Refrigeration

Systems
 Objectives
 Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat
pumps and the measure of their performance.
 Analyze the ideal and actual vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles.
 Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat
pump systems.
 Evaluate the performance of innovative vapor-
compression refrigeration systems.
2
Refrigerators And Heat Pumps
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat
(QL) from the cold medium; the objective of a
heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm
medium.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially
the same devices; they differ in their objectives
only.
Performance:

for fixed values of QL and

QH 3
 The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between TL and TH. But not a suitable
model for refrigeration cycles because:
(i) process 2-3 involves compression of a liquid–vapor mixture - requires a
compressor that will handle two phases,
(ii) (ii) process 4-1 involves expansion of high-moisture-content refrigerant in a
turbine.

Both COPs increase as the

difference between the two
temperatures decreases, i.e.
as TL rises or TH falls.

Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator

and T-s diagram of the reversed
4
Carnot cycle.
 Problem – Class Exercise
A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant-134a
as the working fluid. The refrigerant changes from saturated
vapor to saturated liquid at 30°C in the condenser as it
rejects heat. The evaporator pressure is 160 kPa. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation lines, and
determine:

(a)the coefficient of performance,

(b)the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space,
and
(c)the net work input.
5
Answers: (a) 5.64, (b) 147 kJ/kg, (c) 26.1 kJ/kg
 Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
Is the ideal model for refrigeration systems. The refrigerant is vaporized
completely before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a
throttling device.

The most widely used cycle for

refrigerators, A-C systems, and
heat pumps.

Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
 Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process
4-1 Constant Pressure Evaporation
Heat from a cold space is absorbed by the
refrigerant. As a result, the refrigerant
evaporates at a constant evaporator
pressure, from state 4 to become a drier
saturated vapor at state 1.

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 Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process
1-2 Isentropic compression
The saturated vapor is compressed from
the evaporator pressure to the condenser
pressure, in a reversible adiabatic manner.
The refrigerant exits the compressor as a
superheated vapor at state 2.

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 Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process
2-3 Constant Pressure Condensation
Heat is rejected from the refrigerant to a warm
space. As a result, the refrigerant condenses at a
constant condenser pressure until it becomes a
saturated liquid at state 3.

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 Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process
3-4 Constant Enthalpy Expansion
The refrigerant expands through the
throttle valve adiabatically. As a result, it’s
pressure drops from the condenser to the
evaporator pressure. The enthalpy is
constant during the process, i.e. h3 = h4.

Note: The expansion process is highly irreversible, thus

10
making the vapor-compression cycle an irreversible cycle.
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an
irreversible (throttling) process to make it a more realistic model for
the actual systems.
Steady-flow energy
balance

An ordinary
household The P-h diagram of an ideal
refrigerator. vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. 11
Refrigeration Load
• Refrigeration Capacity, Q&L
– defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred from a cold
space per unit time
– determines the mass flow rate of refrigerant
• 1 ton = 200Btu/min = 211kJ/min = 3.516kW
• ton : “the rate of heat transfer to produce 2000 lb of ice at 0oC (32o)F
from liquid water at 0oC (32oF) in 24 hours”
• Mass flow rate of refrigerant

& = refrigerator capacity

m
refrigerating effect per unit mass

12
Solving Problem
• 2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.
– Using property table for refrigerants
– Using the P-h diagram
P

q2 = h2 – h3

3 2

4 1
q2 = h1 – h4

h
win = h2 – h1 13
P-h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a
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 Problem
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and

operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines. Determine:
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
d) the coefficient of performance.

Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06
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P-h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a
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 Problem – Class Exercise
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on

an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters
the compressor as saturated vapor at 140 kPa and is
compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine the:

a)quality of the refrigerant at evaporator inlet,

b)coefficient of performance, and
c)power input to the compressor. 20
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 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves irreversibilities
in various components - mainly due to fluid friction (causes pressure
drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings. As a result, the
COP decreases.
Differences
• Non-isentropic
compression;
• Superheated vapor
at evaporator exit;
• Sub-cooled liquid at
condenser exit;
• Pressure drops in
condenser and
evaporator.

25
Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
 Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects
In the condenser, the vapor can be further cooled at constant
pressure to a temperature that is lower than temperature in
condenser

T
2

3’
Cooling water
3
temperature

4 4’ 1

26
 Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects
• Undercooling (subcooling) increases the refrigerating effect
(h1 – h4) > (h1 – h4’) where h4 is enthalpy with undercooling (subcooling) and h4’ is
initial enthalpy
• Undercooling (subcooling) is limited by temperature of cooling water and
temperature difference of cycle

T
2

3’
3 Cooling water
temperature

4 4’ 1

s
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 Problem
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as

superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and -10°C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s, and it
leaves at 0.7 MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser
to 24°C and 0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding
any heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines between
the components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines, and determine:

a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,

b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
d) the COP of the refrigerator.
28
Answers: (a) 19.4 kW, 5.06 kW, (b) 82.5 percent, (c) 3.83
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 Example
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as
superheated vapor at 0.1 MPa and -20°C at a rate of 0.04
kg/s, and it leaves at 0.8 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of
the compressor is 78 percent. The refrigerant is cooled in
the condenser to 26°C and 0.75 MPa, and leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor at -26°C. Disregarding any
heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines
between the components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the rate
of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power
input to the compressor, (b) the COP of the refrigerator, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line
34
between the evaporator and the compressor.
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 Problem
A commercial refrigerator with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid
is used to keep the refrigerated space at 30°C by rejecting its waste
heat to cooling water that enters the condenser at 18°C at a rate of
0.25 kg/s and leaves at 26°C. The refrigerant enters the condenser at
1.2 MPa and 65°C and leaves at 42°C. The inlet state of the
compressor is 60 kPa and -34°C and the compressor is estimated to
gain a net heat of 450 W from the surroundings. Determine

(a)the quality of the refrigerant at the evaporator inlet,

(b)the refrigeration load,
(c)the COP of the refrigerator, and
(d)the theoretical maximum refrigeration load for the same power
input to the compressor.
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 Selecting the Right Refrigerant
 Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
ammonia, hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the air-
conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in applications above the freezing point).
 R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90 percent of the market.
 The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it is toxic).
 R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C systems in buildings.
 R-134a is used in domestic refrigerators and freezers, as well as automotive air conditioners.
 R-22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of commercial
buildings, and large industrial refrigeration systems, and offers strong competition to
ammonia.
 R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used in commercial
refrigeration systems such as those in supermarkets.
 CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by destroying the
protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the greenhouse effect that causes global
warming. Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have been developed.
 Two important parameters to be considered - the temperatures of the refrigerated space
and the environment with which the refrigerant exchanges heat.
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 Innovative Vapor-compression Refrigeration
Systems
 The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
 The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems are simple, inexpensive,
reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
 However, for large industrial applications, efficiency (not simplicity) is the major
concern.
 For some applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is
inadequate and needs to be modified.
 For moderately and very low temperature applications, some innovative
refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems
• Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor
• Liquefaction of gases
43
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
• Some industrial applications require moderately low
temperatures, and the temperature range they involve may
be too large for a single vapor compression refrigeration
cycle to be practical.
• A large temperature range also means a large pressure
range in the cycle and a poor performance for a
reciprocating compressor.
• One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more
refrigeration cycles that operate in series.
• Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration
44
cycles.
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle is shown. The two cycles are connected through the
heat exchanger in the middle, which serves as the evaporator for the topping cycle and the
condenser for the bottoming cycle.

A two-stage compression refrigeration

system with a
A two-stage flashrefrigeration
cascade chamber.system with the same refrigerant
45
in both stages.
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
• Assuming the heat exchanger is well insulated and the
kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the heat
transfer from the fluid in the bottoming cycle should be
equal to the heat transfer to the fluid in the topping cycle.
• Thus, the ratio of mass flow rates through each cycle should
be

• The coefficient of performance of the cascade system is

46
 Problem
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
11–42
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between
pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle
takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both
streams enter at about 0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant
through the upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
c) power input to the compressor, and
d) coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49 47
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 Problem
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
11–47
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between pressure limits
of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection
from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat
exchanger where the pressure in the upper and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa,
respectively. In both cycles, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the condenser exit
and a saturated vapor at the compressor inlet, and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is 80 percent. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower
cycle is 0.15 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
Answers: (a) 0.212 kg/s, (b) 25.7 kW, (c) 2.68

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 Problem
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
11–42
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between
pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. Heat rejection from the lower
cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat
exchanger where both streams enter at about 0.4 MPa. The upper
cycle using water and lower cycle using refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is
0.24 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
c) power input to the compressor, and
d) coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
56
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49
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Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
When the fluid used throughout the cascade
refrigeration system is the same, the heat exchanger
between the stages can be replaced by a mixing
chamber (called a flash chamber) since it has better
heat transfer characteristics.

A two-stage compression refrigeration system with a flash

59
chamber.
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
FLASH CHAMBER

• Flash chamber is used in a multi-staging refrigeration system

• It separates vapor and liquid refrigerant during the throttling
process
• The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from entering evaporator
• The vapor developed during throttling (flash vapor) is bled out of
the throttling device and fed back to the compressor

60
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
QH

• A multistage compression Condenser

5 4
refrigeration system is Win
Expansio
one example of a system n Valve
that uses a flash chamber 6 9
Flash Chamber 3

7 2
• It can be carried out with Expansio
Win

the use of one or more n Valve

compressors 8 1
Evaporator
4
QL
Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Compression
Refrigeration System
61
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
• The T-s diagram representing the cycle of a two-stage vapor-
compression cycle

T 4

5 2

7 9
6 3

8 1

s 62
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
Two-stage refrigeration cycle represented by the p-h diagram

• The P-h diagram is a

5 4
more convenient Condenser

representation of
the cycle because it
can easily be Flash Chamber 3 2
7 9
compared to the 6
plant layout
Evaporator
8 1

h 63
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
• 1kg refrigerant moves through condenser
• 1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve P
• 1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash chamber and
starts to evaporate and becomes mixture of 5 4
Condenser
gas (x)kg and liquid (1–x)kg
• (x) moves towards 2nd stage compressor at Pi
• (1–x)kg liquid make its way through the 2nd
throttle valve into the evaporator 3 2
7 6 9
• (1–x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage compressor
where it is compressed to Pi
• At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes with (x)kg
Evaporator
vapor adiabatically and becomes 1kg vapor 8 1
• 1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd stage
compressor
h
• 1kg vapor enters condenser to be condensed
and becomes 1kg liquid
64
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
• ANALYSIS
Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates
in the flash chamber can be given as
follows.
h 6 − h fi
x =
h fg i

• Refrigerating Effect, QL= (1 – x)(h1 – h8)

• Total work input, ∑Win = W12 + W94

= (1 – x)(h2 – h1) +
(h4 – h9)

• Heat rejected in condenser

QH = (h4 – h5)
65
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
• Coefficient of Performance

QL
COP R =
 W in
=
(1 − x )(h1 − h8 )
(1 − x )(h 2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h9 )

66
 Problem
Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Systems
11–44
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates with
refrigerant-134a between the pressure limits of 1 and 0.14 MPa. The
refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled
to a flash chamber operating at 0.5 MPa. The refrigerant leaving the
low-pressure compressor at 0.5 MPa is also routed to the flash
chamber. The vapor in the flash chamber is then compressed to the
condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor, and the liquid is
throttled to the evaporator pressure. Assuming the refrigerant leaves
the evaporator as saturated vapor at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and that both
compressors are isentropic, determine the:
a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates in the flash chamber,
b) rate of heat removed from the refrigerated space, and
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c) coefficient of performance.
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 Problem
Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration System
11–48
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between pressure limits of 1.2
MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Saturated liquid
refrigerant leaving the condenser is throttled to a flash chamber operating at 0.4
MPa. The vapor from the flash chamber is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the
low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to the condenser
pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber is
throttled to the evaporator pressure. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.15
kg/s. Assuming saturated vapor refrigerant leaves the evaporator and the isentropic
efficiency is 80 percent for both compressors, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure compressor,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
d) rate of heat removal and the COP if this refrigerator operated on a single-
stage cycle between the same pressure limits with the same compressor
efficiency and flow rate as in part (a). 72
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 Absorption Refrigeration Systems

When there is a source of

inexpensive thermal
energy at a temperature of
100 to 200°C is absorption
refrigeration.
Some examples include
geothermal energy, solar
energy, and waste heat
from cogeneration or
process steam plants, and
even natural gas when it is
at a relatively low price.

75
Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle.
 Absorption refrigeration systems (ARS) involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a
transport medium. The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system,
where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport
medium.
 Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride
systems, where water serves as the refrigerant. These systems are limited to
applications such as A-C where the minimum temperature is above the freezing
point of water.
 Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major advantage: A
liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result the work input is very small
(on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to the generator) and often
neglected in the cycle analysis.
 ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient thus
requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more
difficult to service since they are less common.
 Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy is
low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
 ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations. 76
 The COP of actual absorption
refrigeration systems is usually
less than unity.
Air-conditioning systems based
on absorption refrigeration,
called the absorption chillers,
perform best when the heat
source can supply heat at a high
temperature with little
temperature drop.

The maximum COP of an absorption

refrigeration system. 77