Agnel Charities

Fr. C. Rodrigues Institute of Technology, Vashi, Navi-Mumbai

Department of Computer Engineering

Computer Network

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 Roadmap

1.1

 Course Objective
 Course Outcome
 Syllabus
 Text Books

2.1
2.2
2.3

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 Course Objective
 To introduce concepts and fundamentals of data communication and computer networks.

 To explore the inter-working of various layers of OSI.

 To explore the issues and challenges of protocols design while delving into TCP/IP
protocol suite.

 To assess the strengths and weaknesses of various routing algorithms.

 To understand various transport layer and application layer protocols.

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 Course Outcome
CSC503.1 Illustrate the fundamentals of data communication and networking with
reference to OSI and TCP/IP models.
CSC503.2 Explore different design issues and protocols used at data link layer.

CSC503.3 Design the network using the concept of subnetting / supernetting schemes.

CSC503.4 Analyze various routing algorithms and protocols at network layer.

CSC503.5 Analyze transport layer protocols and congestion control algorithms.

CSC503.6 Explore protocols at application layer

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 Syllabus
Sr. No. Detailed Contents Hrs.
1. Introduction to Networking:
1:1 Introduction to computer network, network application, network software and hardware 04
components (Interconnection networking devices), Network topology, protocol hierarchies,
design issues for the layers, connection oriented and connectionless services.
1:2 Reference models: Layer details of OSI, TCP/IP models. Communication between layers.
2. Physical Layer:
2:1 Introduction to Communication Electromagnetic Spectrum. 03
2:2 Guided Transmission Media: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fiber optics.

3. Data Link Layer: 08

3:1 DLL Design Issues (Services, Framing, Error Control, Flow Control), Error Detection and
Correction(Hamming Code, CRC, Checksum) , Elementary Data Link protocols , Stop and
Wait, Sliding Window(Go Back N, Selective Repeat)
3:2 Medium Access Control sublayer
Channel Allocation problem, Multiple access Protocol( Aloha, Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA/CD)

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 Syllabus
Sr. No. Detailed Contents Hrs.
4. Network layer : 12
4:1 Network Layer design issues, Communication Primitives: Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast.
IPv4 Addressing (classfull and classless), Subnetting, Supernetting design problems ,IPv4
Protocol, Network Address Translation (NAT), IPv6
4:2 Routing algorithms : Shortest Path (Dijkastra‘s), Link state routing, Distance Vector
Routing
4:3 Protocols - ARP,RARP, ICMP, IGMP
4:4 Congestion control algorithms: Open loop congestion control, Closed loop congestion
control, QoS parameters, Token & Leaky bucket algorithms
5. Transport Layer:
5.1 The Transport Service: Transport service primitives, Berkeley Sockets, Connection 06
management (Handshake), UDP, TCP, TCP state transition, TCP timers.
5.2 TCP Flow control (sliding Window), TCP Congestion Control: Slow Start.
6. Application Layer: 06
6.1 DNS: Name Space, Resource Record and Types of Name Server. HTTP, SMTP, Telnet,
FTP, DHCP
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 Text Books
Text Book:
1. A.S. Tanenbaum : Computer Networks,4th edition Pearson Education.

2. B.A. Forouzan: Data Communications and Networking, 5th edition, TMH.

3. James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking, A Top-Down Approach Featuring
the Internet,6th edition, Addison Wesley.
Reference Books:
1. S.Keshav : An Engineering Approach To Computer Networking, Pearson.
2. Natalia Olifer & Victor Olifer: Computer Networks: Principles, Technologies & Protocols
for Network Design, Wiley India.
3. Larry L.Peterson, Bruce S.Davie: Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, Second
Edition ,The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Networking.
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 Chapter - 1

Introduction to Networking

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 Roadmap

 1.1
1.1

 Introduction to computer network

 Network application
 Network software and hardware components (Interconnection networking devices)
 Network topology
 Protocol hierarchies
 Design issues for the layers
 Connection oriented and connectionless services.
2.1

2.2

2.3

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 Roadmap

 1.2

 Reference models: Layer details of OSI

 TCP/IP models
 Communication between layers.

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 Introduction
A computer network is a group of devices connected with each
other through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc.
These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax
machines etc.

 The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources

among various devices.

The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive

data stored in other devices over the network. These devices are
often referred as nodes.

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 Uses of Computer Networks
• Payroll calculations
 Business Applications:A network with • Budgeting
two clients and one server. The client-server • Sales analysis
model involves requests and replies. • Financial forecasting
• Managing employee database
• Maintenance of stocks, etc.

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 Uses of Computer Networks
Banking Marketing

Education Healthcare

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 Uses of Computer Networks
Military Government

Communication Engineering Design

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 Uses of Computer Networks
 HomeApplications : Popular uses of the Internet for home users are:
 Access to remote information.
 Person-to-person communication.
 Interactive entertainment.
 Electronic commerce.

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 Uses of Computer Networks

 Mobile Users:

 Notebook computers
 Personal digital assistants
 Wireless networks
 Adhoc Networks

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 Uses of Computer Network
 Resource sharing: Sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data among
the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the
resource and user.
 Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A
server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the
system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored
in the server remotely.
 Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for communication.
 E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet.

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 Network Hardware Components
 NIC(Network interface card): NIC helps the computer to
communicate with another device. The network interface card
contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use
this address to identify the system on the network so that it
transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

 Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In
Wireless NIC, a connection is made using the antenna that
employs the radio wave technology.

 Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over
the medium.

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 Network Hardware Components
 Hub:
 Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into
multiple devices.
 When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends
the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the
interconnected computers.
 Switches :
 Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the
network to transfer the data to another device.
 Switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over
the network, i.e. it sends the message to the device for which it
belongs to.
 Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly from
source to the destination.

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 Network Hardware Components
 Cables and connectors :
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication
signal
 Router :
 Connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to
connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple
computers.
 Modems:
 A modem acts as converter or translator. It allows digital data or
information to be transmitted over analog lines of transmission
such as a telephone line.

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 Cable Types
Specification CableType
10BaseT UnshieldedTwisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseT UnshieldedTwisted Pair
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
1000BaseT UnshieldedTwisted Pair
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber
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 Network Types

 Local Area Networks(LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Networks(MAN)

 Wide Area Networks(WAN)

 Wireless Networks

 Home Networks

 Internetworks

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 Network Hardware
⦁ Scale: Based on their physical size.

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 Computer Network Types
 Computer network can be categorized by their size.
 A computer network is mainly of four types:

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 PAN (Personal Area Networks)
 PAN (Personal Area Networks):
 Devices communicate over the range of a person.Within the range of 1-10 meters.
 Master-slave paradigm
 The master tells the slaves
• what addresses to use,
• when they can broadcast,
• how long they can transmit,
• what frequencies they can use and so on.
Two Types: Wired and Wireless
Wired PANs: Created by using the USB
 Created with WiFi, Bluetooth
Example:Wireless PANs: Wired/wireless network that connects a computer with its
peripherals: home network, small business network etc.
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 LAN(Local Area Network)
 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as
hubs, network adapters, and cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
 LANs are owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization.

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 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 A Metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other
through a telephone exchange line.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network

• Used in communication between the banks in a city.

• Airline Reservation.
• College within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.

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 WAN(Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a
large geographical area such as states or countries.

 A Wide Area Network is bigger network than the LAN.

 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single

location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite
links.

 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of

Business, government, and education.

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 Comparison between LAN, WAN and MAN
Parameters LAN WAN MAN
Ownership of Private Private and Public Private and Public
networks
Geographical area Small Very Large Moderate
covered
Design and Easy Not Easy Not Easy
maintenance
Communication Coaxial cable PSTN or satellite Coaxial cables,PSTN
Medium links ,Optical
Fibre,Cables,Wireless
Bandwidth Low High Moderate

Data rates (Speed) High Low Moderate

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 Network Topology
 Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other.

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 Network Topology
 Bus Topology:
 Stations are connected through a single backbone cable.
 Used in 802.3 (Ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
 The most common access method of the bus topologies
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access):CSMA/CD,CSMA/CA
 Advantages:
 Low-cost cable and simple to implement
 A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
 Disadvantages:
 Extensive cabling, Difficult troubleshooting and
Reconfiguration

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 Network Topology
 Ring Topology:
 Similar to bus topology, but with connected ends.
 The node that receives the message from the previous computer
will retransmit to the next node.
 The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
 Access method of the ring topology is token passing.
 Advantages:
 Low-cost and simple to implement.
 Network Management is easy.
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult troubleshooting and Reconfiguration.
 Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes.
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 Network Topology
 Star Topology
 Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used
 Every node is connected to the central hub, or a switch.
 Most popular topology in network implementation.
 Advantages:
 Efficient troubleshooting
 Network Management is easy and easily expandable
 Limited failure.
 Cost effective
 Disadvantages:
 A Central point of failure.
 Cable requirement is more.

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 Network Topology
 Tree Topology
 Combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology
 All the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical
fashion.
 There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
 Advantages:
 Support for broadband transmission

 Easily expandable and manageable.

 The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.

 Error detection and error correction are very easy.

 Disadvantages:
 Difficult troubleshooting and reconfiguration
 High cost due to backbone devices.

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 Network Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
 Used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
 Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

 Advantages:
 Reliable, fast communication and Easier Reconfiguration

 Disadvantages:
 Costly

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 Network Topology

 Hybrid Topology :
 Combination of various different topologies.
 Advantages:
 Reliable, Scalable, Flexible and Effective

 Disadvantages:
 Complex design and Costly infrastructure

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 Transmission Modes
 The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
 The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
 Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media
provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional
mode.
 The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

 The Transmission mode is divided into three categories

 Simplex Mode
 The communication is unidirectional i.e. the data flows in one direction.
 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
 The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the entire capacity of the
channel can be used during transmission.
 Example
 The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners
but never allows them to transmit back.
 Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can
only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the
data on the screen.
 Simplex Mode
 Advantage :

 In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a
time.

 Disadvantage :

 Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication

between devices.
 Half-Duplex Mode
 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both direction at the same time.
 The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
 Example
 Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and
first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.
 Half-Duplex Mode
 Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

 In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also
can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the
transmission of data.

 Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

 In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to
wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.
 Full-Duplex Mode
 In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
 Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
 Signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
other direction.
 The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 Example
Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
 Comparison between Simplex ,Half and Full-Duplex Modes
Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode
comparison
Direction of The communication is The communication is The communication is bidirectional.
communication unidirectional. bidirectional, but one at a
time.
Send/Receive A device can only send the Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
data but cannot receive it or it send and receive the data, receive the data simultaneously.
can only receive the data but but one at a time.
cannot send it.
Performance The performance of half- The performance of full- The Full-duplex mode has better
duplex mode is better than the duplex mode is better performance among simplex and
simplex mode. than the half-duplex half-duplex mode as it doubles the
mode. utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.
Example Examples of Simplex mode Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-duplex mode is a
are radio, keyboard, and is Walkie-Talkies. telephone network.
monitor.
 Protocol Hierarchies
 A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.

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 Protocol Hierarchies
 Tasks involved in sending a letter.

 Higher layer :The receiver picks up

the letter, opens the envelope, and
reads it.

 Middle layer : The letter is sorted

and delivered to the recipient's
mailbox.

 Lower layer : The carrier

transports the letter to the post
office.

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 Protocol Hierarchies
 A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

 Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to the layer
above it.

 Each interface defines the information and services

layer must provide for the layer above it.

 Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network.

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 Protocol Hierarchies

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 Protocol Hierarchies
 Why do we need layered Architecture?

 Divide-and-conquer approach: This makes a design process in such a

way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and make
manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces the
complexity of the design.

 Modularity: Modularity provides the independence of layers, which is easier

to understand and implement.

 Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that

implementation in one layer can be changed without affecting other layers.

 Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and
tested individually.

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 Protocol Hierarchies
 At the physical layer, communication is direct: host 1 sends a stream of bits to
host 2 (through intermediate nodes).
 At the higher layers communication must move down through the layers on
host 1, over to host 2, and then back up through the layers.
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the
layer just below it.
 At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to
the receiving device.
 At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each
process receiving and removing the data meant for it.

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 Example information flow supporting virtual communication in Layer 5

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 Design Issues for the Layers
 Reliability: Damaged or inverted bits can be identified (error detection) and
corrected (error correction)
 Scalability
 Addressing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
 Resource Allocation
 Multiplexing
 Routing
 Security
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Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service
 Connection-oriented service involves the creation and termination of the
connection for sending the data between two or more devices.
 Connectionless service does not require establishing any connection and
termination process for transferring the data over a network.

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Parameter Connection-Oriented Service Connection Less Service
Related System It is designed and developed based It is service based on the postal
on the telephone system. system.
Virtual path It creates a virtual path between the Not
sender and the receiver.
Authentication It requires authentication before transmitting the It does not require authentication.
data packets to the receiver.
Data Packets Path All data packets are received in the same order Data packets are received in any
as those sent by the sender. order.
Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to transfer the It requires low bandwidth to
Requirement data packets. transfer the data packets.

Data Reliability It is a more reliable connection service because it It is not a reliable connection
guarantees data packets transfer from one end to service
the other end with a connection (ack).
Congestion There is no congestion as it provides an end-to- There may be congestion due to not
end connection between sender and receiver. providing an end-to-end connection.
Examples Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
Internet Protocol (IP), Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP)
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 Reference Models: OSI& TCP/IP

 OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model:

 It describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
 Was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.

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 OSI Reference Model

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 OSI Reference Model
 The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups.
 Layers I, 2, and 3 - physical, data link, and network - are the network support layers; they
deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as electrical
specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and
reliability).
 Layers 5, 6, and 7 - session, presentation, and application - can be thought of as the
user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems.
 Layer 4- the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers
have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use.
 The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a
combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.

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 An exchange using the OSI model

Name of unit
exchanged
APDU

PPDU

SPDU

Segments

Packet

Frame

Bit

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 Functions of OSI Layers

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 Functions of OSI Layers: Physical Layer
 It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Representation of bits: Bits are encoded into signals--electrical or optical.

 Data transmission rate and mode of transmission: Number of bits sent per second;
simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
 Line configuration: point-to-point or multipoint.
 Physical topology
 Synchronization of bits: sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level
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 Functions of OSI Layers: Data Link Layer
 Responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames

Framing: Divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units.
Physical addressing: Destination MAC address .
Flow control: This is used to avoid overwhelming the receiver if it is slower than the sender.
Error control: Trailer added to the end of the frame to detect errors.
Access control: More devices are connected to the same communication channel, determine which
device has control over the link at a given time.
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 Functions of OSI Layers: Data Link Layer
 Hop to hop delivery

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 Functions of OSI Layers: Data Link Layer
 Hop to hop delivery

62
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 Functions of OSI Layers: Network Layer
 Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple
networks (links).

 Internetworking: It provides a logical connection between different devices.

 Logical Addressing: Adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

 Routing: Determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination
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 Functions of OSI Layers: Transport Layer
⦁ Responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

⦁ Service-point addressing: Port Address / Socket.

⦁ Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments by providing
sequence numbers.
⦁ Connection control: Connection oriented and connectionless.
⦁ Flow control: Flow control at this layer is performed end to end.
⦁ Error control: performed process-to process rather than across a single link.
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 Process to process delivery

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 Functions of OSI Layers: Session Layer
 Responsible for dialog control and synchronization
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

 Dialog control: Creates a dialog between two processes

 Synchronization: Adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
 If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will
take place again from the checkpoint.This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.

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 Functions of OSI Layers: Presentation Layer
 Responsible for translation, compression, and encryption
 It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.

 Translation: The sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common
encoded format and vise versa at receiver side.
 Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
 Encryption: To ensure privacy.
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 Functions of OSI Layers: Application Layer
 Responsible for providing services to the user.

 Network Virtual Terminal: Log on to a remote host.

 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): Access, retrieve and manage file from a remote
system / host.
 Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
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 Reference Models: TCP/IP
TCP/IP Protocol Suite:
 TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model and the layers in TCP/IP do
not exactly match those in the OSI model.

 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application.

 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.

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 Reference Models: OSI and TCP/IP

(Network Access Layer)

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 Functions of TCP/IP Layer

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol (each upper-level protocol is supported by one or

more lower-level Protocols) made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.

 Contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and matched depending
on the needs of the system.

 Physical and Data Link Layers (Network Access Layer)

 At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Network Layer

 Supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP), in turn, uses four supporting protocols:
ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

 The IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

 It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service

(that means no error checking or tracking).

 IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a
transmission through to its destination, but with no guarantees.

 IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately

along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Network Layer

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): used to find the physical address of the node
when its Internet address is known.

 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP): Allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address.

 It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a
diskless computer is booted.

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): used by hosts and gateways to send
error messages to the sender.

 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP): Used to facilitate the simultaneous

transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Transport Layer :

 IP delivers a packet from one physical device to another (host-to-host).

 UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from
a process (running program) to another process.

 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP): provides support for newer

applications such as voice over the Internet. It combines the best features of UDP and
TCP.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): It is simpler and unreliable. It adds only port
addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper
layer.

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides full transport-layer services to
applications.
 TCP is a reliable stream (connection-oriented) transport protocol.
 At the sending end of each transmission,TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units
called segments.
 Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with an
acknowledgment number for the segments received.
 At the receiving end,TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
transmission based on sequence numbers.

 Application Layer:
 It is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI
model.
 Many protocols are defined at this layer: SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP,TELNET etc.
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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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 Addresses in TCP/IP

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 Physical Addresses
 A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87.The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).

 Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12

hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
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 Logical Addresses
 Necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks.
 Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different
networks can have different address formats.
 A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet.
 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP
address.
 The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same.
 Uses 4 bytes :

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 Logical Addresses

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 Port Address
 The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel
from a source to the destination host.
 Arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data communications on the
Internet.
 A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not complete.
 Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time.
 The end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process.
 For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At
the same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP).
 For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the
different processes (Port Addresses).
 A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
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 Port Address

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 Port Addresses

 Ports are represented by 16-bit numbers in TCP/IP.

 0 to 1023 are restricted port numbers are as they are used by well- known protocol
services.

 1024 to 49151 are registered port numbers means it can be registered to specific
protocols by software corporations 49152 to 65536 are used as private ports means
they can be used by anybody.

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 Difference between IP address and Port Number
Sr. No. IP address Port Number
Internet Protocol address (IP address) Port number is used to identify an
01.
used to identify a host in network. processes/services on your system
IPv4 is of 32 bits (4 bytes) size and for
02. The Port number is 16 bits numbers.
IPv6 is 128 bits (16 bytes).
IP address is the address of the layer-3 Port number is the address of the layer-4
03.
IP protocol. protocols.
IP address is provided by admin of Port number for application is provided by
04.
system or network administrator. kernel of Operating System.
ipconfig command can be used to find IP netstat command can be used to find
05.
address . Network Statistics with TCP Ports.
IP address identify a host/computer on a Port numbers are logical interfaces used by
06.
computer network. communication protocols.
192.168.0.2, 172.16.0.2 are some of IP 80 for HTTP, 123 for NTP, 21 for FTP, 23
07.
address examples. for telnet, 22 for SSH, 25 for SMTP etc.
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 Specific Addresses
 Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific address.

 Examples include the e-mail address and the Universal Resource Locator (URL)
(for example, www.mhhe.com).

 The first defines the recipient of an e-mail second is used to find a document on
the World Wide Web

 These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical
addresses by the sending computer.

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