part of transactional analysis, it
explains psychological behaviour pattern of an individual. Study of ego state is
related to the way an individual thinks, his feelings and subsequent behaviour.
People interact with each other in terms of psychological positions of behaviour
known as ego state. Sigmund Freud was the first to advocate that in every
individual there are three ego states residing within him i.e. parent ego, adult ego
and child ego. They stimulate, monitor and control individual behaviour. The ego
state is not related to the age of an individual.
Berne states, “Although we cannot directly observe these ego states, we can
observe behaviour of an individual and can infer which of the three ego states an
individual is transacting at a particular moment”.

Parent Ego- Parent Ego refers to the personality attributes like value, attitude and
behaviour of parent like people, inherited by a person when he was child. This
behavioural pattern becomes basics for behaviour as individual copy parent figures
like teacher, father, mother, brother or any other person who is elderly and displays
an advisory behaviour, which is copied by a child and subsequently displayed in his
lifetime when such situations arise.

Adult Ego- Adult Ego is based on reasoning, seeking from subordinates and
providing information. A person having adult ego views people equal, worthy of
undertaking any job and responsible. They behave rationally and think logically. The
person updates data to determine what is valid thus he controls emotional
expression. Adult ego is considered to be valid ego state comparatively.

Child Ego- The child ego stats the characterised by very immature behaviour. It
reflect the early childhood condition and experiences. Person having child ego
generally displays creativity in his action. The characteristics of child ego states are
creativity, conformaty, anxiety, dipression, fear, dependance, joy, emotional and
srntiments etc. The individual thinks non-logical and wants immediate action on
various issues.

2) Analysis of transactions-Every piece of conversation is treated as a transaction.

TA is a technique for examining he nature of interpersonal communication between
the two individuals and to analyse its effectiveness. Each transaction of an individual
emanates from parents ego, adult ego or child ego state. Every person transacts
from all the three ego states but each one of us has one ego state as dominant.
Transaction is effective when stimulus and response is from the same ego state.
There are three types of transaction like- Complementary, Crossed and Ulterior
Transaction.
(a) Complementary Transaction- Complementary transactions are those
communications where stimulus and response(S—R) is from identical ego state.
Message from one person gets almost predicted response and the transaction is
parallel. There are nine such complementary transactions:-
i)Adult – Adult Transaction
ii)Adult – Parent Transaction
iii)Adult – Child Transactions
(iv) Parent – Adult ego state Parent
(v) Parent – Parents transactions
(vi) Parent – Child ego state
(vii) Child –Parent ego state
(viii) Child – Adult ego state Transactions
(ix) Child – Child ego state
(b) Crossed Transaction- It is also known as Non- complementary transaction.
Non-Complimentary transactions are those transactions which a sender sends the
message on the basis of his ego state, but the response is from an unexpected ego
state on the part of receiver. Such behaviour occur when stimulus and response is
not parallel.

(c) Ulterior Transaction- Ulterior transactions are most complex transactions

because if involves more than two egos states working at the same time with double
meaning in the stimulus. This type of transaction is very commonly used by
diplomates.

3) Analysis of life positions- Child develops life philosophy by experience. As child

grows he tries to develop philosophy for itself based on self-identity, sense of worth
and an ability to perceive people in the right sense. Harris identified life positions
where individual knows about himself and the perception of people about him.
Transactional analysis constructs the following four life positions.
(a) I am Okay you are Okay. (c) I am not Okay you are Okay
(b) I am Okay you are not Okay. (d) I am not Okay you are not Okay

a) I am Okay you are Okay- This is an ideal life position because this position is
rationally chosen one. People feel happy and life is worth living. Individual with this
life position expresses confidence in his subordinates, work with high level of
delegatation of authority, and believes in give and take. Managers enjoys good
communication network, work with confidence and there is work sharing and positive
attitude towards work. People remain happy and have high level of job satisfaction.
People work with adult ego state.

(b) I am Okay you are not Okay- This is distrustful psychological life position taken
by individual who feel that others are wrong. They blame others for their failure.
People who have been neglected by parents in their childhood take this position.
Mangers lack trust, confidence in the intellectual level, skills and talent in their
subordinates and do not believe in delegation of authority.
(c) I am not Okay you are Okay- This life position is common to persons who feel
powerless in comparison to others. It is not a good life position.
(d) I am not Okay you are not Okay- This is the worst life position in which
individual feel defeated and sees whole world as miserable. It is a desperate life
position where people loose interest in living. At managerial level, no decision is
taken in time and managers make mistakes. Manager with this position look to
others for final decision.
You are OK
I am Ok / You are OK You are Ok/ I am Not OK
I am Ok I am
not OK
I am OK /You are Not OK Iam not OK /You are Not
OK

You are Not Ok

 Johari Window
Johari Window is a technique for improving self-awareness within an individual. It
helps in understanding your relationship with yourself and others. Johari Window
model can be a useful tool if you want to improve your communication skills.
It is a conceptual model for studying interpersonal awareness. It discribes the self in
terms of image, both consious and unconsious. It was developed by Joseph Luft &
Harrington Ingham, they have develope a diagram known as Johari Window. Johari
Window comprising 4 quardants is shown in the following diadram-

Information Information not

known to self known to self

Information 1 2
known to other Open Self Blind Self
(Public Area) (Blind Area)
Information not 3 4
known to others Hidden Self Unknown Self
Private area) (Dark Area)

(a) The Open Self:- Open Self is known as Public area. This quadrant indicates
information about self is known to oneself and also to others. The information
relates to feelings, motivation and behaviour of an individual, which he is
willing to share with those whom he comes in contact.

(b) Blind Self: This quadrant is related to information is not known to self but
known to others, who interact with you, know more about you. This is known
as blind area.

(c) Hidden Self: Certain aspect of personality has formed this quadrant. Self
knows information but others do not know it. There are certain aspects, which
are private. Individual therefore does not want to share it with subordinates
and wants to keep hidden. The area is also called Private Area.

(d) Unknown Self: This area is characterized by facts unknown to the self and to
others. This is dark area, which is not pregnable (to be not aware to other).