166 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

bow motion. The more complete data on CB(Fig. 131)

DESIGN 6 also show some ambiguity. Supplementary analyses
C, =0.48 =C, 0.74 by Simoes Re (1986) have shown that, using data from
the extended series, the relationship between L 2 /BT
and C, is clarified. He found that for pitch and bow
acceleration, with displacement fixed, there are:
Decreased responses when CBdecreases and L 2 /
BT increases
Increased responses when both C, and L‘IBT
decrease
Uncertain effect when L 2 / B T stays constant.
Hence, a clear conclusion emerges that using reduced
C, to increase length is advantageous but using it
otherwise of doubtful value. Trends of relative bow
motion with C, in the expanded study remained am-
biguous.
DESIGN 12 Some supplementary tests with different combina-
C B a048 Cw ~ 0 . 8 0 tions of bows and sterns of two models (C, = 0.48)
showed a clear advantage for all responses in increased
V-ness of the bow, with or without a wide transom.
At the same time, a wide transom showed an advan-
tage in pitch and bow acceleration over a narrow-tran-
som stern, while showing only slight improvement in
heave and relative bow motion.
( d ) Specific guidelines for design. We are now in
a position to state a number of specific conclusions on
the basis of both experimental studies and the theo-
retical relationships considered in Section 4, Equations
(204) and (206), to reduce the period ratios and in-
crease damping. These apply to moderate to high-speed
Fig. 125 Body plans of two frigate models tested by Schmitke and Murdey
(1980); Design 6 is the basic model
ships intended to operate in the critical and sub-critical
speed zones, and should lead to reduced pitching and
heaving motions:
Figs. 128 and 129 show gains in increasing C , and Ship proportions-Increase length relative to
decreasing C,, hence reducing C , = CB/Cwp.How- draft T, or BT, which generally implies increased
ever, the situation regarding relative bow motion in L / V Increase B / T for greater damping (if feasible).
Fig. 129 is again ambiguous. Hence, an obvious con- Coefficients of form-Reduce C , (more V-form,
clusion is that special attention in design for good especially in forebody) with reduced C, and increased
seakeeping should be given to obtaining adequate free- C,. Decrease C, by increasing length. (If length is
board forward and adopting section shapes that reduce decreased, effect is generally doubtful).
slamming probabilities. To reduce pitching, and hence relative bow motion,
Results of the extension of this model series to a but not heaving:
total of 31 models were reported by Murdey and Sim- Longitudinal distribution of W.P.-Increase the
oes R6 (1985), and some are shown in Figs. 130 and coefficient of waterplane inertia, C, (filling WL’s at
131. Although data are presented in a similar manner ends). (Increase transom width in naval vessels).
as before, an ITTC spectrum with 4.0-m (13-ft.) sig- Longitudinal mass distribution-Reduce the coef-
nificant height was used as a basis for predictions. The ficent of mass moment of inertia, CKz.
range of zero-crossing period for averaging responses The above are also generally favorable to reduced
was 6.1-9.1 see, and ship speeds of 13-33 knots. vertical accelerations, and usually, but not always, to
Fig. 130 shows similar trends with L 2 / B T as Fig. relative bow motion. This means that separate consid-
126, but over a much wider range, with displacement eration must be given to ensuring adequate freeboard
again constant (Curves added for constant length are forward to avoid excessive wetness and bow section
of less interest). shapes to minimize slamming.
The extended series also confirms with more data Note that the effects of changes in coefficients of
the trends of Figs. 127 and 128 and 129 that increasing added mass (heave, A ‘33) and added inertia (pitch, A ‘ 5 5 )
B / T and C, and decreasing C,, are favorable to are assumed to be negligible.
reduced pitching and heaving. However, there is some It can be seen that one of the important parameters
ambiguity in the case of C , with respect to relative affecting pitching motion is longitudinal mass radius
 MOTIONS IN WAVES 167

of gyration. Although this is not often under the con- ative bow motion but on the above-water form and
trol of the designer, there are exceptions, and there- section shapes. Therefore, every effort must be made
fore this factor should not be overlooked. For example, to ensure not only that the freeboard ratio, F / L , se-
locating machinery space amidships results in cargo lected is adequate, but that bow section shapes are
being located closer to the ends than with (compara- suitable.
tively light) machinery way aft, with a correspondingly It was shown in section 5.3 that calculations of rel-
long gyradius. In ships carrying high-density cargo all ative bow motion can be used to predict trends of
available cargo volume may not be needed, and there- required freeboard in relation to ship length on the
fore arrangements to concentrate cargo closer to mid- basis of probabilities of shipping water (see Fig. 85).
ship may be feasible. This will reduce radius of Bales (1979) has carried this approach even further.
gyration, shorten the natural pitching period and per- In Section 5.3 the non-linear factors that influence
mit somewhat higher subcritical speed in irregular the true relative bow motion are also discussed and
head seas. However, an increased midship sagging the difficulties of calculation explained. It is there rec-
moment, both static and wave-induced, will result (Dal- ommended that, if possible, model tests in irregular
zell, 1964). waves be used for a final determination of freeboard-
8.3 Other Design Considerations. ( a ) Above-water as well as of the amount and shape of flared sections,
form. An important criterion of seakeeping perform- use of knuckles, etc. General guidance derived from
ance discussed in Section 7 is frequency of deck wet- model tests is given by Newton (1960) for cargo ships,
ness forward. It has been shown in sub-section 8.2 Moor and Luyster (1960) for tankers, and Van Sluijs
that, if the ratio between relative bow motion and and Tan (1972) for frigates.
length, SIL, is considered, the same trends of hull Some empirical guidance regarding suitable bow
characteristics that favor reduced pitch and heave ap- freeboard is given in Fig. 132, showing freeboard/
ply. But shipping water depends not only on the rel- length ratios for a number of ships, as well as trends

RBM -ncEL;alb) HEAVE

I3 -
0 *+42 052 080
t?
U
12
W
(I)

3
a: 10
5
- 0

00
O8 150 238 150 238 150 238 150 238 048 052 048 052 048 052 048 052
Ce
L ~BT
/
Fig 128 Effect of C, on seakeeping
Fig 126 Effect of L/BT on seakeeping

8/T Fig. 129 Effect of ,C seakeeping, A = 3500t

Fig. 127 Effect of B / T on seakeeping all from Schmitke and Murdey (1980)
168 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

PITCH HEAVE V.BOW ACC. REL. BOW MOTION

2.2 - I 1 I
I ‘
2.0 - DESIGN No‘s
L 4 BT
CONST
OISP
CONST.
LEffiTH
- -
1.8 - - 60 IJO 238 UO480 (~aoco) ( m )
uoo
-----3030 9
9 12 21 28
12 27 28 120

w 1.4
m

m
2 1.0 &----a

0.6 c I I I I .

100 400 100 400 100 400 loo 400

L7BT

..-.
0.7 - - _.4-.

......... -
0.6- ‘ 1 I 1 I

obtained from the various sources indicated. In the “ A knuckle is often used in combination
case of large passenger liners it is generally considered withjlare on ships in which there is a require-
that the bow freeboard of the Europa was inadequate, m e n t to m a i n t a i n arrangeable deck area for-
the America somewhat borderline, and the United ward and which would result in excessiveJlare
States satisfactory. The left-hand part of the figure i f the flare were carried to the weather
must be considered only as a general guide, however, deck. . . . .
since it has been shown in Section 5 that required bow “Spray rails provide a simple way of re-
freeboard depends greatly on the speed of the ship, ducing deck wetness on designs in which wind
as shown in the right-hand part of the figure, as well driven spray is brought on deck o r whipped
as above-water form. i n t o the bridge. S p r a y rails areJtted forward
US. Navy procedures for determining minimum below the edge of the weather deck. It should
freeboard for various types of naval vessels is given be pointed out that once the ship’s motions
in a Design Data Sheet (NAVSEA, 1982). Recommen- become so severe that the rails are submerged,
dations regarding other above-water hull design pa- the increase in efective freeboard is lost.
rameters: “Sheer is increased forward in order to pro-
“A suficient a m o u n t of flare is helpful in vide the required freeboard. If excessive sheer
de$ecting water outward as the bow moves is required, then a bulwark m a y be indicated
downward i n t o a wave to decrease the occur- o r a raised fo %’sle added. . . . .
rences of deck wetness and to increase efective “Breakwaters are important to above-water
freeboard. However, extreme flare m a y inten- hull design because they protect deck equip-
sifg slamming impact and m a y also cause m e n t once green water has been shipped on
greater speed loss t h a n would be necessary to deck. The breakwater is vee-shaped and is lo-
limit wetness. Ships with superior wetness cated forward of the forward-most g u n o r mis-
havejlare angles between 20 and 25 deg. sile launcher o n the weather deck . . . . . )’
 MOTIONS IN WAVES 169

( b ) S l a m avoidance. Another important criterion of therefore steps taken to reduce these motions will be
seakeeping performance discussed in Section 7 is the advantageous for resistance. Fortunately, for high-
probability of slamming. Calculated relative bow mo- speed ships the trend toward increased L / V 1’3 dictated
tion is a good basis for determining the probability of by seakeeping considerations should have a favorable
bow emergence. However, the occurrence of bottom effect on calm water resistance and power. This has
slamming depends also on other factors: hull form been confirmed by calculations and model tests, such
(particularly shape of bottom sections forward) and as those reported by Schmitke and Murdey (1980), also
relative vertical velocity at impact locations. V-shaped (Bales and Day, 1982). Propulsive efficiency for all
sections and minimum flat of bottom are desirable. types of ships is also adversely affected by pitching
These effects are discussed in Section 5, where it is and heaving motion. Hence, reduction in motions
shown that available methods of predicting slamming should be generally favorable to low loss of propulsive
probabilities by calculation must be considered ap- efficiency. Trends toward reduced draft at the stern
proximate for design use. Flare-entry slamming is can lead to more frequent propeller emergence, or to
even more difficult to calculate. restrictions on propeller diameter, either of which may
For merchant ships and tankers that may operate have an unfavorable effect.
over a wide range of drafts, the light-load or ballast The situation may be quite different for full bodied,
condition is critical. Adequate ballast water capacity low-speed ships where energy losses in the reflection
to keep the forward draft reasonably large is essential. of on-coming waves may be a more important factor
To determine the acceptability of a new design the in resistance than motions and may call for U rather
designer also has recourse to the slamming experience than V-form sections forward (finer waterline end-
of other similar ships. For unusual designs model tests ings). In such cases there may be a trade-off between
in irregular waves are undoubtedly the most reliable damping of motions and added resistance in waves.
method to use for evaluation. Furthermore, if motions are less of a problem at low
( c ) Added power requirements. Because of today’s speeds, a shorter hull length may be advantageous,
high cost of fuel the search for good seakeeping qual- and economic trade-off studies are called for as dis-
ities must include consideration of the effects of op- cussed as Sub-section 8.6.
timum choice of ship proportions on power Bulbous bows are often used to reduce wave-making
requirements, under both calm sea and rough water resistance of high-speed ships and to improve flow
conditions. As pointed out in Section 5, both added conditions of low-speed, full-form ships (Chapter V).
resistance and reduced propulsive efficiency enter in. The question arises as to their effects on seakeeping
The biggest factor in added resistance for high-speed performance. In general, model tests in waves show
ships is the effect of severe pitching and heaving, and little effect of bulbs on motions, but an increased prob-

LENGTH BETWEEN PERPENDICULARS, FEET

Fig. 132 Suitable bow freeboard trends
 170 PRINCIPLES OF N A V A L ARCHITECTURE

ability of slamming in severe seas, especially with may also have the more unfavorable effect of increas-
larger bulbs. High-speed ships in waves shorter than ing the roll natural frequency.
their lengths may show somewhat less added resist- Since resonance effects are very important in rolling,
ance when fitted with moderate-sized bulbs (Dillon and it would be desirable to design for a natural period
Lewis, 1955). But this is not always the case, and if that avoids resonance entirely. This is seldom possible
slamming occurs it will, of course, limit the attainable because of the wide range of wavelengths to which a
rough water speed (Wahab, 1966). It seems best to ship will respond in beam or quartering seas. However,
adopt a bulbous bow only for reasons of calm water it is fortunate that roll amplitudes are asymptotic to
resistance, after making sure that any adverse effects maximum wave slope in long waves (low frequencies),
in rough water are acceptable. and therefore, except in the vicinity of resonance, the
Bow sonar domes may be a problem with naval ves- response will tend to the ideal situation-i.e., following
sels. Since they are relatively “soft” structures, in the wave slope. Fig. 133 shows typical rolling response
order to transmit sound, they can be easily damaged of a cargo ship to the angular components of both a
by slamming. Usually they are located deeper in the mild and a rough short-crested beam seaway. Since
water than conventional bulbous bows and therefore this figure is in the log-slope format, the longer waves
may have less effect on motions. and lower frequencies are to the right. It is clear that
8.4 Factors Affecting Rolling. Considering the moving the roll RAO to the right (lower natural fre-
transverse motions (roll, yaw and sway), roll is of quency) would lead to a reduction in roll response,
particular interest for conventional ships because it even to attainment of a supercritical condition as de-
makes the largest contribution to the objectionable fined in Section 4. Furthermore, as the natural fre-
accelerations. For most ships the magnitude and fre- quency is reduced (natural period increased) the
quency range of these accelerations happen to corre- resulting accelerations, with constant roll amplitude,
spond to those of maximum human sensitivity and thus would reduce as an2.A long natural period also re-
are very likely to produce motion sickness in rough duces the likelihood of synchronous rolling, as a study
seas. However, in the design of high-performance craft of Fig. 134 (based on Fig. 78) will show. For any given
the resulting unique hull forms often have motion range of wavelengths, the longer the natural period
characteristics such that some other motion (say, the narrower the range of directions and speeds at
pitch) is more likely to produce sickness. For conven- which synchronism will occur.
tional ships, although roll is the most noticeable com- With this approach, as noted in Section 7.6 (Fig. 110),
ponent of transverse motions, yaw and sway (also the longest practicable natural roll period of ships is
heave), contribute to the accelerations experienced by favorable as far as reducing seasickness (MSI) is con-
personnel and equipment. Hence, as noted previously, cerned. Ships with low natural frequency are usually
the apparent vertical reference is actually normal to known as easy rollers, while ships with high natural
the wave surface in relatively long beam seas. The frequency are s t i f and usually experience abrupt and
ideal for comfort is for the ship to follow the wave unpleasant rolling. An example was the liner Malolo
slope, i.e., to roll very little with respect to the apparent which was known as an uncomfortable ship u 1 1 ex-
vertical, rather than to the gravity vertical (Chadwick, tensive alterations were made to reduce its GM. (It
1955). was then renamed Matsonia).
The magnitude of rolling depends both on the re- A study of Equation (173), Section 3.8, shows that
lationship between ship and wave dimensions and on the simplest way to achieve a long natural p e r i o h f
resonance effects; just as in the case of longitudinal roll is to adopt a low value of metacentric height, GM.
motions. But since a ship’s breadth is always less than Unfortunately, this affects the ship’s transverse sta-
its length, the wavelengths having significant effects bility adversely, and the minimum stability standards
on rolling are usually much shorter and therefore oc- discussed i n h a p t e r s I1 and I11 may not be met. Re-
cur more frequently. Furthermore, the usual L / B ra- duction in GM may involve reduction in beam, which
tios result in less transverse stability and less damping is generally unfavorable to damping. Reducing the
of transverse motions, with consequent greater sen- transverse gyradius is helpful in increasing the natural
sitivity to resonance effects. It was noted in Section period, but it is usually governed by other design con-
3.8 that magnification factors of 10 are common when siderations.
no artificial damping is introduced. At the same time, A special case is the semi-submersible floating plat-
passive or active damping devices can be more effective form often used for oil drilling. It makes use of buoy-
- than for other motions, such as pitch. ancy cylinders located well below the sea surface, with
Hence, the first step in design for reduced rolling is an open structure of struts connecting them and sup-
to introduce artificial damping, bilge keels being the porting the platform above the water. These design
simplest and most effective device. Sharp or short- features take advantage of the fact that wave exci-
radius bilges may be helpful and also an increase in tation reduces rapidly with draft (i.e., depth below the
ship breadth. The latter will tend to increase slightly surface) and the open construction leads to small wa-
the length of waves required to excite rolling, but it terplane moments of inertia, hence low stability but
 MOTIONS IN WAVES 171

x peaks at resonance, over a narrow spread of wave

WAVE SPECTRUM frequencies, various devices other than bilge keels can
COMPONENTS
be installed to further damp or otherwise reduce roll-
ing, as discussed in Section 6. Many cruise ships and
naval vessels are fitted with anti-rolling fins or passive
anti-roll stabilizers, which are very effective in reduc-
ing roll. Cargo ships can also benefit from having one
or the other of these devices installed. But as with all
ships, the reduction in rolling attainable must be

20 -
1i' RESPONSE
AMPLITUDE
weighed against the disadvantages of the added direct
cost of the anti-roll device, and its added weight, drag
and required space, all of which may detract from the
\ OPERATORS
earning power of the ship. Fortunately, with the pro-
cedure for calculating voyage time as a function of
10 - season and route outlined in Section 7.8, the economic
advantage of anti-roll stabilization can be quantified.
Thus, the economic arguments for and against roll
0 I stabilization can be satisfactorily resolved, as consid-

t
n ered in Section 8.6.
x 10-2 - RESPONSE
I SPECTRUM Another interesting possibility discussed in Section
I COMPONENTS
_Ilo
-
6 is the use of rudders for control of roll as well as
20 - - 5 of heading of the ship. This scheme has the advantage
of making use of an existing system, with some mod-
-0
ifications, thus substantially reducing the cost, weight
and resistance penalties. However, special care is re-
quired to the design of rudders that will produce large
transverse as well as longitudinal moments.
0 I Rolling is known to increase the resistance of a ship,
0 -02
-0.2 -04
-0.4 -06
-0.6 -08 -I 0 -I 2
-1.2
although little quantitative data are available. Exter-
lnw
nal devices such as bilge keels or anti-rolling fins add
Fig. 133 Rolling response in short-crested irregular beam seas their own resistance, but this effect is usually more
than balanced by the reduction in roll-induced resist-
long rolling period. The result is small rolling motion ance produced. Hence, well-designed devices may be
over a wide range of sea conditions. expected to have a favorable effect on powering and
Another approach to the reduction of rolling is to hence on fuel consumption.
go in the direction of subcritical operation (Hutchison Yawing and swaying in oblique seas, with the related
and Laible, 1987). This implies reduced natural period rudder action, also increase resistance, but these ef-
(increasednatural frequency), which involves in- fects are relatively minor. A more important aspect
creased GM and often increased beam. If carried far may be the leeway angle experienced in bow seas. This
enough-as with a rectangular barge or floating plat- leeway angle may give rise to an induced drag of
form-this couldmean that resonant response, if lim- appreciable magnitude.
ited by a high GM to a range of wavelengths of say 8.5 High-performance ships. The main emphasis of
B / 2 and less, would be negligibly small because the this book has been on conventional, monohull ships,
hull would span a t least two wavelengths and damping but attention has also been given to other vehicle types
would be very high. Rolling in response to longer that operate at the water-air interface. Since a good
waves would tend to follow the wave slope and there- deal of the incentive for investigating some of the
fore would not be objectionable. newer interface vehicle types resides in their promise
Hutchison and Laible (1987) have shown that a re- to reduce motions in a seaway, some of the important
search vessel could be designed to provide an excep- seakeeping features of these newer vehicle types will
tionally steady platform with L / D = 3.4 (instead of be discussed in this section. For a more complete and
the usual 4.5 - 5.5). Of course, this vessel would not also realistic discussion and appraisal of each type,
be expected to fully attain subcritical operation in all particularly for naval applications, the reader is re-
circumstances, but the design did move in that direc- ferred to Eames (1981) and to the special February,
tion. 1986, issue of the Naval Engineers Journal.
Although design for reduced rolling is difficult, roll ( a ) Catamarans. An old type of craft that has been
is much easier to control than any other ship motion receiving attention in recent years is the catamaran,
because transverse wave moments are relatively which can provide large deck areas and any degree of
small. Since rolling response operators show sharp transverse stability, for use as a ferry, oceanographic
172 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

C.

35
FOLLOWING
SEAS

Fig. 134 Zones of probably heavy rolling of ships with 8 and 24-second roll periods among waves of 61 to 183-m (200-600-ft) length (see Fig. 78)

research ship or oil-drilling platform. Navy experience tion of the principle of supercritical operation dis-
with the design of the oceanographic research cata- cussed in Section 4. The SWATH configuration
maran Hayes (Hadler, Lee, e t a1 1974) has shown that includes two streamlined, totally submerged, longi-
relative bow motions were excessive in the open North tudinally oriented, buoyant hulls of circular or elliptical
Atlantic, resulting in slamming on the cross-structure. cross section. These two hulls support, by means of
On the basis of research and development work at one or more vertical surface-piercing streamlined
DTRC, a fixed hydrofoil was designed and installed struts, the weight of a wide ship platform spanning
forward between the two hulls to provide damping of both hulls located substantially above the air-water
pitch and heave. This was found to reduce relative bow interface. Since the rough water surface is penetrated
motion and slamming to acceptable levels, and also only by the thin, small-waterplane-area struts, not only
reduced coupled roll-pitch or corkscrew motion. is the excitation by ocean waves of the vertical motions
The above paper also discusses other aspects of the of the SWATH reduced, compared to a conventional
seakeeping design problems of the catamaran, includ- surface ship or to a traditional catamaran, but long
ing choice of overall dimensions and the ratios L / B natural pitching and heaving periods result. Hence,
and L/T. It is recommended that roll and pitch natural the SWATH is capable of attaining high-speed super-
periods be kept as far apart as possible to minimize critical operation in moderately rough head seas, up
corkscrew motion. An extension of basic ship motion to the point a t which severe slamming on the cross-
theory is presented to permit the calculation of coupled structure begins.
pitch-heave motions, and in addition the loads on cross- Numata (1980) described a number of SWATH ves-
structure connecting the two hulls. It is recommended sels and gave results of model tests of four of them
that the design of the damping foil be undertaken at in calm water and in waves. These showed clearly the
the beginning of the catamaran design, and a method relatively light damping in pitch and heave, as well as
for designing the foil is given. roll, which makes them very sensitive under conditions
( b ) SWATH. A relatively new version of the older, of resonance, also (Lee and Curphey, 1977). Numata
twin-hull catamaran is the Small-Waterplane-Area shows how the conditions for severe motion can be
Twin-Hull (SWATH), which is a noteworthy applica- estimated by calculating the undamped natural period
 Next Page

MOTIONS IN WAVES 173

of pitch and determining the forward speed that pro- (Payne, 1974). The hull is narrow, so that the planing
duces resonance with the component wave correspond- surface is relatively small and the waterline endings
ing to the peak of the wave spectrum (modal period). very sharp. This permits the hull to cut through the
(Use is made of Fig. 78, Section 4, for this purpose). waves and attain a supercritical condition of operation.
To attain supercritical operation in head seas the for- (d) Hydrofoil craft. Among the dynamically sup-
ward speed must be well above this critical speed. ported vehicles, the hydrofoil ship is like the SWATH
However, as resonant conditions are approached, it has ship in that the hull is also carried above the water
been found that fixed or controllable foils can provide surface by struts. But in the hydrofoil case the support
effective damping of pitch and heave. is provided by transversely oriented, hydrodynamic
In stern seas the long natural pitching and heaving lifting surfaces (hydrofoils) rather than by longitu-
periods may delay achievement of supercritical oper- dinally-oriented buoyant hulls. Many commercial hy-
ation until very high, perhaps unrealistic, speeds, and drofoil ships are built with fixed transverse foils
will contribute to critical yaw motions a t low speeds. incorporating a dihedral so oriented that the hydrofoils
To minimize these effects, the anti-pitching fins fitted pierce the free surface in the normal flying mode. This
forward and aft are effective. By canting these fins arrangement provides the vehicle with inherent ver-
downward they may also be used as rudders, thus tical, transverse and longitudinal stability. On the
obviating the need for a separate rudder system for other hand, most military and some commercial hy-
steering. drofoil craft are built with completely submerged hy-
Lee and Curphey (1977) have presented a modified drofoils, having little or no dihedral, which require an
linear theory for calculating SWATH motions. A strip automatic control system to provide vehicle stability.
method is used for obtaining hydrodynamic coeffi- Ships with submerged foils have the advantage of re-
cients, and allowance is made for viscous damping duced drag and reduced motions in rough seas, but
effects and for the lift and moment of the stabilizing are considerably more expensive to build than hydro-
fins. Good results were obtained in comparing theo- foil craft with surface-piercing foils.
retical calculations of motion with experimental data Hydrofoil craft can easily attain supercritical oper-
on two models. However, improvement in theory is ation in seas of moderate severity, when the hull is
needed for the case of following waves, especially carried clear of the wave crests. Some problems in
when controllable fins are to be used. McCreight (1987) seakeeping design of both types of hydrofoil craft and
gives a methodology for investigating the relationship methods of solution are discussed by Hirsch (1967)
between hull characteristics and seakeeping perform- and Johnson (1985).
ance. See also Lamb (1987). (e) ACV and SES craft. Both Air Cushion Vehicles
It is important to notice that SWATH ships (and (ACV) and Surface Effect Ships (SES) are supported
most supercritical ships) must be designed to make a by a pressurized cushion of air between the water
smooth transition between sub-critical and super-crit- surface and the bottom of the vehicle. With the ACV
ical modes of operation. In the case of SWATH, as the the air cushion is contained within a flexible peripheral
wave height gets so large that cross-structure slam- skirt around the entire hull. Using air propulsion, ACV
ming would occur, so does the wave period get large. may be a truly amphibious craft. In contrast to the
This long wave period is in better tuning to the ship’s ACV, the SES has two sidewalls that penetrate the
heave period, and results in increased heave response, water surface and help contain the air cushion. They
which may assist the ship in lifting itself above the not only decrease cushion air losses but also increase
oncoming wave and avoiding slams. In SWATH design water drag and deny amphibious operation to the SES.
the selection of heave natural period as a function of Resistance “hump” characteristics dictate that an SES
cross structure height is important. designed for speeds between 40 and 60 knots incor-
(c) Planing craft develop dynamic lift not by means porate a high length-to-beam ratio. These speeds may
of foils but rather by virtue of the angle of attack of be sub-or supercritical depending on sea conditions.
the relatively flat bottom of their hulls. At low speed ACVs have been extensively developed in Great Brit-
they are completely buoyantly supported, while at top ain under the designation hovercraft. They have been
speed they are partially supported by dynamic lift and successful in commercial operation, notably in provid-
partially by buoyancy. ing regular ferry service across the English Channel.
In smooth water and slightly rough seas planing These craft have low L / B ratios, and their seakeeping
craft can attain high (super-critical) speeds. But as performance depends greatly on their ability to main-
seas become rougher severe pounding, with high ver- tain height above the water surface to clear the tops
tical accelerations, are experienced in head seas. of the waves. Seakeeping problems are discussed by
Hence, the selection of suitable dead-rise angles is Lavis (1972), Moran, Fein and Magnuson (1974) and
vitally important (Savitsky and Brown, 1976),(Martin, Bebar, Kennell, et a1 (1985).
1978). For SES craft equations of motion with six degrees
An interesting development of a planing craft with of freedom are presented in a paper by Kaplan, Bent-
high rough-water speeds is the so-called Sea Knife son and Davis (1981), where the important differences
Previous Page

174 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

in dynamic behavior between SES and conventional SWATH design with a long period might be suitable.
mono-hulls are discussed. I t is interesting to note that In fact, McCreight and Stahl(l985) have attempted a
pitch/heave wave excitation forces on the SES arise seakeeping performance assessment of several de-
mainly from variations in the buoyancy of the im- signs of each type, indicating the circumstances under
mersed sidewalls, since “the greater part of the wave- which either might be preferred. Kennell, et a1 (1985)
induced forces are imparted through the air cushion compared two monohull designs and a SWATH.
a t a uniform pressure.” Rolling motion is affected by For most ships, regardless of speed, the critical and
sidewall draft, which determines when sidewall emer- sub-critical ranges of operation govern design for sea-
gence will occur, and by distance between sidewalls keeping. This usually calls for short natural periods
relative to KG, which affects the natural period of roll. of pitch and heave, together with as high damping as
V e r i f i c a t z of theoretical motion calculations by possible.
model tests is complicated by the fact that cushion air It is also important to decide as soon as possible in
pressure does not follow Froude scaling. The proce- the design as to whether or not special anti-rolling
dure adopted is to carry out computer calculations “for devices (other than bilge keels) or anti-pitching fins
the same test conditions at the same scale as the model are to be considered (See Section 6).
itself is experiencing. The results of the model test In a chapter, “Mission Analysis and Basic Design,”
and the computer program outputs are then to be com- by R. K. Kiss (Taggart, 1980) the importance of con-
pared. ” If the theory is thus verified for model scale, sidering rough weather performance early in the de-
then it can be used with confidence to compute full- sign of any ship is emphasized (Section 3, Concept
scale motions. In the work of Kaplan, et a1 (1981), the Design). It is explained that, “for any particular set
theory was found to agree reasonably well with model of requirements, there is an infinite number of com-
tests for pitch and heave in head seas for six SES binations which give the transport or mission capabil-
designs for which model results were available. A few ity desired; i.e., for cargo ships: capacity, deadweight,
comparisons with full-scale test craft have indicated speed and endurance.” Computer-aided parametric
generally good results from combined model tests and studies provide a means for exploring a wide range of
theoretical calculations. But direct comparisons are dif- ship proportions and form, and determining those com-
ficult because of wave measurement problems at sea. binations that provide acceptable technical solutions.
In general, SES craft experience high vertical ac- The guidelines in Sections 8.1-8.5 can be used in de-
celerations in head seas because of the high frequen- ciding what alternate design configurations and range
cies of wave encounter and the pressure pulses of hull characteristics are to be explored. It is partic-
experienced with air leakage in the bow-up condition. ularly important that a wide range of lengths be in-
Hence, some type of ride control system is required cluded. The next step is then to produce alternate
on an SES operating in the open sea. This involves the preliminary or concept designs for consideration. Sea-
controlled alteration of cushion air pressure and has keeping evaluations can then be carried out and finally,
been quite successful (Kaplan, et a1 1981). a selection made of the final design on the basis of
8.6 Seakeeping Design Procedures. ( a ) General. economics, as discussed subsequently.
Because of the importance to seakeeping performance For the seakeeping evaluation, the theory of ship
of ship or “platform” configuration and dimensions, motions presented in Sections 3 and 4 provides valuable
it is clear that for best results seakeeping considera- tools for predicting the motions of a specific hull, or
tions should be taken into account a t the earliest stages comparing alternative designs, in specific sea condi-
of design, before basic dimensions and other param- tions at stated speeds and headings. For our purpose
eters have been selected. Hence, it is important to these studies must include the derived responses dis-
consider rational design procedures that make this pos- cussed in Section 5 that correspond to the criteria pre-
sible. sented in Section 7. These include accelerations at
For high-speed ships an early consideration is critical points, frequency of slamming and of shipping
whether the mission or service of the ship involves water, and added resistance and power. Calculations
primarily sub- or super-critical operation in rough seas. may be supplemented by self-propelled model tests in
All ships, no matter how designed, achieve super-crit- irregular waves, especially when estimates based on
ical operation if the sea state is mild enough, but in empirical data must be used.
the severe seas often experienced in the open ocean Repeated computer calculations provide the best
most ships cannot be expected to push above the crit- means of identifying directly the precise effect of
ical zone, and therefore the sub-critical (or critical) changing the various parameters defining hull propor-
regime has more influence on design. However, for tions and form. Each parameter affects the various
high-performance craft, such as are discussed in the coefficients in the equations of motion differently, and
preceding sub-section, there may be a choice, which the coefficients depend in turn on frequency of wave
can have a drastic effect on the design. encounter, forward speed, etc. Furthermore, coupling
For example, there are certain missions for which between modes of motions, phase angles and forward
either a fine, monohull with short pitching period or a speed influence the manner in which the various terms
 MOT10 NS IN WAVES 175

in the equations interact. Therefore, several sets of Procedures for technical evaluation have been pre-
calculations-perhaps supplemented by comparative sented by Chryssostomidis (1972), Bringloe (1978) and
model tests-are needed. Hutchison (1981) in more or less detail. However, the
It should be noted that the calculation of power final evaluation should be in economic terms (MandeI
requirements in different sea conditions, ship headings and Leopold, 1966). This may be done on the basis of
and speeds is needed not only for the seakeeping eval- Required Freight Rate (RFR), computed first for each
uation (SPI-2) but also for the reliable determination design under ideal fine weather conditions. To obtain
of required installed power for the machinery design RFR under operational sea conditions the ship per-
of a fast ship in a rough-weather service, where an formance calculations must be extended to cover fuel
arbitrary percentage addition to trial power would be consumption at reduced speeds, and effects of rough
unsatisfactory (Lewis, 1958). If the calculated average weather delays on port times, hence on cargo handling
voyage speed is not adequate for the proposed oper- and other terminal costs. The final evaluation may then
ating schedule there are two steps possible in the de- be in the form of a plot of overall annual RFR against
sign stage. One is to increase the maximum power in ship length, first under ideal calm weather and then
order that speed can be increased when the more mod- under actual anticipated service conditions. Such a plot
erate sea conditions prevail; the service power require- would not only establish the optimum design but would
ment would then be determined by the duration of the indicate the penalties involved in departure from the
periods of more moderate seas during which the time optimum because of considerations of first cost, ter-
lost must be made up. The other method of decreasing minal or port restrictions, etc.
voyage time is to modify ship size, proportions, free- Although the approach to merchant ship design just
board, ballast capacity, or other characteristics in or- described is not in general use, current research spon-
der to raise the limiting speeds in the more severe sea sored by the H-7 Panel of SNAME has developed the
conditions. procedure in more detail and applied it to the design
The seakeeping evaluation of alternative designs in- of a 21-knot container ship for North Atlantic service
volves the choice of a suitable index, a s discussed in (Sellars and Setterstrom, 1987). Fig. 135 is a plot of
Section 7. For merchant ships, and naval transit mis- results tabulated in the paper for alternative designs
sions, the principal measure of seakeeping perform- intended to provide regular weekly liner service be-
ance is the Transit Speed Index, SPI-2. Since this tween New York and a European port with three ships
involves both voluntary and involuntary speed reduc- of 1290 TEU capacity (7,600 miles round trip). Prelim-
tion it depends on both ship motions and added power inary economic studies of ships 175 to 251 m (575 to
required in waves. For most naval ships the principal 825 f t ) in length had established that under ideal calm
index is that of Mission Effectiveness, SPI-1, which water conditions the minimum RFR was obtained with
involves the many factors discussed in Section 7. This a 183-m (600-ft) ship (0.55 block coefficient). Designs
index also applies to survey vessels and fishing craft for seakeeping evaluation in the figure ranged from
on station. 183 to 251m (600 to 825 f t ) in length and 169 to 78 in
Although the procedures discussed in Section 7 for W / ( L /loo)', using the better of two operating sched-
calculating the seakeeping performance indexes were ules studied. Comparative costs are expressed in terms
intended mainly for naval vessels, they can be ap-
plied-perhaps with some shortcuts-to commercial
ships a s well. These techniques involve the use of
Speed Polar Plots, with Seakeeping Operating Envel-
1100
opes (SOE), the Operability Index (01)as a function
of sea state and finally the appropriate overall, long-
term Seakeeping Performance Index (SPI-1 or 2). Sep-
arate discussions follow for merchant and naval ships.
( b ) Merchant ship evaluation. Having established
a number of alternative acceptable concept hull de-
signs, the principal subjects for study are motions and
added power requirements in waves. Using the tech-
niques discussed in previous sections, ship responses
can be predicted in different representative sea con-
ditions, a t various speeds and headings, and estimates
made of attainable speed and required power. Consid-
160 180 200 220 240 26d
ering the frequency of occurrence of the different sea
conditions expected in the ship's service, the average 10

voyage speeds or times (SPI-2) can be estimated for

different seasons, along with the corresponding power
requirements. Fig. 135 Variation of Required Freight Rate with ship length