CHAPTER-11

Introduction to Well Logging Techniques

1.1 What is Logging?

Logging is the continuous recording of geophysical parameter in the borehole with

respect to depth or time.

1.2 Why Logging?

Wells are drilled in sedimentary rocks having anticline structure on the basis of
seismic data interpretation. Just drilling a well will not serve the purpose of
Hydrocarbon exploration. We have to identify the hydrocarbon bearing zones, know
its producibility and then to bring the hydrocarbon to the surface by applying some
techniques. Thus, geoscientists need to know the following questions and answers
once a well is drilled.

Q1: Where are we in the Well? A1: Logs correlation

Q2: Is there any Oil or Gas? A2: Water saturation Sw.
Q3: How much hydrocarbon is there? A3: Porosity Ф.
Q4: Can the formation flow? A4: Permeability K.
Q5: Will the formation flow? A5: Reservoir pressure P.

Porosity is the proportion of fluid-filled space found within the rock. It is this space
that contains the oil and gas. Permeability is the ability of fluids to flow through the
rock. The higher the porosity, the higher the possible oil and gas content of a rock
reservoir. The higher the permeability, the easier for the oil and gas to flow toward
the wellbore. Reservoir pressure acts as driving force to bring the fluid to surface.
The prime target of Logging is the measurement of all these properties of the
subsurface rock formations. Logging measurements are quite sophisticated.
Logging tools provide measurements that allow for the mathematical interpretation
of these quantities.Thus, Logging plays a very important roll in exploration activities.
Logging is called electronics’ eye of the well.
1.3 Types of Logging Services
! Open Hole Logging
! Cased Hole Logging
! Explosives Jobs
●Perforations,
●Tubing Puncture,
●Casing/Tubing Cutters,
●Plug Setting,
●Free Point Indicator
●Back-off jobs
! Production Logging
! Log Data Interpretation
2.1 Basic Open hole Logs
! SP
! GAMMA RAY (GR)
! RESISTIVITY
●INDUCTION
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 ●LATEROLOG
●MICROLOG
! POROSITY
●DENSITY
●NEUTRON
●SONIC

2.2 SP (Spontaneous Potential) Log.

SP is a record of naturally occurring potentials measured in the mud at different
depths in the borehole. The potentials measured are created by ionic movement
due to salinity contrast between formation fluid and borehole mud. The SP is useful
to:

a) Lithology identification (Sand/Shale)

b) Estimation of Shale volume
c) Estimation of Formation Water Resistivity, Rw.
d) Depth correlation

Opposite the shales, the readings of the SP curve are usually fairly constant.
Opposite the permeable formations, the SP curve shows excursions from the shale
base line. The deflection may be either to left (negative) or to the right
(positive),depending mostly on the relative salinities of the formation water and of
the mud filtrate. The SP cannot be recorded in holes filled with non-conductive
muds, no mud or having resistivity of mud filtrate is equal to the formation water.
Static SP= - K log Rmfe / Rwe

Where Rmfe= Equivalent resistivity of mud filtrate and Rwe = Equivalent resistivity
of formation water.
Static SP is the SP deflection opposite a thick clean formation.

Fig-11-1: Example of SP development

2.3 GR (Gamma Ray) Log

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The GR Log is a measurement of the natural radioactivity of the formations. These
are the radioactive elements of Uranium group, Thorium group and Potassium. In
sedimentary formations the gamma ray Log normally reflects the shale content of
the formations because the radioactive elements tend to concentrate in clays and
shales. Clean formations usually have a very low level of radioactivity, unless
radioactive contaminations such as volcanic ash granite wash are present or
formation waters contain dissolved potassium salts.

GR log is useful to:

a) Lithology identification (Sand/Shale/Coal)
b) Estimation of Shale volume
c) Depth correlation
d) Mineral analysis

2.4 Resistivity Logs

2.4.1 Dual Induction Log (DIL)

Induction Logging is a method which measures the conductivity of formations by
means of induced alternating currents. Insulated coils rather than electrodes are
used to energize the formations. The Induction Logs are primarily considered as low
resistivity logs. This log provides three depth of investigations through the use of ILD
(Induction log deep), ILM (Induction log medium) and the LL3 (Laterolog three used
for shallow depth of investigation).The induction tool was originally designed for use
in Oil base muds. Improvements in design and focusing have extended the
applications to include fairly conductive muds to Oil and Gas or Air. Optimum
conditions for using Induction tool are:

a) Oil base/Fresh water mud in borehole

b) Rmf/Rw ≥ 2.5
c) Zone of interest at least 6 feet thick
d) Rt <150 ohm-m

Other advanced Induction Logging tools are HRI (High Resolution Induction) and
HDIL (High Definition Induction Log) and AIT (Array Induction Tool)

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2.4.2 Dual Laterolog Log (DLL)
Laterolog tools are generally used for high resistivity formations and saline muds.
Latero logs emit focusing currents to direct the path of the measure current through
the mud and the invaded zones to the uninvaded formation. The DLL tool records
one deep investigation log (LLD) of the undisturbed zone, one shallow investigation
measurement (LLS) of the transition zone and flushed zone resistivity (MSFL) by a
Micro spherically Focused tool. The tool provides accurate resistivity readings over
the entire range from 0.2 to 40,000 ohm-m. Laterologs are used under the following
conditions:
a) Seawater/Brine mud in borehole
b) Rmf/Rw < 2.5
c) Thin bed evaluation 2’ to 5’
d) High resistivity formation: Rt/Rm>100
e) Shallow invasion di<14”

Fig-11.2 : Example of SP and Resitivity Logs

2.5 Porosity Logs
2.5.1 Density Log
The Formation Density Log is useful as a porosity tool. Other uses of density
measurements include identification of minerals in evaporate deposits, detection of
gas, determination of hydrocarbon density, evaluation of shaly sands and complex
lithology.
In this tool, a radioactive source, applied to the hole wall in a shielded sidewall skid,
emits medium-energy rays into formations. The scattered gamma rays after
interaction with formations (Compton scattering) reach the detector and are counted
as an indicator of formation density.
Thus Density Tool basically measures electron density ρe which is related to the
true bulk density by the formula

ρb= 1.0704 ρe– 0.1883

Porosity from Density Log :

ФD = (ρ ma- ρ b) / (ρ ma - ρf)
Where
ρb = Formation density from Log, ρf =1.0 gm/cc,
ρma = 2.65 gm/cc (sand stone)
=2.71 gm/cc (lime stone)
=2.87 gm/cc (Dolomite)

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Conventional Density logging tools on use are CDT (Compensated Density Tool)
and SDLT (Spectral Density Logging Tool)

2.5.2 Neutron Log

Neutron Logs are used principally for delineation of porous formations and
determination of their porosity. They respond primarily to the amount of hydrogen
present in the formation ie liquid-filled porosity.
High energy neutrons are continuously emitted from a radioactive source which is
mounted in the Neutron sonde. These neutrons collide with nuclei of the formation
materials. The greatest energy loss occurs when the neutron strikes a nucleus of
practically equal mass – i.e a hydrogen nucleus. Thus slowing –down of neutrons
depends on the hydrogen index of fluid in the formation. The slowed-down neutrons
attain thermal velocities and then diffuse randomly. In this process hey are captured
by the nuclei of atoms such as chlorine, hydrogen, silicon etc and emit gamma rays
which are counted by the detector in the Tool.
Neutron Tool is very useful for Gas zone detection as it is very sensitive to Gas due
to its low hydrogen index.
Neutron porosity ФN can be read directly from Log.
Density and Neutron Logs are also known as radioactive Logs.

Conventional Neutron tools on use are CNT (Compensated Neutron Tool) and
DSNT (Dual Space Neutron Tool)

2.5.3 Sonic Log

The Sonic Log is a recording of the time, required for a compressional sound wave
to traverse one foot of formation,known as interval transit time ∆t. The interval
transit time for a given
formation depends upon its lithology and porosity. Integrated Sonic times are helpful
in interpreting seismic records. In clean and consolidated formations with uniformly
distributed small pores there is a linear relationship with porosity and transit time.

ФS = (∆t - ∆t ma ) / ( ∆tf - ∆t ma)

Where ∆t =Reading on the sonic log in µs /f.

∆tf = Transit time in borehole fluid i.e189 µs /f(water),
∆t ma = Transit time in matrix i.e 47.4 µs /f (limestone), 55.6 µs /f (sand
stone)
and 43.5 µs /f (dolomite)

Sonic log is useful in many cases where other logs give poor results. Overpressure
formations can be detected from ∆t data.
Conventional Sonic tools on use are BCS ( Bore Hole Compensated Sonic) and
BCDT( Bore Hole Compensated Digital Tool)

2.6 Other Open hole Logging

DIPMETER: To get the dip of formation along with the direction of dip. Widely used
to get the deposition environment.

SFT (Selective Formation Tester): To get formation fluid sample, formation

pressure and to have a qualitative idea about the permeability.

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SWC (Side Wall Coring): Core samples of the formation can be accurately collected
at predetermined depths.

2.7 High-tech Open hole Logging

FMI (Formation Micro Imaging): Used to measure the dips of formations and to
identify fractures.

DSI (Dipole Sonic Imaging): Used to measure mechanical properties of formations

and slowness behind the casing. Analysis of DSI data helps in simulation planning
of CBM and Shale Gas wells.

CMR (Combinable Magnetic Resonance): It is useful to obtain bonded fluids, free

fluids and to estimate permeability and porosity which is independent of reservoir
matrix.
MDT (Modular Dynamic Tester): It is an advanced version of SFT and gives
accurate pressure measurements and quality fluid sampling from desired depth.
Flowline resistivity measurements taken by the probe module in the tool help
discriminate between formation fluids and filtrate from water- and oil-base muds.
Formation fluid is excluded from the sample chamber until an uncontaminated
sample can be recovered.

Fig- 11.3: Example of merged Open-hole Logs

3 Cased hole Logging
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3.1 GR-CCL
For depth correlation with respect to Open Hole Logs. The log is mandatory for
carrying any job in the cased hole. CCL( Casing Collar Locator) reflects casing joints
by generating induced dc signal in the CCL coil assembly.

3.2 CBL-VDL- GR- CCL

Widely known as Cement Bond Log to find out the cement bond quality between
Casing-Cement-Formation. CBL provides bond information between casing and
cement where as VDL (Variable Density Log) between Cement and Formation. GR
helps for depth correlation with open hole logs. It is necessary to determine the
quality of casing cementation for many reasons.

- to support the casing string

- to confine high pressure zones and prevent a blowout via the casing annulus.
- to prevent contamination of fresh water zones
- to prevent casing corrosion
- to perform squeeze operations efficiently
- to establish zone isolation in order to produce a reservoir optimally

CBL–VDL log is recorded under pressurized condition to confirm the micro-annulus

effect on cement bond.

Fig-11-4:Example of Cement Bond Logs

3.3 High-tech Cased hole Logging

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CHFR (Cased Hole Formation Resistively):
It is useful in wells where Open Hole Resistivity Log is not available due to well
complications at the time of drilling, to compare the present water saturations with
the initial saturations. It gives an idea about by passed oil.

CAST (Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool) & USIT (Ultra Sonic Imaging Tool):
These Logs are carried out to know the circumferential distribution of cement behind
casing which otherwise can not be known from CBL log. Thus it helps to know the
channeling and its orientation behind the casing which helps in taking decision of
cement squeeze job. USIT can be run in Casing Integration mode to know casing
condition in the well.

Fig-11-5:Example of CAST log

RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool):

The tool is used to determine hydrocarbon and water saturations behind casing.
Saturation measurement helps in tracking reservoir depletion, planning work over
and enhanced recovery strategies and diagnosing production problems.

Multi-arm Casing Inspection Tool.

Used to inspect the casing condition in the well. Casing condition deteriorates after
producing a well over a long period. There may be damage, parting or corrosion of
casing which can be detected by casing Inspection tool and thus helps to diagnose
the problems in work-over wells.
4. Explosive Jobs
When a huge quantity of energy –Mechanical/Chemical or Atomic is released
instantaneously i.e in a very short interval of time, it is called an explosion. The
devices which causes explosion are called explosives. In oil industry specially in
well logging, these explosives are used primarily for creating holes in the casing for
production of hydrocarbons, for setting Bridge Plugs/Cement Retainers, for
extracting side wall cores from formations, for releasing stuck casing/tubing pipes
and for cutting tubing/casing. The commonly used explosives in oil industry are
RDX, HMS and HNS.
4.1 Perforation
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Perforation is the mechanism of creating holes in the casing by using explosives to
make communication between formation and borehole. Conventional perforations
are done under positive hydrostatic head. Shaped charges of different sizes are
used in HSC (Hollow Steel Carrier ) or Strip Perforator having various shot densities
as per requirement. Shaped charge mechanics are illustrated in the next page. After
perforation the hydrostatic head is reduced gradually until the fluid from formation
flows to borehole and then to surface by formation pressure.

Fig-11-6: Typical Oil Field Explosive

4.1.1Through Tubing Perforation
It is done under negative hydrostatic head to get production immediately after
perforation job. It avoids skin effect of conventional perforation and saves Rig time
of lowering tubing. Strip perforator with smaller size Shaped charges are used which
can be descended through tubing up to the desired depth but perforation is done
against casing. Disadvantage of this technique is that depth of penetration is less
due to smaller size of charges.
4.1.2 Tubing Conveyed Perforation
Another improved technique of perforation is called Tubing Conveyed Perforation
which is done to overcome the short comings of through tubing perforation. In this
method bigger size gun perforator is lowered with the help of tubing pipes keeping
gun at the bottom. Water cushion of certain column is maintained above the zone of
perforation depending permeability of the formation. Gun is fired by activating its
detonator mechanically or by pressure from surface. Once the perforation is done,
the production immediately starts through tubings to nearby collecting station
without any time loss.

Fig 11-7 Detailed Jet-Slug Mechanism

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4.1.3 Bridge Plug Setting
Bridge plugs are mainly used in cased hole for permanent or temporary isolation of
zones in casing or tubing. they prevent the movement of fluid from either direction.
Bridge plugs can be set mechanically by drill pipe/tubing and also be set with
electric wire line pressure setting tool using special type of Bridge plug setting
explosives. Setting by wireline provides depth accuracy, time saving and more
economical method with better safety.

4.1.4Tubing Puncture
The main object of this type of operation is to make holes in a tubular to establish
circulation. A tubing can be pulled out if the well is static (killed).But in wells where a
packer is used which hydraulically seals the annulus from producing zones, a
forward circulation ca not be established. The only way is to make holes in tubing i.e
puncture. Depth of penetration of the explosive used (Circulation charge) is about
0.25” to 0.5” only.

4.1.5 Casing/Tubing Cutting

Specially designed Shaped charges are used to cut the Tubing/Drill pipe/Casing.
The main object of this type of job is to cut the tubular and recover it. If the tubing in
work over well is fixed with the casing with the help of packer, it can not be pulled
out. Under such situation the tubing is cut at its deepest free point and retrieved.
Similarly, casing pipes are also retrieved by cutting if a well goes dry after drilling
and hence abandoned.

Fig-11-8: Strip Perforators and Pivot Guns

Fig- 11-9: Conventional Gun Perforator

4.1.6 Free Point Indicator

When a drill pipe is stuck during drilling or a tubing in a well is stuck during work
over operation, to know the free section of the string, Free point Indicator Log is run
in the well.

4.1.7String Shot
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 Stuck drill pipe or tubing in the well is released by giving jerk using explosives. The
operation is called string shot job. Before carrying string shot operation, Free Point
Indicator log is run to know the deepest free section of the pipe.

4.2 Explosive Safety

Explosives are dangerous materials. They need to be handled carefully for a
successful and safe operation. All the explosives used in oil industry are stored,
transported and handled for field operations as per procedures laid down in Oil
Industry Safety Manual.
Here are few safety measures taken during explosive jibs:

1) Logging unit is grounded properly with Well Structure, Catwalk and Well
Head.
2) Wireline cable end inside Unit is grounded through 5K ohm resistor.
3) Stray current level at well head/structure/catwalk is monitored within 0.25v.
4) All power generators at well site and cell phones are switched off and welding
jobs suspended.
5) Any transformer lying within 30mts from well structure to be switched off.
6) Presence of outsiders and unwanted crew persons are restricted.
7) Safety meeting is held before the job with well-site crew members and
logging members briefing the safety aspects of the operation.
8) Blastic Meter is used for checking detonator.
9) Loading of explosives, arming and disarming of the detonator are done as
per safety procedure.
10) Safety boards are displayed at the site for awareness.

5. Production Logging
A record of one or more in-situ measurements that describe the nature and behavior
of fluids in or around the borehole during production or injection. Production logs are
run for the purpose of analyzing dynamic well performance and the productivity or
infectivity of different zones, diagnosing problem wells, or monitoring the results of a
stimulation or completion.

5.1 Why Production Logging?

! To diagnose the well problems (mechanical and production)
! To get layer wise production/injection rates.
! For Reservoir monitoring

5.2 Production Logging Measurements

Temperature : Measures the temperature in the well and the departure from the
static thermal gradient.
Density : Measures the density of the fluid present in bore-hole.
Capacitance : Measures dielectric property / capacitance of fluid. The data from
the Capacitance is used to identify the fluid type and to calculate
the
holdup or fraction of the well occupied by each phase.
Pressure : Measures the total pressure due to well-bore column & reservoir.
Gamma Ray : Measures the natural radioactivity present in and around well-
bore.
CCL : Indicates the Tubing/Casing joints.
Flow-meter : Measures the fluid flow rate inside the well-bore.

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 Fig-11-10: Production Logging String

GR CCL Flow
Density Temp
Fig-11-11: Example of
Production Logs

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 Fig-11-12: Example of Flowmeter Logs

Basic Log Interpretation

It has been established that the resistivity of a clean formation is proportional to the
resisitvity of the brine with which it is fully saturated. The constant of proportionality
is called formation factor, F.
Thus, if Ro is the resistivity of a non-shaly formation sample 100% saturated with
brine of resistivity Rw then

F=Ro / Rw

The porosity Ф of a rock is the fraction of the total volume occupied by pores or
voids. Formation factor F is a function of porosity, and also pore structure and pore-
size distribution.

Archie proposed the formula

F =a/Ф m where m=cementation factor and the constant a is determined

empirically.
= 0.81/ Ф2 in most sands
= 0.62/ Ф2.15 (best average for sandstones)-Humble Formula
= 1/ Ф2 in compacted formations

Water Saturation
In a formation containing oil or gas, both of which are electrical insulators, the
resistivity is a function not only of F and Rw, but also of the water saturation, Sw. Sw
is the fraction of the pore volume occupied by formation water.

Archie’s Saturation Equation

Archie determined experimentally that the water saturation of a clean formation can
be expressed in terms of its true resistivity, Rt, as:

Sw n = FRw/Rt

Sw n= a Rw / Rt Фm

n = Saturation exponent (values 1.2 to 2.2) determined empirically-usually 2.

m = Cementation or tortuosity factor (values 1 to 3)
a = Coefficient having values between 0.6 to 2.0 depending on lithology.
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Rw = Formation Water Resistivity
Rt =True Resistivity
Ф = Porosity

The practical average Archie Equation for finding water saturation is

Sw = (0.62×Rw/ Ф2.15× Rt )1/2

Thus fraction of the pore volume occupied by hydrocarbon

Sh = (1-Sw)
Initial Oil in Place (IOIP)

IOIP = Area (A) x Thickness (h) x Porosity (Ф) x (Sh)

Net Oil in Place = IOIP x R.F (Recovery factor)

Stock Tank Oil in Place = Net Oil in Place ÷ Boil

Where Boil=Oil formation volume factor(> 1.0)

This is the ultimate objective of exploration activities and Logging Services play an
key role to provide accurate data of h, Ф and Sh.

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