Traffic engineering

Traffic engineering and scope, interrelationships between

human/ machinery/ environmental elements, impact of
human and vehicle characteristics on traffic planning, traffic
operations covering driver control and vehicle control,
traffic control devices, traffic flow counts and speed studies,
traffic flow characteristics studies, O& D studies, parking
studies and accident studies and analysis, basic
requirements of intersections, type of intersections and
configuration, channelized and unchannelized intersections,
design of intersections, importance of road lighting, factors
influencing night visibility, design of the lighting system,
traffic projection and forecasting
Prepared by Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 1
 Traffic engineering and scope
History
• Traffic study started in 1904 A.D.,
• Traffic signals came into existence in 1918 A.D.
• Registration of institute of traffic engineering in 1934 A. D.
Definition: Traffic engineering deals with traffic studies, traffic Analysis and
Engineering application for improvement of traffic performance on road
Objective:
To achieve safe,
To achieve efficient,
To achieve Economic
To free and rapid flow of traffic least number of accidents
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Scope:
• Traffic characteristics: road user and vehicular
• Traffic study and analysis: speed-Spot and Speed & Delay
volume, origin & destination, traffic flow characteristics,
capacity, accident & parking study.
• Traffic operation: control-signs, signals, markings regulations
• Designs: Intersections, parking, terminal, lighting
• Traffic planning
• Traffic administration & management (3E’s- engineering,
enforcement and education)
• Research
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interrelationships between human/ machinery/ environmental elements
Components Pre-crash Crash Post-crash
of traffic
system
Human Training, Knowledge Skill, In-vehicle restraints worn by Emergency medical services
Basic abilities driver and fitted in vehicle Incident detection and
Motives & Attitude (seat belt) assistance
Vehicle Control system design Occupant protection system Fire/fume control systems
Comfort system design Control system design Design for case of emergency
Information system design access
Laws & enforcement Repair capabilities
Environment Geom. and appurtenances Geom. & appurtenances for Geom. for ease of emergency
Enforcement system energy absorption and access
Control system forgiving highway Debris control and clean up
Weather and light conditions Restoration of road and traffic
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Description of human Vehicle Environment framework
• Proper driver education,
• imparts knowledge human vehicle environment interaction. #.Develops
driving skills # positive effects on the driver attitude
• # Sensory Field: sense of seeing, touch, hearing and smelling.
• Laws and enforcement :- guidance and motivation of safer and efficient
driver behavior i.e. roadway and roadside environment (physical and
surrounding conditions)
• Vehicle characteristics: mechanical control system and information provided
to the driver. Characteristics of vehicle are:
• Static: dimensions of vehicle, weight of vehicle and driver eye height.
• Vehicle kinematics
• Dynamic Characteristics
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Road Users:
# Motorists # Pedestrians # cyclists # cart drivers/ Rickshaw
peddlers # highway / street child or adults talking or playing on
around the road
Road user’s characteristics may be due to following factors:
1) Physical
2) Mental
3) Psychological
4) Environmental

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Traffic operations covering driver control and vehicle control
Driver controls:- these include driving licenses for light and heavy
motor vehicles, driver tests and minimum requirements , financial
responsibility and civil disability
Vehicle controls:- the various regulations and controls on vehicles
are vehicle registration, requirements of vehicles, equipment and
accessories, maximum dimensions, weight, fitness and inspection
of vehicles.
Flow regulations:- regulations of traffic flow have been laid down
such as directions, turning and overtaking etc.
General controls:- some other general regulations and provisions
are made to report accidents and recording and disposing traffic
violation cases Prepared by Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 7
Traffic Control Devices
 Signs
 Signals
 Road markings
 Traffic island
 Traffic signal design
Following are the types of traffic sign
(A). Regulatory or mandatory signs: - these signs are used to inform the road
users of certain laws, regulations & prohibitions. The violation of these signs is
a legal offence. These signs are classified under the following sub-heads:-
(1) Stop & give-way signs (2) Prohibitory signs (3) No parking / stopping
sign (4) Direction control signet (5) Speed limit
{Shape- circular}
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 Numericals
• A truck travelling at 30kmph is approaching a stop sign. At time to
and at a distance of 15m the truck begins to slow down by
descending at 3m/sec2. Will the truck be able to stop in time?

• A vehicle travelling at a speed of 36km/hr was stopped fully by

applying brakes. The skid marks on the road were found in a length
of 6m. Find the average skid resistance of the pavement surface?

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(B) Warning or cautionary signs: - these signs are used to warn the road users
of certain hazardous conditions that exist on or beside the roadway. These
signs are equilateral triangle in shape with its apex pointing upwards. They
have white triangle background, red boarder & black symbols. Following are
the main types of warning signs:-
(1) Right/ Left hand curve (2) hairpin bend left (3) reverse curve
right (4) cross road (5) Narrow Bridge / Road ahead.
(c) informatory Signs:- these signs are use to guide the road users along
routes , inform them of destination & distance & provide with information so
that travel make easier, safe & pleasant. These signs are classified under
following sub-heads:-
(1) Direction & place information signs. (2) Facility information signs
(3) Parking signs (4) Flood gauge (5) other useful information
signs. {Shape- Rectangular}
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Traffic signal: Traffic signals are generally used at the intersection of roadway
(1)Traffic control signal
- Fixed time -Manually operated -traffic actuated
(2) Pedestrian signals
(3) Special Traffic signal
Road Markings
# Pavement marking
# Kerb Marking
#Object marking
# Reflector unit markings

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• Traffic Islands: Raised areas within the roadway to guide traffic. Traffic
island could be:-
# Divisional: - separate opposing flow with four or more lane
# Channeling:- To guide traffic into proper channel at intersection at grade, to
reduce conflicts points, achieve desired angles or crossings, diverging &
merging, refuge islands space for traffic control device.
# Pedestrian Loading: Providing at regular bus stops. # Rotary: - Provided
at intersection at grade.
# Pedestrian Refuge: - to provide temporary stoppage for pedestrian during
road crossing.
# Bus Stop Separating: - To separate space for bus stop
• Traffic Signal Design:
#Trial cycle method # approximate method #Webster’s Method
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Definition: Traffic study can be defined as the traffic survey and analysis of
the surveys data’s or information’s with the aim of helping in designing the
geometrical parameters and traffic control mechanisms for safe and
economic traffic flow.
Types of Traffic Study:
1. Traffic Volume studies 2.Speed studies : i) Spot speed studies ii)
Speed &delay studies 3.Origin & Destination Studies 4.Traffic Flow studies
5.Traffic Capacity Studies 6.Parking Studies 7.Accident Studies
• Objective of Traffic Volume Study:
• Traffic volume study helps to determining the traffic capacity of the roads
hence helps in deciding the priority for the improvement and expansion of
roads.

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• Traffic volume study is used in planning, traffic operation/control of existing
facilities and for planning the new facilities.
• Classified volume is used for structural design of pavements.
• It is used to analyze traffic pattern and trends.
• It is used for design intersections signal timings, channelization and other
control device.
• For the determination of one-way street or other regulatory measures.
• Pedestrian traffic volume is uses for planning and design of side works, cross
walks, sub-ways and pedestrian signals.
Types of Traffic Volume:
• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)/ Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
• Average Annual weekday Traffic (AAWT)
• Average weekday Traffic (AWT)
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Methods of Traffic Count:
A. Manual Method
B. Automatic/ Mechanical Count:
• Sensors: a. Pneumatic tube b. Electric contact strip c. Inductive loop
detector d. Magnetic detector
C. Moving Observer Method
D. Photographic Method
E. Combined manual and Mechanical counter

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Presentation and analysis of traffic data
• AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic = 1/365 of annual flow or ADT Average
Daily Traffic in PCU as relative importance of a route.
• Trend Charts: trend estimate of traffic in future years used for planning future
expansion, design and regulations.
• Variation Charts: hourly, daily & seasonal variations for deciding facilities and
special regulations in peak hours.
• Volume flow: arms thickness = traffic flow for traffic flow at a glance design of
intersection regulations and control measures.
• Traffic flow maps: line thickness shows the flow in that route, Traffic
distribution at a glance. Homogenous distribution shows all routes un-biasly
used.
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume: volume that will be exceeded only 29 times a
year. Best in facility and economy for design purpose.
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speed studies
Speed is a factor influencing traffic flow on existing roads. Speed studies are
essential for:-
1. Traffic operation like: sign location and timings.
2. Geometric design of elements like curvatures, super elevation etc.
Several Types
 Spot speed
 Average speed
Space mean speed
Time mean speed
Running Speed
Journey Speed
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 Methods of spot speed
Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data: measurement: Direct
measurements:
A. Tabular presentation of spot speed firstly establish
class size – result frequency distribution a. Enoscope
B. Graphical Analysis: Histogram and Cumulative b. Pneumatic tubes or
Frequency Curve- Combination of Histogram & pressure contact strips
Frequency Curve, and Cumulative Spot Speed c. Inductive loop detector
distribution Curve. Frequency Curve (bell shaped) -
most occurring speed the ‘Modal Speed” Cumulative
d. Radar speed-meter
Curve (Smooth S-shaped curve) gives the percentile
speed, Median-or 50 percentile speed e. Sonic detector

C. Mathematical Analysis: Average spot speed, Class f. Time lapse

interval for grouping of data to avoid excessive camera
computation, standard deviation s, Variance s2,Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.
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 80
30

Frequency of indicated speed %

Frequency Curve
Histogram
60
20

Modal Speed

10

10 20 30 40 50 60

Spot speed (Kmph)

Figure 16 Frequency Curve or Speed Distribution Curve

Uses of Spot speed study:

# Geometric design, Design of new facilities # Traffic signal at intersection #
checking of speed enforcement needs.
# Accident studies # Capacity study # Study of before and after improvement

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• Modal Speed: That occurs most often-peak of frequency curve.
• Median Speed: 50th percentile speed.
• 98th percentile speed: Below this speed 98% vehicles move taken as design
speed for geometric design.
• 15th percentile speed: used to determine minimum speed limit as major-
highways.
• Delays Studies: A particular locations in conjunction with running and
journey speed, reasons & extent of delays are determined.
• Fixed Delays: Delays at intersection , traffic signals, stop signs, railway
crossings etc that exists due to fixed roadway conditions and does not
depend on traffic density.
• Operation Delays: Reflection of interacting effects of traffic like delays
caused by parking , pedestrians, crossings and turning of vehicles at
uncontrolled intersections, vehicle volume in excess of capacity.
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 Compute the time means speed and space
mean speed from the following data
Vehicle Distance Travel time Vehicle Distance Travel Vehicle Distance Travel
No. (m) (s) No. (m) time(s) No. (m) time(s
)
1 200 18:00 3 200 22:00 5 200 20:00
2 200 20:00 4 200 19:00

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traffic flow characteristics studies

Traffic Density: Number of vehicle occupying a given length of lane. Q=v*k

where, q= traffic volume ( Rate of flow) v= average travel speed km/hr, k=
average density veh/km.

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Spacing & headway (space headway):
Time Headway: Corresponding time between passages of the frontal
bumper of the successive vehicles as they pass designated point.

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 O& D studies
O & D studies of vehicular traffic determines their numbers, design &
destination in each zone under study. The data may also be the number of
passengers in each vehicle , purpose of each trip, intermediate stops made &
reasons etc. O& D study gives information like actual direction of travel,
selection of route & length of the trip.
Purpose of O & D study:
• 1. plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic
• 2. Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demand
of commuters
• 3. To locate major route along the desire lines
• 4.To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town and then
establishes the need to construct a by-pass, preferential route determination
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• 5.To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport
planning process
• 6.To estimate future traffic by extrapolation of O-D Data plus socio economic
study
• 7.To determine the extent to which the present highway system is adequate
and to plan for new facilities and future lines, location of terminals, location
of major bridges
• 8.To access the adequacy of parking facilities and plan to future
9.To establish design standards
• 10.to locate new bridge as per traffic demand
• 11.to locate intermediate stops of public transportation
• 12.to locate terminals & to plan terminal facilities

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Methods of O-D Survey :
# Roadside Interview Method,
# Registration Number Method,
#Tag or Sticker Method,
#Return Post Card / or Mail Return Method,
# Home Interview Method
# work spot interview method
• Presentation of O & D data:
• # desire line graphs # By pie charts.
• # origin & destination tables are prepared showing number of trips between
different zones

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 Parking studies and accident studies and analysis
A car on an av. runs 400 hrs./yr. and for the rest of 8360hrs. is parked. Every car
wants to park as near to destination as possible. Hence the biggest demand is
where The activities are concentrated or the highest congestion.
Types of Parking Surveys:
• Parking Space/Supply Inventory
• Park. Demand & Generation Studies: Different Methods-
i. By Cordon Counting ii.By counting Parked Vehicles ii.By Interview
 Parking Characteristics Study
 Parking Usage Study
 Truck Loading Study
• Special Parking Study
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• On-street space inventory
• Off-street parking inventory
Traffic Studies Accident:
• Accident is defined as a phenomenon which may occur with or without the
desire of human beings. In traffic engineering accident is defined as a
phenomenon which may occur with the combination of vehicular traffic/
pedestrian etc
Objectives of Accident Studies:
i. Assess cause of accident and suggest preventive measures.
ii. Evaluate existing facilities & support new design/improvement
iii. Before & after studies to check effects of improvements
iv. Assess loss of accidents.
v. Define & identify high-accident locations
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According to K FM 2017/12/21 (6:30 PM )
ACCIDENT DATA
13 lakhas people Loss Life / year
(World)
3 thousand people/day (World)
Nepal
Around 1800 People/year
3 to 5 Person/day

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Causes of accident:
1.Road users;- drivers, pedestrians , passangers
2.vehicles:- vehicle defects, brake of vehicles , speed
3.Road & it’s condition: -Road design, Road condition
4. Environmental Factors: Weather, rain, hot
5. Others factors: animal, A narrow strip, Ribbon development at road,
Primary Cause % of Accidents
• Human factor alone 65
• Human + Road 25
• Human + Vehicle 5
• Road Factor alone 2
• Vehicle Factor only 2
• Human + Road + Vehicle 1
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 Overcrowded Vehicle

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Reduce accident :
1.Planning: safety aspects & improvement schemes to reduce accidents.
2. Designs:- safe designs
3. Maintenance: To avoid accidents due to bad maintenance
4. traffic operations:- regulation & traffic management, control, regulate &
manage traffic more efficiently, introduce appropriate remedial measures.
Measures Preventing Accidents:
• # Engineering-safe design ( SSD, R, Ew, OSD), safe construction &
maintenance
• # Education:- education child, training professional drivers , 10+2 students ,
fresh drivers
• # Propaganda:- Poster compaign, news & press, documentary, films,
slogans, radio broadcasting, telecasting etc
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Accident Inventory & Analysis:
i. General data- time, date, light condition & persons involved, classification
Of accident etc.
ii. Location – details, name & type of road, location (urban, rural),
intersection, description & sketch, area type (school, religious, entertainment)
iii. Vehicle details- vehicle identifications-license plate no., make and
description, loading & vehicle defects (brake, lights, steering, etc.)
iv. Nature/classification of accident-vehicle condition, details of collision,
damages injuries, causalities etc.
v. Road/traffic/weather conditions-geom. details (curve, straight stretch etc
vi. Primary cause –describe primary & other causes
vii. Assessment of accident cost
viii. Type of insurance- comprehensive, or third party etc.
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Definition: General area where 2 or more roads meet or cross,
including the roadway & roadside facilities for traffic movement
within it- (AASHTO, 1984)

Conflicts at an intersection
• Conflicts at an intersection are different for
different types of intersection. Consider a typical
four-legged intersection as shown in figure.

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 Basic requirements of intersections
• Reduce number of conflict points
• Two separated (staggered) T
• -Reduce area of conflict
• Control relative speed
• Control high speeds
• -Provide protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream.
• -Coordinate design and traffic control.
• -Use the highest feasible crossing method
• Avoid multiple and compound merging and diverging maneuvers
• Separate conflict points

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 Type of intersections and configuration ,
design of intersections
Types of Intersections:
• -Intersections at grade
• -Grade Separated Intersection without ramps & Interchanges
Intersections at grade: All roads joined or cross the same level. They may be
merging, diverging and crossing. Various forms at grade are
Intersection Design

Tee
Y Skew Cross
Cross

Staggered Staggered Skewed

Multiple

Intersections with turning roadways

Rotary Intersection
Tee Y Cross Cross

Flared intersections

Tee Cross

Types of at-grade intersections Back

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Types of grade-separation
• 1. Grade separation without interchanges
• 2. Grade separation with interchanges

Intersection Design

Partial Clover Leaf Interchanges Full Clover Leaf interchanges

More

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Intersection Design

Full Clover Leaf interchanges

Back
Intersection Design

Trumpet type interchanges

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Intersection

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Nanpu Bridge Shanghai

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Intersection

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 channelized and unchannelized intersections
Channelization by introduction of islands in the intersection
areas, reducing the conflict areas present in the un-channelized
intersections. Channelization of an intersection is provided to
control any dangerous movement by the driver which may
cause unwanted accidents, to guide and regulate the traffic
flow
Un-channelized intersections are the lowest class intersections,
easiest in design, but complex in traffic operation and with
maximum conflict area. Obviously there are more accidents in
such intersections, unless controls are applied.
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importance of road lighting, factors influencing
night visibility,
• Lesser the strain on night driving.
• Avoid glare problem.
• Enable road users to see accurately carriage way and surroundings in
darkness.
• Ensure comfort and confident driving.
• Improve traffic flow conditions (favorable headway and lateral placement).
• Indirect benefits like reduction of crime, feel of security and protection,
extension of business hours after sunset, improve aesthetic appearance of
surrounding.

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Factors influencing night visibility:
• Amount & distribution of light flux from the lamps
• Size of objects
• Brightness of objects
• Brightness of background
• Reflecting characteristics of pavement surfaces
• Glare on the eyes of the driver
• Time available to see an object.

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 design of the lighting system
Types: -
i) Filament ii) Fluorescent iii) Sodium vapor iv) Mercury vapor
• Choice of light: choice of type, size and color of lamp depends on distribution
of light flux on the pavement. Consideration such as initial cost, life color
rendering, wattage brightness, efficiency etc governs the choice of light
• Spacing of Lighting
• Spacing’s = (lamp lumen* coefficient of utilization * Maintenance factor)/
(average flux* width of the road pavement)
• Maintenance factor is usually 80%=0.80
• Usually mounting height= (6-10) m for traffic routes,
Mounting Height= (3-8) m for other street
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Underpass and Overpass

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Lateral Placement:
• Narrow pavement width light traffic only

• For wider roads with two or more traffic lanes

• For three or more lanes with central strip & heavy traffic condition

• For wider roads depending on the situation of opposite lighting system

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traffic projection and forecasting

• See pavement Design Chapter

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