Lecture 2

Lecture 2
• Properties
Properties of concrete and steel
of concrete and steel
– Concrete: – Steel Bars
• Stress-strain curve • Tensile strength
g
• Compressive strength • Stress-strain curve
• Elastic modulus, Ec
• Shrinkage
Sh i k
• Creep

• Characteristics strength & design strength
Characteristics strength & design strength
• Characteristics loads & design loads

Typical Reinforcing Steel in a Structure
WWF

H10
Main bars
H32

WWF

H10 or H13
WWF for links

2
 Reinforcing steel bars
Every steel is truly an alloy, but not all steels are 
Every steel is truly an alloy but not all steels are
called "alloy steels". Even the simplest steels are 
iron (Fe) (about 99%) alloyed with carbon (C) 
(about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type).
(about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type). 
Reinforcing bars use carbon steel. Carbon steels
are steels whose alloying elements do not exceed 
the following limits

Element C Cu Mn P Si S
Max weight % 1.00 0.60 1.65 0.40 0.60 0.05

Designation C (%) Strength Uses

Mild carbon steel
Mild carbon steel 0.05–0.15
0.05 0.15  Reinforcing bar/fabric
Reinforcing bar/fabric
relatively low tensile strength
Low carbon steel 0.16–0.29 Reinforcing bars
Medium carbon steel 0.30–0.59 Balances ductility and strength  Reinforcing bars
High carbon steel 0.60–0.99 Very strong high‐strength wires

STRENGTH OF REINFORCING STEEL BAR

Tensile test plot for stress against strain

Yield stress 0 2% proof stress

0.2%
Stress

Stress
S

Strain 0.002 Strain

(a) Hot rolled steel (b) Cold worked steel

Figure 1.5:Stress-strain curves for high-yield reinforcing steel

4
 Reinforcing steel bar
Two types (which could be hot
hot-rolled
rolled or cold
cold-worked
worked high yield steel):
• Ribbed bar (designated in size of diameter: 8,10, 13, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 40 mm)
• Welded steel fabric (WWF) - for use in slabs or walls

Yield Strength Tensile/yield 
B500A Class Max Elongation
( N/mm2 ) strength ratio
B500A HA 500 1.05 2.5 %
B500B HB 500 1.08 5.0 %
B500C HC 485 1.15 < 1.35 7.5 %
Note:  Grade 500 (500N/mm2 characteristic strength) has replaced Grade 
250 and Grade 460 reinforcing steel throughout Europe.

The bar types are commonly identified by the following codes: H for high 
yp y y g g
yield steel, irrespective of ductility class or HA, HB, HC where a specific 
ductility class is required.  Class HB is most commonly used for reinforcing 
bars. Class HC has high ductility which may be used in earthquake design 
or similar situations. Class HA (usually used in WWF) has lower ductility .
5

CONCRETE = aggregates + cement + water

Concrete is a mixture of   cement paste  
+ aggregates 20% by volume

80% by 
volume

Concrete Mix Design
• Proportioning the constituents to give the required 
workability
k bili of the fresh concrete, the strength
f h f h h h & durability
& d bili
of the hardened concrete.
• The water‐cement (w/c) ratio is the single most important 
factor affecting strength.
• For full hydration, cement absorbs  23% of its weight of 
water so that the w/c ratio must be greater than 0 23
water, so that the w/c ratio must be greater than 0.23
• Practical w/c ratio ranges from 0.4 to 0.6.
6
W/C ratio  is used to achieve the following  attributes.
• Strength It increases with decreasing water/cement ratio   
It increases with decreasing water/cement ratio
(minimum 0.23 to complete hydration of cement)

Tricalcium silicate + Water‐‐‐>Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide + heat
2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O ‐‐‐> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
Composition of Portland cement with chemical 
composition and weight percentage
Cement Weigh
Chemical Formula
Compound t%
Tricalcium silicate 50 % Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2
Di l i
Dicalcium silicate
ili t 25 % 2C O.SiO2
C 2SiO4 or 2CaO
Ca
Tricalcium
10 % Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3
aluminate
Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2O100 or
10 %
aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
Gypsum 5% CaSO4.2H2O

• Workability  ‐ It increases with increasing water/cement ratio
• Durability  ‐ It decreases with increasing water/cement ratio
7

Specification of Concrete Materials
• Concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of 
cubes or cylinders of concrete made from the mix. 
• Concrete of a given strength is identified by its ‘class’ – e.g. a Class  
25/30 concrete has a characteristic cylinder crushing strength (fck) of 25 
N/mm2 and cube strength of 30 N/mm2. 
• Exposure conditions and durability can also effect the choice of the mix 
design and the class of concrete. 
• The concrete mix may either be classified as ‘designed’
The concrete mix may either be classified as  designed  or 
or ‘designated’
designated . 

Note: Use at least Class C20/25 concrete for superstructure (above

ground), and Class C30/37 for foundation (below ground).

8
 Concrete Strength tests

1. Compressive strength  fck
Grade 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50
Grade 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50

The cylinder strength is LOWER

than the cube strength fck = 0.8 fck, cube

2. Tensile strength  f
g fctk
Is about 10% of the cube strength.  The splitting tensile
strength is 1.3-1.5 times
LOWER than the
flexural tensile strength

Split cylinder test Flexural beam test
9

Concrete Compressive Strength test

Assumed stress–strain relationship up to 50 N/mm2 cylinder strength

Cylindrical sample size: 150mm 
di
dia. x 350mm long 
350 l
Stress

Note:  Alternatively,  cube 
sample of 150mm x 150mm x 
150mm concrete cube is used 
0.0035
Strain

Figure 1.2: Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

10
 Definition of Concrete Grade
Estimated concrete strength development with age

40

2
gth N/mm
30 Grade C30 concrete
Comprressive streng means concrete
attaining 30 N/mm2 at
20
28 days.

10

0
1 7 28 3 1 5
day days days months year years
Age of concrete (log scale)

Figure 1.3: Increase of concrete strength with age. Typical curve for a
concrete made with a Class 42
42.5
5 Portland Cement with 28 day
compressive strength of 30 N/mm 2

11

Modulus of Concrete
Since the stress-strain relationship is not linear, different moduli are defined
for concrete. The Secant Modulus is generally used in static design.

Mean modulus of concrete Ecm is

defined as secant modulus at a 0.4fcm
stress of 0.4 fck
Short-term Ecm at 28 days
Stress

Ecm
fck/fck,cube
(kN/mm2) Tangent or dynamic modulus

C20/25 30
C25/30 31 Secant or static modulus
C30/37 33
C35/45 34
C40/50 35 Strain
C45/55 36
Figure 1.4: Moduli of elasticity of concrete
C50/60 37
Secant modulus Ecm ≈ 5000 √ (fck/0.8)
12
Effect of concrete shrinkage
g

Shrinkage prism readings were

performed in accordance with
ASTM C C-157
157

Free Shrinkage Test ‐ Comparison of different 
Mechanical Dial Gage
aggregate types through 365 days
aggregate types through 365 days  Length Comparator

13

Concrete cracks due to shrinkage

Effects of internal and external restraint

on concrete shrinkage

Original member - Reinforcement restrains shrinkage

as cast
movement and generates tension
in concrete
ε sh
Plain concrete -
unrestrained A c f ct
A s fst
ε ct A s fsc

Reinforced concrete -
unrestrained
ε sc
Shrinkage forces adjacent to a crack
ε ct

Reinforced concrete -
fully restrained

Shrinkage strains

14
 CONCRETE CREEPS
under sustained load

Development of creep deformation with time –

affects deflections and crack widths
Deforrmation

Creep
A Soiltest multi‐length
strain gauge set was used 
to take creep readings 
Short-term elastic from the metal tabs
from the metal tabs

1 2 3 4 5
Time - years

Figure 1.9: Typical increase of deformation with time for concrete

15

DURABILITY of concrete
- The durability of the concrete is influenced by
• the exposure conditions
• the cement type
• the concrete quality
• the cover to the reinforcement
• the width of any cracks

- Adequate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents reaching the

reinforcement through cracks and pervious concrete

- The thickness of cover required depends on the severity of the

exposure and the quality of the concrete

- The cover is also necessary to protect the reinforcement against a

rapid rise in temperature and subsequent loss of strength during a fire

16
 Limit state design
g
LIMIT STATES
‐ Ultimate: 
Ultimate: collapse
buckling
overturning etc
g
‐ Serviceability:  deflection
crackingg
durability etc
Other limit states that may be reached include:
• F ti
Fatigue – mustt be
b considered
id d if cyclic
li loading
l di is i likely.
lik l
• Fire resistance – this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse,
flame penetration and heat transfer.
• Excessive vibration – which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as damage.
damage
• Special circumstances – e.g. earthquake resistance must be taken into account.
17

Limit state design
g
In assessing a particular limit state for a structure it is necessary to consider all the 
possible variable parameters such as the loads, material strengths and constructional 
tolerances.

Characteristic Material Strengths
Mean strength (f m )
gth (f k )
Numberr of test speciimens

cteristic streng

fk = fm − 1.64σ
Charac

1.64σ

Strength

Figure 2.1:Normal frequency distribution of strengths 18

 Characteristic Strength of Concrete
g

Characteristic strength
iis the actual strength below which not more than 5% of the test 
th t l t th b l hi h t th 5% f th t t
results would be expected to fail.

fck = fcmk − 1.64σ

No. of 
test result Example:
a p e:
Mean strength = 38.2 MPa
and σ = 5 MPa

mean Strength fk = 38.2 ‐ 1.64 × 5 = 30 MPa

fk

19

Stress‐Strain Curves of Concrete
For limit state design apply a partial safety factor γm for concrete
For limit state design, apply a partial safety factor  for concrete
γm accounts for:
Characteristic strength f
Design strength = = k • Difference between actual and 
f y γm
Partial ffactor off safety
l b t
laboratory‐determined values.
d t i d l
• Inaccurate assessment of the load 
resistance.
Idealized stress‐strain
Idealized stress strain curve
curve
Note: 0.85 is ratio of flexural strength to 
direct compression strength
fck

0.85fck /γm

0.002 0.0035 0.0035

Idealized curve for design (Fig 2.1, CP65)
20
 The Stress‐Strain Curves for Steel 
R i f
Reinforcement
γm = 1.15
fyk /γm

fyk 200 kN/mm2

Actual stress‐strain curve Idealised curve for design
Steel is ductile
Steel is ductile Note: In BS 8110: 1997 γm=1.05
Note: In BS 8110: 1997, γ =1 05

21

Limit state design
g
Partial factors of safety for materials

Limit state Persistent & Transient Accidental

Concrete g
Reinforcing& Concrete Reinforcing&
g
Prestressing Prestressing
Steel Steel
Ultimate
Flexure
Fl 1.5
1 5 1.15
1 1 1.20
1 20 1.00
1 00
Shear 1.5 1.15 1.20 1.00
Bond 1.5 1.15 1.20 1.00
Serviceability 1.00 1.00

22
 Limit state design
g
Characteristic Loads
Characteristic load = mean load ± 1.64 standard deviation
[ Based on EC1 as appropriate ]

Characteristic loads
h i i l d are:
• The nominal loads act on the structures.
• They have a 95% probability of not being 
exceeded during the life span of the structure. 

Three common types of load:
Š Dead load, Gk (kN) or gk (kN/m or kN/m2)
Š Live load, Qk (kN) or qk (kN/m or kN/m2)
Š Wind load, Wk (kN) or wk (kN/m or kN/m2)

23

Material Characteristic Weight (DL) Material _____  Characteristic Weight (DL)

Asphalt Plastics sheeting (corrugated) 4 5 kg/m2
4.5
Roofing 2 layers, 19 mm thick 42 kg/m2
Damp-proofing, 19 mm thick 41 kg/m2 Plywood
Road and footpaths, 19 mm thick 44 kg/m2 Per mm thick 0.7 kg/m2

Reinforced concrete 2500 kg/m3

Bitumen roofing felts
Mineral surfaced bitumen 3.5 kg/m2
Rendering
Blockwork Cement: sand (1:3), 13 mm thick 30 kg/m2
Solid per 25 mm thick, stone 55 kg/m2
aggregate Screeding
Aerated per , 25 mm thick 15 kg/m2 Cement: sand ((1:3),
), 13 mm thick 30 kg/m
g 2
Slate tiles
Board depending up thickness & sources 24-78 kg/m2
Blackboard per 25 mm thick 12.5 kg/m2
Steel
Brickwork Solid (mild) 7850 kg/m3
Clay, solid per 25 mm thick, 5 kg/m2 Corrugated roofing sheets
sheets, per mm 10 kg/m2
medium density
Concrete, solid per mm thick 59 kg/m2 Tarmacadam
25 mm thick 60 kg/m2
Cast stone 2250 kg/m3
Concrete Timber
Natural aggregates 2400 kg/m3 Softwood 590 kg/m3
Lightweight aggregates (structural) 1760 kg/m3 Hardwood 1250 kg/m3

Gypsum panels and partitions Wood

Building panels 75 mm thick 44 kg/m2 Slabs, 25 mm thick 15 kg/m2

Plaster Water 1000 kg/m3

Two coats gypsum, 13mm thick 22 kg/m2
*Typical Characteristic Live Loads
Occupancy Use Live Load, (kN/m2)
[ * Design Loads for Singapore, see 
Assembly areas and theaters
Table 4 of the Fourth Schedule – BCA ]
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 29
2.9
Lobbies 4.8
Stage floors 7.2 Imposed Load kN/m2
Libraries
R di rooms
Reading 2.9
2 9 Office for general use 25
2.5
Stack rooms 7.2
Office with fixed
Office buildings 3.5
computer
Lobbies 4.8
Offices 2.4 Fil room
File 5
Residential Houses, flats 1.5
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 1.5
Parking structure 2.5
Uninhabitable attics with storage 10
1.0
All other areas 1.9 Classroom 3.0
Schools
Classrooms 1.9 Shop floor for display 4.0
C id
Corridors above
b th
the fifirstt flfloor 38
3.8

Characteristic Wind Loads

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind 
around structures. Wind load magnitudes vary in 
proportion to the distance from the base of the 
structure peak wind speed type of terrain
structure, peak wind speed, type of terrain, 
importance factor, and side of building and roof 
slope.

Si h i i d 30 / 2
FFor Singapore, characteristic speed = 30 m/s

Lateral Wind pressure = 0.618 v2 = 0.556 kN/m2

wind pressure

Variation of Wind Velocity with 
Distance Above Ground
Characteristic wind Loads

Uplift pressure on sloping roof; wind
speed on line 2 is larger than line 1 
due to greater path length Increased
due to greater path length. Increased 
velocity reduces pressure on top of 
roof creating a pressure differential 
between inside and outside of the 
building.

Characteristic wind Loads

Roof loading on the windward
side is a suction load for small
side is a suction load for small
angles θ and h/L ratios. Increasing
θ for a fixed value of  h/L will lead 
to the windward roof load being a 
pressure load. Conversely, 
l d C l
increasing  h/L for a fixed θ will 
result in a suction roof load on the 
windward side..
 Characteristic Earthquake Loads

An earthquake is a
A th k i sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although 
dd d l ti f ti f th th’ f Alth h
the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an 
earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion is usually 
small and does not have a significant impact on most structures.
g p

LLateral Force Distribution due to
lF Di ib i d
Lateral Earthquake Motion

Partial factors of safety for loads
Design load = characteristic load x partial factor of safety
Design load = characteristic load x partial factor of safety (γ f )
Partial factors of safety for SLS: (γ f ) Accounts for:
ƒ design assumptions & inaccuracy
Permanent actions
i Variable actions
i bl i ƒ unusual load increases
ƒ unforeseen stress redistribution
1.0 1.0
ƒ constructional errors etc
Partial factors of safety for ULS:
Persistent or Transient Permanent actions (Gk) Leading Variable action  Accompanying Variable 
Design Situation (Qk,1) actions (Qk,i)
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable

(a) For checking the static

equilibrium of a building 1.10 0.90 1.50 0 1.50 0
structure
(b) For the design of
structural
t t l members b
1.35 1.00 1.50 0 1.50 0
(excluding geotechnical
actions)
(c) As an alternative to (a)
and (b) above to design for
1.35 1.15 1.50 0 1.50 0
b th situations
both it ti with
ith one sett
of calculations

30
 Limit state design
g

Example 2.1
p

Steel cable at  ULS

Variable load = 2.0kN ( x 1.50 )

(man + equipment)

Permanent load = 3 3.0kN

0kN ( x  1.35 )
( 1 35 )
(platform + cable)

Figure
g 2.2:Diagram
g for example 2.1

31

Limit state design
g

Example 2.2
p
170kN variable load

beam
permanent load 20kN/m
A B C
foundation

( )
(a) 6m 2m
1.5 x variable load

1.10 x p
permanent load
0 9 x permanentt load
0.9 l d
A B C

(b) Loading arrangement for uplift at A at the ultimate limit state

Figure 2.3:Uplift calculation example

32
 Limit state design
g

COMBINATION OF ACTIONS
• Examine different combinations to establish most critical design case
Adjust factored variable actions by further factor Ψ

¾ ‘Combination’ values ( similar probability as single action)
‐ ULS and SLS Ψ0

¾ ‘Frequent’ values’ – ULS (accidental) and SLS Ψ1

¾ ‘Quasi‐permanent’ – [‘almost permanent’] – sustained actions 

‐ ULS (accidental) and SLS Ψ 2

33

Combination of Actions
Ψ for different loading combinations
Table 2.4: values of     
Action Combination Frequent Quasi-
permanent
Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2
Imposed load on buildings, category (see EN 1991 –1.1)
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 07
0.7 07
0.7 06
0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area vehicle weight <30kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category G: traffic area 30kN,vehicle
30kN vehicle weight
weight,160kN
160kN 07
0.7 05
0.5 03
0.3
Category H: roofs 0.7 0 0

Snow loads on buildings (see EN 1991-3)

For sites located at altitude H>1000m above sea level 0.7
0 7 0.5
0 5 0.2
0 2
For sites located at altitude H <= 1000m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0

Wind loads on buildings (see EN 1991 1-1-4) 0.5 0.2 0

34
 Limit state design
g
Combination of Actions ‐ Stability

0.7 x 1.5Qk 1.0 x 1.5Qk

OR

1.0 x 1.5Wk 0.5 x 1.5Wk

0.9Gk 1.1Gk 0.9Gk 1.1Gk

B B

(a) (b)
Figure 2.4:Wind and imposed load acting on an office building

35