Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA

plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

Flower:
▪ It is modified shoot meant for sexual reproduction.
▪ It is the sexual reproductive part of angiosperms hence they are called
flowering plants (Phaenerogams).
▪ It develops on angiospermic plants after the completion of vegetative phase.
▪ The branch of ornamental horticulture concerned with growing and marketing of
ornamental flowers is called floriculture.

A diagrammatic representation of L.S. of a flower

Parts of flower:
▪ In a flower, four different sets of whorls or floral members are attached to a
central axis called thalamus.
▪ These whorls are broadly classified as accessory or non-essential and essential
whorls.
Accessory or Non-essential whorls:
▪ These are not directly takes part in reproduction but support the reproduction.
They are of 2 types; calyx and corolla.
Calyx:
▪ The outermost and the first accessory whorl is of sepals and is called calyx.
▪ Its main function is to protect the flower in bud condition.
▪ It is smaller than the petals in size.
▪ When green, it is photosynthetic in nature.
▪ When colored, it attracts insects for pollination.
Corolla:
▪ The second accessory whorl is of petals and is called corolla.
▪ It provides color and scent to attract pollinators.
▪ Sometimes the base of corolla bears some secretory glands and secretes nectar.
▪ They also provide protection to the flower.

Pre – Fertilization structure and events:

▪ Several hormonal and structural changes are initiated which lead to
differentiation and further development of flower primordium.
▪ Inflorescence are which bear floral buds and flower.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
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Essential whorls:
▪ These whorls directly take part in reproduction. These are of 2 types;
Male Reproductive Unit (Androecium):
▪ Next to the corolla, is the first essential whorl of stamens.
Stamen: It is the male reproductive unit and consists of the following two parts;
i. A long and slender stalk called filament which may be joined or free.
ii. A bilobed terminal structure called anther.
iii. The two lobes are separated by a groove on one side and joined by
connective on opposite side.
iv. Each lobe contains two sporangia, hence dithecus anther contains four
sporangia called tetrasporangiate (eg., Jasmine, Periwinkle, etc.) and
monothecus anther contains two sporangia called bisporangiate (eg., China
rose, malvaceae members).
Structure of anther:
i. It is composed of two anther sacs or lobes separated by a tissue called
connective tissue.
ii. The anther is bilobed & each lobe or sac consists of two theca separated by
a septum.
iii. The anther is a tetragonal (four - sided) structure, consisting of four
microsporangia, two in each of the lobes.
iv. Microsporangia develop further and get transformed into pollen sacs.
v. The pollen sac extends longitudinally throughout the length of an anther
and packed with pollen grains.
vi. Its main function is the production of microspores, i.e., pollen grains
containing male gametes within the anther lobe.

a) Atypical stamen b) Transverse section of an anther

Structure of Microsporangium:
▪ A typical microsporangium appear circular and is surrounded by four walls
i. Epidermis: It is the outermost single layer of cell which is protective in
nature.
It shrivels at maturity.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

ii. Endothecium: It is the outermost wall layer of microsporangium and

hypodermal layer of anther which is protective in nature.
It has thick cells which develops fibrous thickening of cellulose on inner
and radial walls. Hence it is called fibrous layer.
It helps in dehiscence of anther.
iii. Middle layer: It is third layer composed of 1 – 3 layers of cells, help in
dehiscence and is protective in nature.
It provides nourishment to sporogenous tissue.
iv. Tapetum: It is the fourth and innermost layer of cell with dense cytoplasm
and multinuclei.
It provides nourishment to the developing pollen grains.
▪ The centre of each microsporangium is filled with closely arranged similar
cells called sporogenous cells. The transform into microspore or spore or
pollen mother cell (PMC).
▪ At maturity, pollen sac is formed by fusion of two microsporangium in each
lobe.

a) Transverse section of a young anther b) Enlarged view of one

microsporangium showing wall layers

Microsporogenesis:
▪ The process of formation of microspore from a pollen mother cell by meiosis is
called microsporogenesis.

T.S. of mature dehisced anther with pollen grains.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

▪ The sporogenous tissue has polygonal cells which are closely packed.
▪ The pollen sac increases in size, the cells of sporogenous tissue becomes
rounded and loosely arranged.
▪ Each cell of the sporogenous tissue in a microsporangium transforms into
pollen mother cell (PMC) or microspore mother cell (MMC) or spore mother
cell (SMC).
▪ PMC undergoes meiotic divisions to form cluster of four cells called
microspore tetrad.
▪ On maturity, the anther dehydrates and the microspores separate from each
other to form pollen grains.
▪ Inside each pollen sac, thousands of pollen grains are formed and released
with the dehiscence of anther.

Pollen Grains:
▪ They develop from PMC by meiotic division.
▪ They represent the male gametophyte.
Structure of pollen grain-
▪ Pollen grains are generally spherical in structure.
▪ They possess two prominent layered walls - outer exine and inner intine.
▪ The exine is a hard layer made of sporopollenin which is one of the most
resistant organic material resistance to acids, alkalis, enzymes, etc. present in
nature.
▪ At certain regions sporopollenin is absent called germ pores.
▪ The inner thin layer of intine is made up of cellulose and pectin.
▪ The newly differentiated pollen grain has a central nucleus and dense
cytoplasm.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

▪ Vacuoles develop, thereby pushing the nucleus towards the periphery.

▪ The protoplast mitotically divides into two unequal cells - bigger vegetative
cell which is rich in food reserve and smaller spindle - shaped generative cell
with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus. This is called 2-celled stage.
▪ In majority angiosperms, pollens are released in this 2-celled stage, whereas in
other species, the generative cell divides to form 3 - celled stage.
▪ Once the pollen grains are shed they should land on stigma before they loose
viability.
▪ The period of viability is variable.
▪ Example; It may be thirty minutes as in cereals (Jawar, Rice, Wheat, etc.) or it
may for months as in Leguminosae, Rosaceae, Solanaceae, etc.

a) Enlarged view of a pollen grain tetrad

b) Stages of a microspore maturing into a pollen grain.
Importance of pollen grains:
▪ These are nutrient rich and thus are taken as food supplements.
▪ These are also used as nutrient supplement to increase the performance of
athletes and race horses.
▪ Pollens can be stored for years in liquid nitrogen at -1960C, to be used later in
crop breeding programmes.
Pollen allergies-
▪ When these are present in atmosphere enters nostrils and lungs.
▪ The pollen grains of many plants cause severe allergic diseases and bronchial
diseases.
▪ They also cause chronic respiratory diseases like high fever, seasonal asthma,
bronchitis, conjunctivitis, etc.
Ex. The pollen grains of Pathenium (carrot grass), Amaranthus, Cyanodon,
Prosopis, Sorghum,etc.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
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Gynoecium:
▪ Second essential whorl is of carpel’s and is called gynoecium or pistil.
▪ The function of gynoeciumis the production of megaspores, fruits and seeds.

Female reproductive unit:

▪ The pistil or gynoecium represents the female reproductive unit of a flower.
▪ The gynoecium may have single pistil (called monocarpellary), more than two
pistils (called multicarpellary), fused pistils (called syncarpous) or free pistils
(called apocarpous).

a) Pistil of Hibiscus
b) Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistil of Papaver
c) A multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium of Michelia
▪ A pistil has following three major parts:
i) Sigma : It receives the pollen grains. It has sticky surface and pollen grains
get stuck to it during pollination.
ii) Style: It is an elongated slender part beneath the stigma that connects the
stigma with ovary. It holds the stigma to receive the pollen grains.
iii) Ovary: It is the basal swollen part of pistil that contains ovules and eggs.
▪ Inside the ovary there is compartment called ovarian cavity or locule
separated by septum.
▪ Placenta is the tissue in ovarian cavity from where ovule or megasporangium
arises.

Structure of Megasporangium (Ovule):

▪ The ovule is stalked and is attached to the placenta by means of a stalk called
funicle.
▪ The junction between an ovule and a funicle is called hilum. Sometimes, the
funcile extends beyond the hilum to form a ridge called raphae.
▪ The ovule is surrounded by one or two protective multicellular integuments.
▪ Integument encircles the ovule entirely except at the tip, resulting in a small
opening called micropyle.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

▪ The basal part of an ovule opposite to micropyle is called chalaza.

▪ The cell with high or abundant reserve food material enclosed within
integument is called nucellus.
▪ The female gametophyte located within the nucellus is called an embryo sac.

A diagrammatic view of a typical anatropous ovule

Megasporogenesis:
▪ The process of formation of haploid megaspores form the diploid megaspore
mother cell (MMC) is called megasporogenesis.
▪ In the micropylar region, the nucellus contains dense cytoplasm and
prominent nucleus which is differentiated into a single megaspore mother cell
(MMC).
▪ Megaspore mother cell is diploid and undergoes meiosis.
▪ MMC first divides transversely into two cells called dyad.
▪ These two cells again divide transversely as a result, a linear row of four
haploid cells are produced which is called megaspore tetrad or linear tetrad.
▪ Out of these four megaspores, only one remains functional while the other
three degenerate.
▪ The one functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte or
embryo sac. This is called monosporic development.
Formation of Embryo sac :
▪ The formation of female gametophyte (embryo sac) is called
megagametogenesis.
i. Megaspore is the first cell of the female gametophyte.
ii. The megaspore increases in size and its nucleus divides mitotically into
two nuclei which move apart to opposite poles. Thus, a 2-nucleate embryo
sac is formed.
iii. The two daughter nuclei undergo another mitotic division giving rise to
the 4 - nucleate stage.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
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iv. The third mitotic division, which gives 8 - nucleate embryo sac comprises
of a micropylar and a chalazal end with four nuclei at each end.
v. One nuclei from each end proceeds towards the centre of the embryo sac
and are called the polar nuclei.
vi. The three nuclei remaining at the micropylar region form the egg
apparatus, without any cellular wall.
vii. In the egg apparatus, the middle cell is the largest and is called oospore /
egg / ovum, while other two naked cells adjoining the egg cell are called
synergids.
viii. The three remaining nuclei at the chalazal end are surrounding by
cytoplasm and cellular wall. These are called antipodal cells.
ix. The above mentioned method of female gametophyte formation is known
as normal 7- celled and 8 - nucleate type, because 8 nuclei contribute in the
formation of gametophyte. It is very common among angiosperms.

a) Part of the ovule showing a large megaspore mother cell, a dyad and a tetrad
of megaspores
b) 2, 4 and 8-nucleate stages of embryo sac and a mature embryosac
c) A diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
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Pollination :
▪ The transfer of pollen grains from anther and their deposition over stigma of
the pistil is termed as pollination.
▪ Depending upon sources of pollen grains, pollination is of three types.
Types of pollination – These are of two types;
Autogamy (Self pollination):
The transfer of pollen grains is from anther to stigma of the same flower, e.g.,
pea, rice, wheat, etc.

Contrivances or Devices for Self - pollination (Autogamy):

▪ Cross - pollination can be prevented by
exhibiting:
i. Cleistogamous flowers: These are
bisexual closed flowers which never open
at all and the anther dehisce inside these
closed flowers, e.g., Commelina, Ground
nut, Violla, Oxalis, etc.
ii. The close association between anther and
stigma, e.g., Mirabilis.
Chasmogamous flowers: They are
normal aerial flowers.
▪ Geitonogamy - The transfer of pollen grains from one flower to stigma of
another flower belongs to same plant (Genetically identical). Ex. Cucurbits.
▪ Xenogamy – The transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to stigma
of different flowers of the same species (Genetically non-identical). Ex.
Papaya, Phoenix, etc.

Contrivances or Devices for cross - pollination (Xenogamy / Allogamy) or Out

breeding devices:

Agents for Pollination

Abiotic agents Biotic agents (Animals)

Wind Water
Reptiles Mammals Insects Birds

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
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Abiotic pollinating agents:

Anemophily (Wind pollination):
Pollination occurs by wind or air.
Adaptation for Wind pollination / Anemophily:
▪ The form of pollination in which wind
distributes the pollens is called
Anemophily.
▪ Pollen grains are light in weight, non -
sticky, dry and winged
▪ Well - exposed stamens for easy dispersal
of pollen grains in the wind.
▪ The stigma is sticky, large and feathery to
trap pollen grains floating in the air
▪ Numerous flowers are packed together to form inflorescence.

Hydrophily:
▪ Pollination occurs by water.
▪ It is common in lower plants (cryptogams) like algae, bryophytes, and
pteridophytes.
▪ It is quite rare in angiosperms i.e., limited to 30 genera belongs to monocots
(aquatic plants).

Adaptation for water Pollination / Hydrophily:

▪ The form of pollination in which pollens are distributed by water is called
hydrophily.
▪ It is very common in algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes and some angiosperms.
Types of Hydrophily: It is of 2 types; epihydrophily and hypohydrophily.
Epihydrophily –Pollination occurs on surface of water. Ex. Vallisneria,
Lemna, etc.
▪ Vallisneria and Hydrilla are submerged freshwater hydrophytes in which
hydrophily is observed.
▪ In Vallisneria, the female
flower stalk is coiled to
reach the water surface to
receive the pollen grains.
▪ The male flower releases
pollen grains to the
surface of water.
▪ They are carried through the water currents and reach the female flower.

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 Sexual reproduction in flowering DISHA
plants PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

Hypohydrophily– Pollination occurs inside the water. Ex. Ceratophyllum,

Zoostera, etc.
▪ Zostera is a marine angiosperm in which hydrophily is observed.
▪ In sea – grasses (Zoostera), female flowers are submerged in water to receive
pollen grains for pollination inside water.
▪ Pollen grains are long, ribbon - like structures, to be carried inside the water.
▪ Pollen grains are protected from wetting by the presence of a mucilaginous
covering.

Biotic pollinating agents:

▪ Majority of flowering plants used animals as pollinating agents called
Zoophily.
Ex. Bees, Bats, Snails, etc.

Zoophily: Pollination by animals (Lemurs, Rodents, Gecko, Garden lizard)

Adaptation for Insect Pollination / Entomophily:

▪ The form of pollination in which insects distribute pollens is called
entomophily.
▪ Flowers are large, sticky and brightly colored.
▪ They have honey and nectar glands, which are highly fragrant to attract
insects.
▪ The pollen grain surface is sticky due to exine layer and stigma is sticky due to
mucilaginous secretion.
▪ The flowers offer floral rewards like nectar and pollen grains for pollination to
insects.
▪ In some species, floral rewards provide safe place to lay eggs, e.g.,
Amorphophallus.
A species of moth and Yucca plant cannot complete their life cycle without
each other.
The moth deposits its eggs in locule of ovary and flower gets pollinated by
moth.
The larva of moth comes out of the eggs as seed start developing.
▪ The flower sometimes secrete foul odor to attract insects like flies and beetles.

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