How Do Organisms Reproduce ?

Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce

new individuals similar to themselves. It ensures continuity of life
on earth.

DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid):

● The nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid), which is the hereditary material.
● DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation.
● These new cells will be similar but may not be identical to
the original cell.
● Importance of DNA copying :
○ Maintenance of body design
○ Transfer of traits
○ Variations are introduced at the time of DNA copying
which forms the base for evolution and survival of a
species
 Variation:

● It is the base of evolution.

● Variation is vital for the survival of species over time.
● If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a
particular niche and if the niche were drastically altered, the
population could be wiped out. However, if some variations
were to be present in a few individuals in these populations,
there would be some chance for them to survive.
● For example: if there were a population of bacteria living in
temperate waters, and if the water temperature were to be
increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would
die, but the few variants resistant to heat would survive and
grow further.
● Thus, variation is beneficial to the species but not
necessarily for the individual.
 Modes of Reproduction:

Asexual Reproduction:
● When offspring is produced by single parent without the
involvement of gamete formation.
● Modes of Asexual Reproduction :
○ Fission
○ Fragmentation
○ Regeneration
○ Budding
○ Vegetative propagation
○ Spore formation
 Fission:
● Binary fission: It is the division of one cell into two similar or
identical cells. The nucleus first divides into two, followed by
the division of the cytoplasm. The cell finally splits into two
daughter cells.

○ Examples: Amoeba, Bacteria and Protozoa

○ Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more
organisation of their
bodies, In such
organisms, binary
fission occurs in a
definite orientation in
relation to their
structures. Example:
Leishmania (which causes kala-azar) have a whip-like
structure at one end of the cell.
● Multiple fission: In multiple fission, many
individuals are formed from a single individual.
○ Example: Plasmodium and the malarial
parasite
○ The nucleus divides repeatedly, producing
many nuclei and many daughter cells.
 Fragmentation:
● It takes place in multicellular organisms with simple body
organisation such as in Spirogyra.
● In this, the body breaks up into two or more small pieces of
fragments upon maturation. These fragments grow into new
individuals.
Regeneration:
● It is the ability of a fully differentiated organism to give rise
to new individual organisms from its body parts.
● A small cut or broken part of the organism’s body grows or
regenerates into separate individuals.
● Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells.
These cells rapidly make large numbers of
cells. From this mass of cells, different cells
undergo changes to become various cell types
and tissues. These changes take place in an
organised sequence called development.
● Note: Regeneration is not the same as
reproduction, since most organisms would not
normally depend on being cut up to be able to
reproduce.
● Simple organisms are able to produce new organisms by the
process of regeneration because their whole body is made
up of similar kinds of cells and the body can regenerate by
growth and development. The tissues in complex organisms
cannot regenerate a new individual as they are highly
differentiated to perform specialised functions.
● For example: Planaria
 Budding:
● A bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division
at one specific site.
● These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully
mature, detach from the parent body and become new
independent individuals.
● The process of budding takes place using regenerative cells.
● Yeast can put out small buds that separate and grow further.
● Example: Hydra
 Vegetative Propagation:
● In many plants, new plants develop from vegetative parts of
the plant body such as stem, roots, leaves, etc.
● Advantages:
○ Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear
flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from
seeds.
○ Such methods also make possible the propagation of
plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that
have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
○ All plants produced are genetically similar enough to
the parent plant to have all its characteristics.
Methods of vegetative propagation:
(i) Natural methods are:
(a) By roots
(b) By stems: Buds formed on a potato
(c) By leaves: Buds produced in the notches along the leaf
margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into new
plants
(ii) Artificial methods:
(b) Cutting: A small part of the plant including a leaf is
removed. e.g., money plant.
(c) Grafting and Layering: e.g., Sugarcane, Roses or Grapes
(d) Tissue culture: In tissue culture, new plants are grown by
removing tissue or separating cells from the growing tip of a
plant. The cells are placed in an artificial medium where they
divide rapidly to form a small group of cells or callus. This
technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.
 Spore Formation:
● Sporangia and their Role:
○ They are the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures in bread
mould (Rhizopus) that are involved in reproduction.
○ They contain cells/spores that can eventually develop
into new Rhizopus individuals.
○ The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them
until they come into contact with another moist surface
and can begin to grow.
● Hyphae: Bread mould has thread-like structures called
hyphae.
 Sexual reproduction
● The sexual mode of reproduction is the process of
combining DNA from two different individuals to form a new
individual during reproduction i.e., one male and one female
are needed to give rise to a new individual.
● Sexual reproduction takes place by the combination of 2
special reproductive cells called sex cells, they are also
called gametes or germ cells.
○ The motile germ cell (capable of motion) is called the
male gamete.
○ The germ cell containing the stored food is called the
female gamete.
● The fusion between male gamete and female gamete leads
to the formation of the zygote cells which then develop into a
new organism.
● The new individual is genetically similar but not identical to
parents.
● It is useful to generate more variations in a species.
● This mode of reproduction is adopted by higher organisms.
● The DNA copying mechanism is not accurate, and the
resultant errors are a source of variations in populations of
organisms. In a population, variations are useful for ensuring
the survival of the species.
● Why sexual reproduction doesn't fail
○ DNA-copying is not absolutely accurate, but precise
enough to make the generation of variation a fairly slow
process. If DNA copying was less accurate most
resultant DNA copies would be unable to work with the
cellular apparatus and would die.
○ Each new generation would have twice the amount of
DNA as the previous generation. This messes up the
control of the cellular apparatus by the DNA.
○ So, multi-cellular organisms have special lineages of
cells in specialised organs where only half the number
of chromosomes and half the amount of DNA as
compared to the nonreproductive body cells is present.
This is achieved by a process of cell division called
meiosis.
○ Thus, when these germ-cells from two individuals
combine, it results in the re-establishment of the
number of chromosomes and the DNA content in the
new generation.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
● The reproductive parts of
angiosperms (flowers that
can bear fruit) are located
in the flower. The different
parts of a flower are:
○ Sepals
○ Petals
○ Stamens
○ Pistil
● Stamens/Pistils: Stamens and pistils are the reproductive
parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells.
○ Stamens: It is the male reproductive part and it
produces pollen grains that are yellowish in colour. You
must have seen this yellowish powder that often sticks
to our hands if we touch the stamen of a flower.
○ Pistil: Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is
the female reproductive part. It is made of three parts.
■ The swollen bottom part is the ovary. It contains
ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
■ The middle elongated part is the style
■ The terminal part which may be sticky is the
stigma
● Unisexual flowers:
○ Flowers that contain either stamens or pistil.
○ Examples: Papaya and Watermelon
● Bisexual flowers:
○ Flowers that contain both stamens and pistil.
○ Examples: Hibiscus and Mustard
● Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen from one flower’s
stamen to another’s stigma. It is achieved by agents like
wind, water or animals.
○ Self-pollination - It is the transfer of pollen that occurs
in the same flower.
○ Cross Pollination - It is the transfer of pollen from one
flower to another.

● Fertilisation:
○ After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, a tube
grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the
style to reach the ovary.
○ The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with
the female gamete present in the ovule. This fusion of
the germ-cells is called fertilisation which gives us the
zygote which is capable of growing into a new plant.
○ After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to
form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a
tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed. The
ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and
stigma may shrivel and fall off.
● Germination: The seed
contains the embryo
which develops into a
seedling under
appropriate conditions.
This process is known
as germination.
 Reproduction in Human Beings
The Process of Maturation in Human Beings
● Puberty: The body develops specialised organs for the
creation of germ cells to participate in sexual reproduction.
The period of maturation of reproductive tissues during
adolescence is called puberty.
○ Changes that are common to both boys and girls:
■ Growth of hair:
● Thick hair grows in new parts of the body
such as the armpits and the genital area
between the thighs.
● Thinner hair can also appear on the legs,
arms and face.
■ Darker Genitals: The genital area between the
thighs can also become darker in colour.
■ Oily Skin and Pimples: The skin frequently
becomes oily and might develop pimples.
■ Grow consciousness and awareness of bodies in
new ways.
○ Changes that occur in girls:
■ Breast size increases
■ Skin of the nipples at the tips of the breasts darken
■ Girls begin to menstruate
○ Changes that occur in boys:
■ Thick hair growth on the face
■ Voice begins to crack
■ Penis occasionally becomes enlarged and erect,
either in daydreams or at night
 ○ Time: These changes take place slowly, over a period of
months and years. They don’t happen at the same time
or at an exact age. In some people, they happen early
and quickly, while in others, they happen slowly. Each
change does not become complete quickly. Example:
Thick facial hair in boys appears as a few scattered
hairs first and then slowly grows to become uniform.
● External release of germ-cells - Some organisms reproduce
by the external release of germ-cells from the bodies of
individuals, as happens in flowering plants.
● Internal transfer of germ-cells - Some organisms reproduce
by two individuals joining their bodies together for the
internal transfer of germ-cells for fusion, as happens in many
animals.
Reproductive Systems
● Male Reproductive System:
○ Testes:
■ Functions:
● The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes
place in the testes.
● Testes secrete the hormone, testosterone.
○ It regulates the formation of sperms.
○ Testosterone brings about changes in
the appearance of boys during puberty.
■ Location: These are located outside the abdominal
cavity in scrotum because sperm formation
requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
○ Vas Deferens: Delivers the sperm formed which
reunites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder.
○ Urethra: It forms a common passage for both the
sperms and urine.
○ The prostate glands and the seminal vesicles: The
prostate glands and the seminal vesicles add
secretions so sperms are now in a fluid which makes
transport easier and provides nutrition.
○ Sperms: They are tiny bodies that consist of mainly
genetic material and a long tail that helps them to move
towards the female germ-cell.
● Female Reproductive System:
○ Ovaries:
■ Ovaries produce female germ-cells/eggs and
some hormones.
■ When a girl is born, the ovaries contain thousands
of immature eggs which mature on reaching
puberty.
■ One egg is produced every month by one of the
ovaries.
○ Oviduct/Fallopian Tube: It carries the egg from the
ovary to the womb.
○ Uterus: It is an elastic bag-like structure connected to
the two oviducts. Implantation of the embryo takes
place in the lining of the uterus where it grows and
develops organs to become a foetus.
○ Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the
cervix. The vagina is the entry point for sperms during
sexual intercourse.
○ Fertilization: The sperms enter through the vaginal
passage during sexual intercourse. They travel upwards
and reach the oviduct where they may encounter the
egg. When they meet the egg, the sperm and the egg
fertilise/fuse to form a zygote (fertilised egg).
○ Growth of the egg: The fertilised egg (zygote) starts
dividing and forms a ball of cells or embryo. The
embedding of the embryo in the thick lining of the
uterus is known as implantation. The implanted embryo
develops organs to become a foetus.
○ The mother’s body is designed to undertake the
development of the child.
■ Monthly preparation of uterus: The uterus
prepares itself every month to receive and nurture
the growing embryo. The lining thickens and is
richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.
■ Placenta:
● It is a disc embedded in the uterine wall that
provides nutrition from the mother’s blood to
the embryo.
● It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the
tissue. On the mother’s side are blood
spaces, which surround the villi.
● This provides a large surface area for glucose
and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
embryo.
● The waste generated by the embryo can be
removed by transferring them into the
mother’s blood through the placenta.
○ The birth of a child: The development of the child
inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine
months. The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
○ The Menstrual Cycle / Menstruation:
■ Lifespan of egg: If the egg is not fertilised, it lives
for one day.
■ Monthly Preparation: Since the ovary releases one
egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself
every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its
lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be
required for nourishing the embryo if fertilisation
had taken place.
■ Menstruation: Now, however, this lining is not
needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and
comes out through the vagina as blood and
mucous. This cycle takes place roughly every
month and is known as menstruation.
■ Duration: It usually lasts for about two to eight
days.
 Reproductive Health
● STD (Sexually Transmitted Diseases):
○ Since the sexual act is a very intimate connection of
bodies, diseases can be sexually transmitted.
○ STDs include bacterial infections:
■ Gonorrhoea
■ Syphilis
○ STDs include viral infections:
■ HIV-AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency syndrome)
■ Warts
○ Prevention the transmission of STDs: Using a covering,
called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to
prevent transmission infections to some extent.
● Contraception / Birth Control: If a woman is not ready for
pregnancy, her health will be adversely affected. There are
many ways to avoid pregnancy and this prevention of
pregnancy is called contraception or birth control.
Mechanical Intrauterine
Chemical
Barrier Surgical Method Contraceptive
Method
Method device (IUCD)
Condoms Drugs
on the commonly If the vas deferens in the
penis or taken orally as male is blocked, sperm
Loop or the
similar pills change transfer will be prevented.
Copper-T are
coverings the hormonal This is called vasectomy.
placed in the
worn in the balance of the If the fallopian tube in the
uterus to
vagina can body so that female is blocked, the egg
prevent
prevent the eggs are not will not be able to reach the
pregnancy.
sperm from released and uterus. This is called
reaching fertilisation tubectomy.
the egg. cannot occur.
Since they
Condoms Surgical methods are safe They can
change
can also in the long run, although it cause side
hormonal
help can cause infections and effects due to
balances, they
prevent other problems if not irritation of
can cause
diseases. performed properly. the uterus.
side-effects

○ Abortion: Surgery used for the removal of unwanted

pregnancies is called abortion. These may be misused
by people who do not want a particular child, as
happens in illegal sex-selective abortion of female
foetuses. For a healthy society, the female-male sex
ratio must be maintained. Reckless female foeticides
occur, although prenatal sex determination has been
prohibited by law.