GENERAL MATHEMATICS

For Engineering Students

GEM 101

School of Engineering
THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ILARO
Week1
Numbers

SpecificlearningOutcomes
1.1 DefineSignificantFigures
1.2 DefineDecimalNumbers
1.3 Solvesimpleproblemswithsignificantfiguresanddecimalplaces
1.4 Solvesimpleproblemsonfractionsandpercentages
1.5 Definenumbersystemandsolvesimpleproblemsinbase2,8,10and
16.

1.0SignificantFiguresandDecimalNumbers
1
1.1SignificantFigures

Significantfiguresarethenumberofdigitsinavalue,oftenameasurement,thatcontributetothede
greeofaccuracyofthevalue.Westartcountingsignificantfiguresatthefirstnon-
zerodigit.Inotherwords,thenumberofsignificantfiguresinaresultissimplythenumberoffigurest
hatareknownwithsomedegreeofreliability.
Thenumber13.2issaidtohave3significantfigures.Thenumber13.20issaidtohave4significantfigu
res.

1.2DecimalNumber

Inalgebra,adecimalnumbercanbedefinedasanumberwhosewholenumberpartandthefraction
alpartisseparatedbyadecimalpoint.Thus,aswemovefromlefttoright,theplacevalueofdigitsgets
dividedby10,meaningthedecimalplacevaluedeterminesthetenths,hundredthsandthousandth
s.Thenumbers13.01,0.25,4.02aretotwodecimalplaces.

1.3.0 Rulesfordecidingthenumberofsignificantfiguresinameasuredquantity:

1. Allnonzerodigitsaresignificant:
1.234mm has4significantfigures,
1.2mm has2significantfigures.
2. Zeroesbetweennonzerodigitsaresignificant:
1002mm has4significantfigures,
3.02mm has3significantfigures.
3. Zeroestotheleftofthefirstnonzerodigitsarenotsignificant;suchzeroesmerelyindicateth
epositionofthedecimalpoint:
0.004mm hasonly1significantfigure,
0.012mm has2significantfigures.
4. Zeroestotherightofadecimalpointinanumberaresignificant:
0.023mm has2significantfigures(zerohereisnotsignificant).
0.200mm has3significantfigures.

2
 5. Whenanumberendsinzeroesthatarenottotherightofadecimalpoint,thezeroesarenotn
ecessarilysignificant:
190mm 3significantfigures,
50,600mm 5significantfigures

1.3.1Whatisan“exactnumber”?
Somenumbersareexactbecausetheyareknownwithcompletecertainty.
Mostexactnumbersareintegers:exactly12inchesareinafoot,theremightbeexactly23studentsin
aclass.Exactnumbersareoftenfoundasconversionfactorsorascountsofobjects.
Exactnumberscanbeconsideredtohaveaninfinitenumberofsignificantfigures.Thus,numberofa
pparentsignificantfiguresinanyexactnumbercanbeignoredasalimitingfactorindeterminingthe
numberofsignificantfiguresintheresultofacalculation.

1.3.2Rulesformathematicaloperations
Incarryingoutcalculations,thegeneralruleisthattheaccuracyofacalculatedresultislimitedbythel
eastaccuratemeasurementinvolvedinthecalculation.
1. Inadditionandsubtraction,theresultisroundedofftothelastcommondigitoccurringfurth
esttotherightinallcomponents.Forexample,100(assume3significantfigures)+23.643(5s
ignificantfigures)=123.643,whichshouldberoundedto124(3significantfigures).
2. Inmultiplicationanddivision,theresultshouldberoundedoffsoastohavethesamenumbe
rofsignificantfiguresasinthecomponentwiththeleastnumberofsignificantfigures.Forex
ample,3.0(2significantfigures)*12.60(4significantfigures)=37.8000whichshouldberou
ndedoffto38(2significantfigures).
1.3.3 Rulesforroundingoffnumbers
1. Ifthedigittobedroppedisgreaterthan5,thelastretaineddigitisincreasedbyone.Forexam
ple,
12.6isroundedto13.
2. Ifthedigittobedroppedislessthan5,thelastremainingdigitisleftasitis.Forexample,
12.4isroundedto12.
3. Ifthedigittobedroppedis5,andifanydigitfollowingitisnotzero,thelastremainingdigitisinc
reasedbyone.Forexample,

3
 12.51isroundedto13.
Ifthedigittobedroppedis5andisfollowedonlybyzeroes,thelastremainingdigitisincreasedbyonei
fitisodd,butleftasitisifeven.Forexample,
11.5isroundedto12,
12.5isroundedto12.
Thisrulemeansthatifthedigittobedroppedis5followedonlybyzeroes,theresultisalways
roundedtotheevendigit.Therationaleistoavoidbiasinrounding:halfofthetimeweroundup,halft
hetimewerounddown.
1.4 WorkedExamples
Examples1.1:
Roundup12.345to
i. 1–6significantfigures
ii. 0–6decimalplaces
Solution:
Precision Roundedtosignificantfigures Roundedtodecimalplaces
6 12.3450 12.345000
5 12.345 12.34500
4 12.35 12.3450
3 12.3 12.345
2 12 12.35
1 10 12.3
0 - 12

Example1.2:
Roundup0.012345to
i. 1–7significantfigures
ii. 0–7decimalplaces

Precision Roundedtosignificantfigures Roundedtodecimalplaces

7 0.01234500 0.0123450
6 0.0123450 0.012345

4
 5 0.012345 0.01235
4 0.01235 0.0123
3 0.0123 0.012
2 0.012 0.01
1 0.01 0.0
0 - 0

ConvertingFractions,Decimals,andPercentages
1.4.1 ChangingFractionstoDecimals:
Dividethenumeratorbythedenominator.
5 3 5
= 0.71 = 0.38 4
7 8 7
= 4.71

1.4.2 ChangingFractionstoPercentages:
Movethedecimaltwicetotheright,thatis,multiplyby100%
3 3 5
* 100 = 43% * 100 = 60% 2 * 100
7 5 7
= 271%

1.43 ChangingDecimalstoFractions:
Underlinethelastdigitandidentifyitsplacevalue.Thatplacevaluebecomesthedenominator.
Removethedecimalfromthenumber.Thatbecomesyournumerator.
Simplifyifpossible.

31 2 71 3
0.62= 0.4= 0.142= 3.60=3
50 5 500 5

1.44 ChangingDecimalstoPercentages:
Movethedecimaltwicetotheright,thatis,multiplyby100%
0.16*100=16% 0.04*100=4% 1.42*100=142% 0.007*100=0.7%

1.45 ChangingPercentagestoDecimals:

5
Movethedecimaltwicetotheleft,thatis,divideby100
27 157 9 8
27%= =0.27 157%= =1.57 0.09%= =0.0009 8%= =0.08
100 100 100 100

1.46 ChangingPercentagestoFractions:
First,changethepercenttoafraction.(Movedecimaltwicetotheleft)
Second,underlinelastdigit(thatplacevaluewillbeyourdenominator),removethedecimalandtha
twillbeyournumerator.
Simplifyifpossible.

5 1 48 12 .3 3 115 23
5%= = 48%= = 0.3%= = 1.15%= =
100 20 100 25 100 1000 100 2000

Exercise1:
Roundup0.012235to
iii. 1–6significantfigures
iv. 0–6decimalplaces

Precision Roundedtosignificantfigures Roundedtodecimalplaces

6
5
4
3
2
1
0 -

6
Exercise2:Completethetablebelow

Fraction Decimal Percent

1
2
9%
0.625
28%
2
9
0.3

1
2
5

108%

1.5 Introductiontonumberbases

Numbersinclude:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,11.1,11.2,4.0001,3.142,1.414,…,nth.Thesesetsofn
umbersareinbaseten,andofcourse,basetennumbersarefrequentlyusedinouranalogworld.Asw
ehaveplacementofnumbersinbaseten,theyalsoexistinotherbases,likebasetwo,basethree,bas
efour,basefive,basesix,baseseven,baseeight,basenine,…,basesixteenandsoon.Outofallthese,
basetwoandbasesixteennumbersarethemostlyusedbasesfortheexistenceofinteractionbetwe
enanaloganddigitalsystemsincethegeometricaladvancementintheworldoftechnologydepend
mostlyondigitalinnovations.Forthisreason,thereisneedtoacquaintourengineeringstudentswit
htheworldofdigitalsystemfromtheconceptofnumbersystems.Thischapterwillthereforecoverb
aseten,basetwoandbasesixteen.Also,conversionfromonebasesystemtoanotherwouldbethor
oughlytakencareof.

7
 1.51 BaseTenSystem–Denary

Basetenisthebasicsystemofnumbering,andexamplesare:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.Letuslookthrough
thenumber“4235.324”intermsofnumberplacement:

Theplacevaluesarepoweroften,whichmakeittobecalleddenaryordecimalsystem.

Addition: 10 + 22 + 20 = 52

Subtraction: 50 - 45 = 5

Multiplication: 5 × 200 = 1000

Division: 500 ÷ 50 = 10

Thefewexamplesaboveareperformedinbaseten.

1.52 BaseTwoNumberSystem–Binary

numberscanalsobemanipulatedinanotherbase.Andwhenthisisdoneinbasetwo,itiscalledbinar
ynumber.Examplesoftheseinclude:1010,1100,1001,1111,10.01,11.10,andsoon.

Now,followthesimplelogicofplacevaluesandcommonbasesystemtoanalyzethebinarynumber:

111011.11011

1.53 BaseSixteenNumberSystem–Hexadecimal

numbersthatareexpressedinbasesixteenarecalledhexadecimalnumbers.Examplesare:0,1,2,3,
4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F,andsoon.

1.54 baseeightnumbersystem–Octal

8
Numbersinbaseeightarecalledoctaldecimalnumbers.Thesenumbersinclude:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,and
7.Examplesofnumbersinbaseeightare:423.7,777.4,207.702,andsoon.

1.55 Conversionfromotherbasestobaseten

toconvertfromanyotherbasetobasetenisastraightforwardmethod.Andthemethodissimilarfor
allbases.Seesomeexamplesbelow:

Example1.3

Convertthefollowingtobaseten:(i)4428(ii)1110.1112(iii)2D3.A16(iv)100102

Solutions:

(i) 4428 =(4x82)+(4x81)+(2x80)

=(4x64)+(4x8)+(2x1)

=256+32+2=29010

(ii) 1110.1112 =(1x23)+(1x22)+(1x21)+(0x20)+(1x2-1)+(1x2-2)+(1x2-3)

1 1 1
=(1x8)+(1x4)+(1x2)+(0x1)+(1x )+(1x )+(1x )
2 4 8

1 1 1
=8+4+2+0+ + +
2 4 8

7
=14.875=14
8

(iii) 2D3.A16 =(2x162)+(Dx161)+(3x160)+(Ax16-1)

1
=(2x256)+(Dx16)+(3x1)+(Ax )
16

10
=512+(13x16)+3+
16

10
=512+208+3+
16

5
=723.625(or723 )
8

(iv) 100102=1*2 +0*2 +0*2 +1*2 +0*2

4 3 2 1 0

9
 =1*16+0*8+0*4+1*2+0*1
=16+2=181

1.5.6 Conversionfrombase-TenNumbertoOtherbases

Numberscanbeconvertedfrombasetentoanyotherbases.Someofthefollowingexampleswilldojusticetot
heconversion:

Example1.4:Convertthefollowingnumbersinbasetentoindicatedbases:

(i)55x2(ii)55.55y8(iii)12.57z16

Solutions

(i) 55x2

2 55
2 27 1
2 13 1
2 6 1
2 3 0

2 1 1
0 1
Arrangeremaindersfrombottomtothetopas1101112intherequiredconvertednumberinbasetwo.

(ii) 55.55y8

55.55=55+0.55

55istheintegerpart,0.55decimalpart

8 55 0.55
X 8
8 6 7
0.40 4
0 6
X 8
0.20 3
X 8
0.60 1
Note: For integer, the result regenerated from the X 8
conversion is taken from bottom to the top. But for 0. 8 4
decimal number, the result is from top to the bottom. X 8
0. 4 6
The required result is 55.55 = y8 = 67.431468
X 8

(iii) 12.57z16

1 12
6 10
0r C

0.57
Similarly,12.57z16=C.91EB816

1.5.7 TerminologiesinDigitalSystem

Accordingtotheworldofdigital,theinventionofbinarynumberssystemshavebroughtupalotoftopicofinte
restinthefieldofEngineeringanditspractice.Therefore,itisworthytoexpresssomeassociatedterminologi
esemanatedfrommathematics:

1. Bit:Itmeansabinarydigit.E.g.“1”or“0”.
2. Byte:Itmeanseightbinarydigits.E.g.“11011101”
3. Nibble:Itmeansfourbinarydigits.E.g.“1111”or“1101”

1.5.8 DirectConversionfromBaseTwotobaseSixteen

Theideaofnibblesystemhasmadeiteasytoconvertfrombasetwodirectlytobasesixteen.Examplesbeloww
illrevealthesecret:

Example1.5:Convertfrombinarytohexadecimal.(i)111112(ii)110102(iii)10101010112

Solution:

(i) 111112 =0001 1111 =1F(Hex)

(ii) 110102 =0001 1010 =1A(Hex)
(iii) 10101010112 =0010 1010 1011 =2AB(Hex)

1.5.9 Addition,Subtraction,MultiplicationandDivisionofNumberSystems

Numbersinotherbasescanalsobemanipulatedforaddition,subtraction,multiplicationanddivision.Theon
lydifferenceisthat,suchnumberneedstobeaddressedintheirequivalentbasesystem.Seetheexamplesbel
ow:

Examples1.6:Simplifythefollowing:

(i)11112+10102-10012 (ii)5558x148 (iii)1111100021111102

Solutions

(i) 11112+10102-10012useBODMAS,additionproceedsubtraction.

11
 1 1 1 1

+ 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 1

- 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0

11112+10102-10012=100002

(ii) 5558x148

5 5 5

x 1 4

2 6 6 4

5 5 5

1 0 4 3 4

5558x148

(iii) 1111100021111102

1 0 0
111110 ∣ 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0
=1002
Alternatively,convertallthenumberstobaseten,carryoutyouroperationandconvertthefinalanswertoba
setwo.

Example1.7:If23x=11112,determinethevalueofx

Solution
23x=11112
2*x1+3*x0=1*23+1*22+1*21+1*20(convertbothsidestobase10)
2x+3=8+4+2+1
2x=15-3
12
2x=12 =>x= =6
2

12
Week2
ChangeofSubject

2.0 CHANGEOFSUBJECT

13
Objectives:

1. Explainchangeofsubject
2. Findsubjectof:
a) Simplelinearequations
b) Complexequations

2.1 WhatisChangeofSubject
Often,itisnecessarytochangethesubjectofrelation/formula,andthisinvolvesrearran
gingtheorderofthelettersasregardtheformulaandsolvefortheletterthatistobemad
ethesubject.Changeofsubjectofformulaimpliesthatadifferentvariableorsubjectsta
ndalone(i.e,onitsown)inonesideandtheremainingontheothersideoftheequation.

2.1 Changeofsubjectofsimplelinearequation
Example2.1
Makexthesubjectofformulaforthefollowingequation
i. y=x-3
ii. 5x+1=2x+3
x x
iii. + =b
a 2a
x x
iv. =1-
b a
1 1 2
v. + =
x+a x-a x+b
vi. y=mx+c

Solutions

(i) y=x-3
y+3=x=>x=y+3

(ii) 5x+1=2x+3

14
 5x-2x=3-1 (collectliketermstogether)
3x=2=>x=2/3

x x
(iii) + =b
a 2a
2x + x
=b
2a
2ab
3x=2ab=>x=
3

x x
(iv) =1-
b a
x x
+ =1
b a
ax + bx
=1
ab
ax+bx=ab
ab
x(a+b)=ab=>x=
a+b

1 1 2
(v) + =
x + a x- a x + b

x- a + x + a 2
=
(x + a)(x - a) x+b

2x 2
=
x2 - a2 x + b

2x(x+b)=2(x2-a2)

2x2+2xb=2x2-2a2

a2
2xb=-2a2=>x=-
b

(vi) y=mx+c
y- c
y-c=mx=>x=
m

Note:Thereisnospecificgeneralruleforsolvingchangeofsubjectofformula.

2.2 Changeofsubjectofcomplexequations.
Example2.2
Makeuandxthesubjectofformula:
v2=u2+2ax

15
 Solution
(i) v2=u2+2ax
u2=v2-2ax
u= ± v2 - 2ax

(ii) v2=u2+2ax
2ax=v2-u2
v2 - u2
x=
2a

Example2.3

Makesthesubjectoftheformula

1 s3
V=
3 8π

Solution

1 s3
V=
3 8π

s3
3v= (squaringbothsides)
8π

s3
9v2=
8π

s3=72πv2

s=3 72πv2=23 9πv2

Example2.4

Makekthesubjectoftheformula

k2 - 2h2
A=
2k2 - h2

Solution

k2 - 2h2
A= (squaringbothsides)
2k2 - h2

16
 k2 - 2h2
A2=
2k2 - h2

A2(2k2-h2)=k2-2h2

2A2k2-k2=A2h2-2h2

K2(2A2-1)=h2(A2-2)
2
(A2 - 2)
K2=h
2A2 - 1

2 2
h (A - 2) A2 - 2
K= ± =±h
2A2 - 1 2A2 - 1

Example2.5

Acableoflengthlmetreslongisstretchedbetweentwolevelpointsandspacedxmetresapart,thesa
3x(l - x)
ginthemiddleofthecableiss(m),wheres=
8

(a) Makethelengthlassubjectoftheformula.
(b) Determinethelengthofthecableifthetwopointsarespaced15mapartandthesagis0.65m

Solution

3x(l - x)
(a) s=
8

Squaringbothsidesgives

3x(l - x)
s2=
8

8s2=3xl-3x2

3xl=8s2+3x2

8s2 + 3x2 8s2

l= = +x
3x 3x

8(0.652) + 3(152) 3.38 + 675

(b) l= =
3(15) 45
678.38
l= =15.075m ≈ 15.08m
45

PROBLEMDRILLTWO

17
 1. Makeythesubjectofrelation
y- a y a
- =
y- b y- b y

2. Usemasthesubjectofformula
n2 - m
V2= -y
x
pt2
3. MakePthesubjectoftheformulaT=P+
gx
4. Expresshintermsofotherparameters
A=πr h2 + r2+πr2
5. TheTonnageTofashipwithxmetreslongandwmetreswideis
4w2 3w
(x- ).
21 5
(a) Makexthesubjectoftheformula.
(b) Determinethelengthofa4500-tonneshipwith20mwide.
6. Thetotalresistance,R(Ω)oftworesistancesAandBohmsconnectedinparallelisgivenbythe
1 1 1
formula = + .
R A B
(a) ObtainaformulaforAintermsofRandB
1 1
(b) DetermineAifR=1 andB=3
4 5

Week3
Indices
SpecificLearningOutcomes

18
1.6 Defineindex
1.7 Establishthelawsofindices
1.8 Solvesimpleproblemsusingthelawsofindices

3.0INDICES
3.1Introduction
Anindexnumberisanumberwhichisraisedtoapower.Thepowerwhichisalsoknownastheindex,t
ellsyouhowmanytimesyouhavetomultiplythenumberbyitself.
Example:25meansyouhavetomultiply2byitselffivetimes,thatis

19
 25=2x2x2x2x2
25=32
3.2LawsofIndices
Thereisneedtoknowthesebasicrulesofindicesandbeabletoapplythem
(i) amxan=am+n
(ii) am ÷ an=am-n
(iii) (am)n=amn
(iv) a1/n=n a
(v) am/2=(am)1/2=2 am
1
(vi) a-n=
an

(vii) a0=1
Someimportantspecialcasesare:
(ab)n=anbn
n
a a
( )n=
b bn

a1=a
a0=1
a1/2=2 a
1
a-1= provideda ≠ 0
a

rememberthatingeneral
(a+b)n ≠ an+bnand
(a-b)n ≠ an-bn

Now,let’sseehowwecanapplytheserulestosomeproblems
A. yaxyb=ya+b C. a-n=
1
an
i. 24x28=24+8=212 1
i. 2-3= 3=1/8
ii. 54x5-2=54+(-2)=52 2
1
B. ya ÷ yb=ya-b ii. 3-1= 1=1/3
3
i. 39 ÷ 34=39-4=35 D. ym/n=n ym
ii. 72 ÷ 75=72-5=7-3 i. 161/2=(√16)=4

20
ii. 82/3=(3 8)2=4 =25+212=32+4096=4128
E. (am)n=amn F. y0=1
i. 25+84 i. 50=1
=25+(23)4

21
FurtherExamples:
Example3.1
Simplifythefollowing:
9
(i) ( )-3/2
16
1 5
-
(ii) 3x2 * 2x 2
Solutions
9 16 42*3/2 43 4 * 4 * 4 64
(i) ( )-3/2=( )3/2= 2*3/2
= 3= =±
16 9 3 3 3*3*3 27

1 5
-
(ii) 3x2 * 2x 2
6
3*2*x1/2-5/2=6x-2=
x2

Example3.2
Solvethefollowingequations
1
(i) *3-x=812x
27
1
(ii) y=9 9y2

Solutions
1
(i) *3-x=812x
27

3-3*3 =34*2x
-x

3-3-x=38x
-3-x=8x (Ifbasesareequal,indicesarealsoequal)
3 1
9x=-3 =>x=- =-
9 3

1
(ii) y=9 9y2

Squaringbothsides
y2=81*9y1/2
y2
1 =3 4 *3 2
y2
1
2-
y 2 =34+2

22
 y3/2=3
6

∴ y=36*2/3=34=81.

PROBLEMDRILL3.
1. Simplify
a) √a6b6
b) (x3y6 )0
c) (a14b2)x(a14b3)
2. Simplify
a) (x-2y2) ÷ (x-3y4)
√p4q-2
b)
p2q-4
c) ∛a3b9
d) √(x6y2)4
3. Solvethefollowingequatns:
(a) 3x-3=-81
(b) 5y =40x-1/2

23
Week4
Logarithms

SpecificLearningOutcomes
4.1 DefineLogarithm
4.2 Establishthefourbasiclawsoflogarithm
4.3 Solvesimplelogarithmproblem
4.4 DefineSurds
4.5 Reduceasurdintoitssimplestform
4.6 Solvesimpleproblemsonsurds

4.0Logarithms

4.1 Definition

TheLogarithmofapositivenumberytoagivenbase‘a’isdefinedasthepowertowhichthebaseamus
tberaisedtomakeitequaltothenumbery.Therefore,ifthelogarithmofytobaseaisx,writtenas

logay=x ----(1)

Thenax=y ----(2)

Hence,equations(1)and(2)areequivalentstatementsexpressingtherelationbetweena,xandy.T
akelogtobaseaofbothsidesofequation(2)

logaax=logay

Therefore,xlogaa=x=logay

Notethatthelogarithmofanumbertothebaseofthesamenumberis1.Thatis

logaa=1.

4.2 BasicLawsofLogarithm

Thethreefundamentallawsofindicescanbewrittenintheirlogarithmicformtermedlawsoflogarit
hm.

1. ax. ay=ax+yloga(PQ)=logaP+logaQ
2. ax ÷ ay=ax-yloga(P/Q)=logaP-logaQ
3. (ax)m=amxlogaPm=mlogaP

24
 ToproofthelawsofLogarithm

(a) Toshowthatloga(PQ)=logaP+logaQ

LetlogaP=x ---------(3a)

Thenax=P---------(3b)

andlogaQ=y ---------(4a)

Thenay=Q---------(4b)

Therefore,loga(PQ)=logaax+y=x+y=logaP+logaQ

Thisshowsthatthelogarithmoftheproductoftwopositivenumbersisequaltothesumofthelogarit
hmsoftheseparatenumbers.

(b) Toshowthatloga(P/Q)=logaP-logaQ
Fromequations(3b)and(4b)
x
a
P/Q= y=ax-y
a
Therefore,loga(P/Q)=logaax-y=x-y=logaP-logaQ
Thisshowsthatthelogarithmofaquotientisthedifferencebetweenthelogarithmofthenu
meratorandthelogarithmofthedenominator.

(c) ToshowthatlogaPm=mlogaP
ax=P ---------(3b)
x=logaP
P=aloga P
Therefore,Pm=(aloga P)m ----------(5)
Takelogaofbothsidesofequation5
logaPm=loga(aloga P)m=mlogaP----------(6)

1
(d) Ifm= ,theresultineqn(6)becomes
n
1
1
logaPn= logap.
n

25
4.3 WorkedExamples a=5

Example4.1 Hence,log324=5.

Writeinindexformanddeterminethevaluef
x:
(b) Letlog80.0625=x
(a) x=log525 8x=0.0625
(b) y=log100.0001 23x=2-4
3x=-4
Solutions 4
Therefore,x=-
3
(a) x=log525

Writewithoutlogarithm
1
(c) Letlog9 =b
5x=25 27
1
9b=
27
5x=52
32b=3-3
(Ifbasesareequal,indicesarealsoequal) 2b=-3andb=-3/2

Thereforex=2.

(b) y=log10 Example4.3

0.0001(writewithoutlogarithm)
Expressxasalogarithmtobasea
10y=0.0001
10y=10- (a) a3x=y
4(Ifbaseareequal,indicesarealsoequ
(b) a-2x=y
al.) 1
(c) ax =m
y=-4
Solutions

(a) a3x=y
Example4.2
Takelogaofbothsides
Evaluatethefollowinglogarithms
logaa3x=logay
(a) log3243
Therefore,3x=logay
(b) log80.0625
x=1/3logay.
1
(c) log9
27
Solutions (b) a-2x=y
(a) Letlog3243=a
logaa-2=logay
∴ 3a=243=35 -2x=loga

26
 1
x=- logay (a) 22x-6(2x)+8=0
2
(b) 32x+1-10(3x)+3=0
(c) 2x=3
1
(c) ax =m Solutions

logaa1/x=logam (a) 22x-6(2x)+8=0---------(i)

Let2x=y---------(ii)
1/x=logam Putequation(ii)intoequation(i)
y2-6y+8=0
x=1/(logam)
(y-2)(y-4)=0
Therefore,y=2,4
Ify=2
Example4.4
Then2x=2 x=1
Simplifythefollowing Ify=4
Then2x=4=22 x=2
log16 - log8 Answer:x=1,2.
(a)
log8 - log4
(b) log324+log315-log310
(c) logm(5/7)+2 logm(7/6)- logm
(b) 32x+1-10(3x)+3=0
(5/6).
(3x)2.31-10(3x)+3=0-------------(i)

Let 3x=k-----------(ii)
Solutions

log16 - log8 log⁡(16/8) log2 Putequation(ii)intoequation(i)

(a) = = =1.
log8 - log4 log⁡(8/4) log2
3k2–10k+3=0
(b) log324+log315-log310 (3k-1)(k-3)=0

24x15 3k-1=0 k=1/3

log3{ }=log336=log362=2log3
10
6 k-3=0 k=3

(c) logm(5/7)+2 logm(7/6)- logm ifk=1/3

(5/6).
3x=3-1 x=-1

Ifk=3
=logm(5/7)+logm(7/6)2-logm(5/6)

5 49 6 7
Then3x=31 x=1
=logm{ x x }=logm{ }
7 36 5 6

Example4.5
(c) 2x=3
Solvetheequations

27
 Takelog10ofbothsides xlog102=log103

log102x=log103 log103 0.4771

x= = =1.585
log102 0.3010

4.4.0 SURDS

4.4.1Definition

Surdsareirrationalnumberswhicharenotexactnumbers,butareonlyapproximations.Surdsaren
umbersexpressedinsquareorcubicrootform.Somenumbersareexpressedinsurdformbecausei
ndecimalform,theywouldgoonindefinitelyanditisaclumsywayofrepresentingthem.

4.5Reduceasurdintoitssimplestform

Example4.6

Simplify

(a) 75
(b) 150
(c) 15x 12
(d) 60- 20+ 32

Solutions

(a) 75= 3.5.5= 3x 5x 5=5 3

(b) 150= 2x3x5x5= 2x 3 x 5x 5=5 6

(c) 15x 12= 3x 5x 2x 2x 3=2x3 5=6 5

(d) 60- 20+ 32

= 2x 2x 3x 5- 2x 2x 5+ 2x 2x 2x 2 x 2
=2 15-2 5+4 2

28
4.6MultiplicationofSurds

mn= mx n

Example4.7

Simplify:

(a) 8x 18x 60

= 2x 2x 2x 2x 3x 3x 2x 2x 3x 5

=2x2x2x3 15=24 15

(b) 6x 8x 10x 12
= 2x 3x 2x 2x 2x 2x 5x 2x 2x 3
=2x2x2x3 10=24 10

4.7RationalisationofDenominator

Whenthereisasurdinthedenominatorofafraction,itisadvisabletorationalisethedenominatorby
multiplyingboththenumeratoranddenominatorofthefunctionbythesurd.

Example4.8

Simplifythefollowingbyrationalisingthedenominator:

5
(a)
3
2 3
(b)
15
18x 20x 24
(c)
8x 30
2
(d)
18 + 2

Solutions

5 5 3 3
(a) 3
= 3 * =5
3 3
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 5 5
(b) = = = 5= =2
15 15 3 x5 5x 5 5

29
 18x 20x 24 2x 3x 3x 2x 2x 5x 2x 2x 2x 3
(c) = =2x3=6
8x 30 2x 2x 2x 2x 3x 5

2 2 2 2 2 2
(d) 18 +
=
2 3 2+
=
2 4 2 4 2
= x =
2 4

PROBLEMDRILLFOUR

1. Evaluatethefollowinglogarithms:
i. log816
ii. log80.25
iii. log100.001
1
iv. log7
49
v. log1294
vi. log38
2. Writeinindexformandfindthevalueofx:
1
i. x=log3
27
ii. x=log1000.001
3. Findthevaluesof:
i. log216
ii. log464
iii. log160.25
4. Findthevaluesof:
35
i. Log( )+4log2–log7
8
ii. Log16/log8
iv. log550-log530+log515
v. 2log3(4/5)+log3(3/8)-log3(2/5)
5. Solvetheequations
i. log3(x +3x+11)=2
2

ii. 52x-6(5 )+5=0

x

iii. 32x+3-3x+2-3x+1+1=0
6. Simplifythefollowingbymakingthesurdassmallaspossible:
i. 72
ii. 144
iii. 84
iv. 51* 12
7. Simplifybyrationalisingthedenominators:
2
i.
8

30
 20
ii.
6
25
iii.
75
2 3
iv.
30
10
v.
24 - 6
2 4
vi. 3 2- 2+ 8
vii. 28+ 63

31
32
Week5
EquationI

33
5.0 Equations
5.1 WhatisanEquation?
Anequationisastatementthatshowsthatthevaluesoftwomathematicalexpressionsareequal(in
dicatedbythesign=).Inmathematics,anequationisastatementthatassertstheequalityoftwoexp
ressions.

Amathematicalstatementusedtoevaluateavalue.Anequationcanuseanycombinationofmathe
maticaloperations,includingaddition,subtraction,division,ormultiplication.Anequationcanbea
lreadyestablishedduetothepropertiesofnumbers(2+2=4),orcanbefilledsolelywithvariableswhi
chcanbereplacedwithnumericalvaluestogetaresultingvalue.Forexample,theequationtocalcul
atereturnonsalesis:Netincome÷Salesrevenue=ReturnonSales.Whenthevaluesfornetincomea
ndsalesrevenuearepluggedintotheequation,youareabletocalculatethevalueofreturnonsales.

Inalgebra,anequationcanbedefinedasamathematicalstatementconsistingofanequalsymbolbe
tweentwoalgebraicexpressionsthathavethesamevalue.Themostbasicandcommonalgebraice
quationsinmathconsistofoneormorevariables.

Forinstance,3x+5=14isanequation,inwhich3x+5and14aretwoexpressionsseparatedbyan‘equ
al’sign.

Inanalgebraicequation,theleft-handsideisequaltotheright-handside.
Here,forexample,5x+9istheexpressionontheleft-
handside,whichisequaltotheexpression24ontheright-handside.

34
Theprocessoffindingthevalueofthevariableiscalledsolvingtheequation.Wheneverwehaveane
quationlikethiswithavariable,wecallitanalgebraicequation.

5.2Typesofequations:
5.21CommonAlgebraicEquations
Inalgebra,therearesomeequationtypesthatyouwillcomeacrossmoreoftenthanothers.Youwillf
indthatifyoucanidentifythetypeofequationthatyouareworkingwith,thenitbecomeseasiertow
orkwiththeproblemsinceyouwillknowthepropertiesoftheequation.Inthislessonwewillcoversix
commonalgebraicequations.
Linear
Thefirstoneiscalledthelinearequation.Thegeneralformoftheseequationsisy=mx+b,whereman
dbarenumbersandmcannotbezero.Thewaytoidentifythesetypesofequationsistolookforanxwi
thnoexponents.Thexshouldbetheonlyvariableyouseeotherthanthey.Youshouldnothaveanyot
herexponentsorsquareroots.Thexisalsoalwaysinthenumerator,neverinthedenominator.
Theseequationsarecalled'linear'becausewhenyougraphthem,youendupwithasingleline.So,to
helpyourememberthatyoushouldonlyseeonex,thinkoflinearashavingoneline,andlinktheoneli
netotheonexinyourhead.Forexample,y=4x+3isalinearequation.Notethatyouseethexandnoot
herx's.Wecanstartbuildingatabletokeepalloftheseequationsandtheirnamesorganized.
Linearequationgeneralform:y=mx+b;example:y=4x+3

5.22QuadraticEquation
Thesecondcommontypeofequationisthequadraticequation.Thistypeofequationhasageneralf
ormofax^2+bx+c=0,wherea,bandcarenumbersandaisneverzero.Theothertwoletters,bandc,c
anbezero.
Thekeythingtolookforhereisthex^2.Theexponentof2isthehighestandyoushouldnotseeanyhig
herexponentsintheequation.Ifthebisnotazero,thenyouwillalsoseeanxwithnoexponent.Yoush
ouldnotseemorex'sthanthesetwo.Anexampleofaquadraticequationis4x^2+3x+1=0.Doyousee
howthehighestexponentistwo?Wecanaddthistoourtable.

5.23CubicEquation

35
Thenexttypeisthecubicequation,whichhasthegeneralformofax^3+bx^2+cx+d=0,wherea,b,ca
nddarenumbersbutacannotbezero.Thewaytoidentifythesetypesofequationsistolookforthex^
3.The3shouldbeyourhighestexponent.
Ifbandcarenotzero,thenyouwillalsohaveanx^2andanxterm,butyourtermswillneverhaveanexp
onenthigherthan3.Forexample,x^3=0isanexampleofacubicequation.Noticethat3isthehighest
exponenthereandourb,canddarezero,butouraisa

5.24PolynomialEquation
Whileyourlinear,quadraticandcubicequationslimitedyourhighestexponentto1,2and3respecti
vely,thepolynomialequationtakesawaythatlimit.Apolynomialisoftheform:

x y=2x+1
-1 y=2×(-1)+1=-1
0 y=2×0+1=1
1 y=2×1+1=3
2 y=2×2+1=5

Linearequationisanequationinwhichthehighestpowerofunknowns(variables)isone.Thatisthev
ariables(like"x"or"y")inlinearequationsdonothaveexponents(likethe2inx2).Example:y=2x+1is
alinearequation:

5.3Linearsimultaneousequationswithtwounknowns
Equationsthatmustbesolvedatthesametimearesimultaneousequations.Theyhavetwo(2)unkn
owns.e.g
2x+3y=-9
x+4y=6
Therethree(3)differentmethodstosolvesimultaneousequations.Theyare:
Eliminationmethod
Substitutionmethod
Graphicalmethod
Matrixmethod

36
5.31EliminationMethod
Inthismethod,wemustgetridofonevariableinordertofindtheother.
Example1
x + y = 6……………..(i)
x - y = 2……………..(ii)

Ifweaddthetwoequations,wecanremovey.

(i) + (ii) => 2x = 8

x = 4
Substitutein(i) => 4 + y = 6

y =2

Solutions:x = 4 and y = 2

Example2
2x + y = 6…………….(i)
3x - 2y = 2…………….(ii)
Toremovey,multiplythefirstequationby2andthenaddthetwoequationstogether.
(i)x(2) => 4x + 2y = 12
(ii)+(i) => 7x = 14
x = 2Substitutein(i)
4 + y = 6y = 2Thesolutionsarex = 2andy = 2

Example3
2x + 3y = 1……………(i)
3x - 2y = 8……………(ii)
Inthiscase,toeliminatey,thefirstequationmustbemultipliedby2andthesecondequationmustbe
multipliedby3.
(i)x2 => 4x + 6y = 2…………(iii)

37
(ii)x3 => 9x - 6y = 24……......(iv)
(iii) + (iv) => 13x = 26
x = 2Substitutein(i) => 4 + 3y = 1

3y = - 3y = - 1
Solutionsare:x=2andy=-1.

5.32SubstitutionMethod
Wegetyintermsofxorviceversafromoneequation,andputthatintheother.
Example1
x + y = 6…………….(i)
x - y = 2…………….(ii)
From(i) => x = (6 - y)
Substitutethisin(ii) => 6 - y - y = 2

6 - 2y = 2 -2y = - 4y = 2
Substitutein(i) => x + 2 = 6x = 4Solutionsare:x = 4 and y = 2.

Example2
2x + y = 6…………....(i)
3x - 2y = 2…………...(ii)
from(i) => y = (6 - 2x)
Substitutethisin(ii) => 3x - 2(6 - 2x) = 23x - 12 + 4x = 2x = 2Substitutein(i)
=> 4 + y = 6y = 2The solutions are x = 2 and y = 2

Example3
2x + 3y = 1 ………………(i)
3x - 2y = 8………………(ii)
(1 - 3y)
fromeq.(i)1 - 3y => 2x = (1 - 3y)x =
2

(1 - 3y)
Substitutein(ii) => 3 - 2y = 8
2

=> 3(1 - 3y) - 4y = 163 - 9y - 4y = 163 - 13y = 16 -13y = 13

y = - 1Substitutein(i) => 2x - 3 = 1 => 2x = 4x = 2The solutions are:

x = 2 and y = - 1

38
5.33GraphicalMethod
Inthismethod,twostraightlinesaredrawnforeachequation.Thenthepointwherethetwolinesint
ersectatisnoted.Thecoordinatesofthispointarethesolutionsoftheequations.
E.g.1
2x+y=8--------1
y-x=1----------2
Equation(1)=>y=8-2x
Equation(2)=>y=x+1
x y=8-2x
0 8
-1 10
2 4
x y=x+1
0 1
-1 0
2 3
Rearrangethetwoequationsintheformofy=mx+canddrawtwolinesforthemonthesamegrid.

39
Thecoordinatesofthepointofintersectionarex=3andy=2.
So,thesolutionsarex=3andy=2.
Forthesecondequation:
Linear

5.3Equations:SolutionsUsingEliminationwithThreeVariables
Systemsofequationswiththreevariablesareonlyslightlymorecomplicatedtosolvethanthosewit
htwovariables.Thetwomoststraightforwardmethodsofsolvingthesetypesofequationsarebyeli
minationandbyusing3×3matrices.
Touseeliminationtosolveasystemofthreeequationswiththreevariables,followthisprocedure:
Writealltheequationsinstandardformclearedofdecimalsorfractions.

40
Chooseavariabletoeliminate;thenchooseanytwoofthethreeequationsandeliminatethechosen
variable.
SelectadifferentsetoftwoequationsandeliminatethesamevariableasinStep2.
Solvethetwoequationsfromsteps2and3forthetwovariablestheycontain.
SubstitutetheanswersfromStep4intoanyequationinvolvingtheremainingvariable.
Checkthesolutionwithallthreeoriginalequations.
Example1
Solvethissystemofequationsusingelimination.

Alltheequationsarealreadyintherequiredform.
Chooseavariabletoeliminate,sayx,andselecttwoequationswithwhichtoeliminateit,sayequatio
ns(1)and(2).

Selectadifferentsetoftwoequations,sayequations(2)and(3),andeliminatethesamevariable.

Solvethesystemcreatedbyequations(4)and(5).

Now,substitutez=3intoequation(4)tofindy.

41
UsetheanswersfromStep4andsubstituteintoanyequationinvolvingtheremainingvariable.

Usingequation(2),
Checkthesolutioninallthreeoriginalequations.

Thesolutionisx=–1,y=2,z=3.
Example2
Solvethissystemofequationsusingtheeliminationmethod.

42
Writeallequationsinstandardform.

Noticethatequation(1)alreadyhastheyeliminated.Therefore,useequations(2)and(3)toeliminat
ey.Thenusethisresult,togetherwithequation(1),tosolveforxandz.Usetheseresultsandsubstitut
eintoeitherequation(2)or(3)tofindy.

Substitutez=3intoequation(1).

Substitutex=4andz=3intoequation(2).

43
Usetheoriginalequationstocheckthesolution(thecheckislefttoyou).
Thesolutionisx=4,y=–2,z=3.

5.4TutorialQuestions

1. Usethemethodofsubstitutiontosolveeachotherofthepairofsimultaneousequations:

(a)x+y=15 x-y=3 (f)2x-3y=2 x+2y=8

(b)x+y=0 x-y=2 (g)x+y=7 2x-3y=9
(c)2x-y=3 4x+y=3 (h)11y+15x=-23 7y-2x=20
(d)2x-9y=9 5x+2y=27 (i)5x-6y=2 6x-5y=9
(e)x+4y=-4 3y-5x=-1

2.Solveeachotherpairofequationgivenbelowusingeliminationmethod:

(a)x+2y=-4 3x-5y=-1 (f)(4/y)+(3/x)=8 (6/y)+(5/x)=13

(b)4x+9y=5 -5x+3y=8 (g)5x+(4/y)=7 4x+(3/y)=5
(c)9x-6y=12 4x+6y=14 (h)x+y=3 -3x+2y=1
(d)2y-(3/x)=12 5y+(7/x)=1 (i)-3x+2y=5 4x+5y=2
(e)(3/x)+(2/y)=(9/xy) (9/x)+(4/y)=(21/xy)

3.Solvethefollowingsimultaneousequations:

(a)3a+4b=43 -2a+3b=11 (b)4x-3y=23 3x+4y=11

44
(c)5x+(4/y)=7 4x+(3/y)=5(d)4/(p- (h)(3y/2)-(5x/3)=-2 (y/3)+(x/3)=13/6
3)+6/(q-4)=5 5/(p-3)-3/(q-4)=1 (i)x-y=3 (x/3)+(y/2)=6
(e)(l/6)-(m/15)=4 (l/3)-(m/12)=19/4 (j)(2x/3)+(y/2)=-1 (-x/3)+y=3
(f)3x+2y=8 4x+y=9 (k)5x+8y=9 2x+3y=4
(g)x-y=-1 2y+3x=12 (l)3-2(3a-4b)=-59 (a-3)/4-(b-4)/5=2¹/₁₀

Answersfortheworksheetonsimultaneouslinearequationsaregivenbelowtochecktheexactans
wersoftheabovequestionsonsystemoflinearequations.

Answers:
1.(a)x=9,y=6 (d)x=261/49,y=9/49 (g)x=6,y=1
(b)x=1,y=-1 (e)x=-8/23,y=-21/23 (h)x=-3,y=2
(c)x=1,y=-1 (f)x=4,y=2 (i)x=4,y=3

2.(a)x=-2,y=-1 (d)x=-1/2,y=3 (g)x=-1,y=1/3

(b)x=-1,y=1 (e)x=3,y=1 (h)x=1,y=2
(c)x=2,y=1 (f)x=1/2,y=2 (i)x=-21/23,y=26/23

3.(a)a=5,b=7 (e)l=-2,m=-65 (i)x=9,y=6

(b)x=5,y=-1 (f)x=2,y=1 (j)x=-3,y=2
(c)x=-1,y=1/3 (g)x=2,y=3 (k)x=5,y=-2
(d)p=5,q=6 (h)x=141/38,y=53/19 (l)a=5,b=-4

45
46
47
48
Whatisalinearequation?

Anequationwhichinvolvesonlyonevariablewhosehighestpoweris1isknownasalinearequationi
nthatvariable.
Forexample:

(a)x+4=19
(b)y-7=11
(c)x/2-x/3=9
(d)2x-5=x+7
(e)x+13=27
(f)y-3=9
(g)11x+5=x+7
Eachoneoftheseequationsisalinearequation.
Thesignofequalitydividestheequationintotwosides.LefthandsideorL.H.S.andRighthandsideor
R.H.S
SolutionoflinearequationorRootoflinearequation:Thevalueofthevariablewhichmakeslefthand
sideequaltorighthandsideinthegivenequationiscalledthesolutionortherootoftheequation.

49
Forexample:

1.x+1=4

Here,L.H.S.isx+1andR.H.S.is4

Ifweputx=3,thenL.H.S.is3+1whichisequaltoR.H.S.

Thus,thesolutionofthegivenlinearequationisx=3

2.5x-2=3x-4isalinearequation.

Ifweputx=-1,thenL.H.S.is5×-1-2andR.H.S.is3×-1-4
=-5-2 =-3-4
=-7 =-7

So,L.H.S.=R.H.S.

Therefore,x=-1isthesolutionfortheequation5x-2=3x-4
Howtosolvelinearequationinonevariable?
Rulesforsolvingalinearequationinonevariable:

Theequationremainsunchangedif–
(a)Thesamenumberisaddedtobothsidesoftheequation.

Forexample:

1. x-4=7
⇒x-4+4=7+4 (Add4tobothsides)
⇒x=11

2. x-2=10

50
⇒x-2+2=10+2 (Add2tobothsides)
⇒x=12
(b)Thesamenumberissubtractedfrombothsidesoftheequation.

Forexample:

1.x+5=9
⇒x+5-5=9-5(Subtract5frombothsides)
⇒x+0=4
⇒x=4

2.x+1/2=3
x+1/2-1/2=3-1/2(Subtract1/2frombothsides)
⇒x=3-1/2
⇒x=(6-1)/2
⇒x=5/2

(c)Thesamenumberismultipliedtobothsidesoftheequation.

Forexample:

1.x/2=5
⇒x/2×2=5×2(Multiply2toboththesides)
⇒x=10

2.x/5=15
⇒x/5×5=15/5(Multiply5toboththesides)
⇒x=3

(d)Thesamenon-zeronumberdividesbothsidesoftheequation.

51
Forexample:

1.0.2x=0.24
⇒0.2x/0.2=0.24/0.2(Dividebothsidesby0.2)
⇒x=0.12

2.5x=10
⇒5x/5=10/5(Dividebothsidesby2)
⇒x=2
Explainthemethodsoftransposition.
Anytermofanequationmaybeshiftedtotheothersidewithachangeinitssignwithoutaffectingthe
equality.Thisprocessiscalledtransposition.

So,bytransposingaterm—

●Wesimplychangeitssignandcarryittotheothersideoftheequation.

●‘+‘signofthetermchangesto‘—‘signtotheothersideandvice-versa.

●‘×’signofthefactorchangesto‘÷‘signtotheothersideandvice-versa.

●Now,simplifyL.H.S.suchthateachsidecontainsjustoneterm.

●Finally,simplifytheequationtogetthevalueofthevariable.

Forexample:

10x-7=8x+13
⇒10x-8x=13+7
⇒2x=20
⇒2x/2=20/2

52
⇒x=10

Note:

+changesto–
–changesto+
×changesto÷
÷changesto×

Therefore,fromtheabovewecametoknowthatwithoutchangingtheequality,thisprocessofchan
gingsigniscalledtransposition.
Whatisanequation?
Astatementofequalityoftwoalgebraicexpressionswhichinvolvesoneormoreliterals(variables)i
scalledanequation.

3+x=7isanequation.
Thesetofvaluesofvariableswhichmakestheopensentencetrueiscalledthesolutionset.

Note:

Everyequationhastwosides—L.H.S.(left-handside)andR.H.S.(right-handside).

Literalsinvolvedintheequationarecalledvariables.TheseareusuallydenotedbylettersofEnglisha
lphabet.

Anequationmaycontainanynumberofvariables.

Forexample:
(i)5x+7=19 (ii)2x+13y=8 (iii)5x-3y+4z-14=0
Findthesolutionsetforthefollowingopensentences.

(a)x+4=7

53
(b)x-3>5

(c)x/2<10

Thesolutionsetforthefollowingopensentencesareexplainedbelowstep-by-step.

(a)x+4=7

Solution:

x+4=7
Ifx=0,then0+4≠7
Ifx=1,then1+4≠7
Ifx=2,then2+4≠7
Ifx=3,then3+4=7
Therefore,thesolutionsetfortheopensentencex+4=7is3.

(b)x-3>5

Solution:

x-3>5
Ifx=6,then6-3≯5
Ifx=8,then8-3≯5
Ifx=9,then9-3=6>5
Ifx=10,then10-3>5
Ifx=11,then11-3>5
Therefore,thesolutionsetfortheopensentencex-
3>5areallthevaluesofthevariablegreaterthan8,i.e.,9,10,11,12...

54
(c)x/2<10

Solution:

x/2<10
Ifx=24,then24/2≮10
Ifx=20,then20/2≮10
Ifx=Ifx=19/2,then<10
Ifx=16then16/2<10
Therefore,thesolutionofthevariablelessthan20,i.e.,19,18,17,16,15,14,....

55
Week6
QuadraticEquations

6.0QUADRATICEQUATIONS

6.1Definition

AQuadraticEquationisanyequationhavingtheformwherexisunknownandwiththehighestof2.T
hestandardformofaquadraticequationisy=ax2+bx+c=0wherea,bandcareknownnumbersandca
nnotbezero(0).Ifa=0,theequationislinear.

6.1.1SolvingQuadraticEquationsbyFactorizationMethod

Factorizationisamethodofwritingnumbersastheproductoftheirfactorsordivisors.

Example6.1

Solvethefollowingequations,usingfactorizationmethod:

a. x2+3x+2=0
b. y2-9y+14=0
c. 2a2-5a=3

Solutions

56
 (a) x2+3x+2=0 (Lookfortwonumbersthatmultiplytogive2andaddtogive3.)
x2+x+2x+2=0
x(x+1)+2(x+1)=0
(x+1)(x+2)=0
x+1=0 x=-1

x+2=0 x=-2

(b) y2-9y+14=0 (Findtwonumbersthatmultiplytogive14andaddtogive-9)

y –2y–7y+14=0
2

y(y-2)–7(y-2)=0
(y-7)(y-2)=0
y-7=0 y=7
y-2=0 y=2
Ans:y=2,7

(c) 2a2–5a=3 (Findtwonumbersthatmultiplytogive-6andgive-5)

2a2-5a-3=0
2a2-6a+a-3=0
2a(a-3)+1(a-3)=0
(2a+1)(a-3)=0
2a+1=0 a=-½
a-3=0 a=3

6.1.2SolvingQuadraticEquationbymethodofcompletingthesquare.

ax2+bx+c=0

ax2+bx=-c

b c
x2+ x=- (Makethelefthandsideofthisequationaperfectsquare).
a a

b c b2
(x+ )2=- +
2a a 4a2

Therefore,thequantitytobeaddedtomaketheequationaperfectsquareisthesquareofhalftheco
efficientofxoranyletterused.

Example6.2

Solvethefollowingequations,usingmethodofcompletingthesqure:

i. x2+3x+2=0
ii. y2-8y+3=0
iii. m2-7m+11=0

57
Solutions

(i) x2+3x+2=0
x2+3x=-2
3 9 1
(x+ )2=-2+ =
2 4 4
1 1
x+3/2= ± =±
4 2
3 1
Hence,x=- ±
2 2
3 1
x1=- + =-1
2 2
3 1
x2=- - =-2
2 2

(ii) y2-8y+3=0
y2-8y=-3
(y-4)2=-3+16=13
y=4 ± 13

(iii) m2-7m+11=0
m2-7m=-11
7 49 5
(m- )2=-11+ =
2 4 4
7 5
m- = ±
2 4
7 5 7± 5
m= ± =
2 4 2

6.1.3UseofQuadraticFormulae

Giventhequadraticequation

ax2+bx+c=0

b c
x2+ x=-
a a

b c b2 b2 - 4ac
(x+ )2=- + =
2a a 4a 2
4a2

b b2 - 4ac
x+ = ±
2a 4a2

b b2 - 4ac
x=- ±
2a 2a

b2 - 4ac
Hence,x= -b ± (ThisistermedQuadraticformulae.)
2a

58
Example6.3

Determinetherootsofthefollowingequations,usingquadraticformulae:

a. 3x2-2x+4=0
b. y2–y-5=0
c. x2-7x+12=0

Solutions

(a) 3x2-2x+4=0
UsingQuadraticFormulae
b2 - 4ac
x= -b ±
2a
a=3;b=-2;c=4
4 - 4(3 * 4) 2 ± -44 2 ± j2 11 1 ± j 11
x=2 ± = = =
2*3 6 6 3

(b) y2–y-5=0
a=1;b=-1;c=-5
b2 - 4ac
y= -b ±
2a
1± 1 + 4(1 * 5) 1 ± 21
y= =
2*1 2

(c) x2-7x+12=0
a=1;b=-7;c=12
49 - 4(1 * 12) 7 ± 1 7±1
x=7 ± = =
2*1 2 2
7+1 8
x1= = =4
2 2
7-1 6
x2= == =3.
2 2
Ans:x=3,4.

6.2 POLYNOMIALEQUATIONS

6.2.1 Definition

APolynomialisthesumofseparatetermsofpositivepowersofavariablewithaconstant
term(theconstantmay/maynotbezero).Ingeneral,apolynomialofthenthdegreeiswrittenasanxn+
an-1xn-1+an-2xn-2+…+a1x+a0wherean,an-
1…a1arethecoefficientsanda0istheconstantandanyofthecoefficientscanbezeroexceptan.

59
6.2.2 AdditionandSubtractionofPolynomials

Example6.4

TwopolynomialsA=3x3-2x2+5x-6andB=2x3+x2-x+1.Find:

a. A+B
b. A-B
c. 3A-2B

Solution

(a) A+B=3x3-2x2+5x-6+2x3+x2-x+1=5x3-x2+4x-5.

(b) A-B=3x3-2x2+5x-6-(2x3+x2-x+1)

=3x3-2x2+5x-6-2x3-x2+x-1

=x3-3x2+6x-7

(c) 3A-2B=3(3x3-2x2+5x-6)–2(2x3+x2-x+1)
=9x3-6x2+15x-18-4x3-2x2+2x-2
=5x3-8x2+17x-20.

6.2.3 MultiplicationofPolynomials

Example6.5

Multiplythefollowing:

a. x3-2x2+x-1by2x-3
b. 2x2+17x+5by2x-5
c. x2-3x-2byx2-x+1

Solutions

(a) (x3-2x2+x-1)(2x-3)
2x(x3-2x2+x-1)-3(x3-2x2+x-1)
=2x4-4x3+2x2–2x-3x3+6x2-3x+3
=2x4-7x3+8x2-5x+3.

(b) (2x2+17x+5)(2x-5)

60
 2x(2x2+17x+5)–5(2x2+17x+5)
=4x3+34x2+10x–10x2–85x-25
=4x3+24x2-75x-25

(c) (x2-3x-2)(x2-x+1)
=x2(x2-3x-2)–x(x2-3x-2)+1(x2-3x-2)
=x4-3x3-2x2–x3+3x2+2x+x2-3x-2
=x4-4x3+2x2-x-2.

6.2.4 DivisionofPolynomials

ApolynomialAcanbedividedbyanotherpolynomialBifthedegreeofBisnotmore/great
erthanthatofA.

Example6.6

a. Dividea3-a2-3a+2bya-2
b. Dividex2-5x+6byx-2
c. 2y3-3y2-5y+6/2y+3

Solutions

(a)
a-2 a3-a2-3a+2 a2+a-1

a3-2a2

----------

a2-3a

a2-2a

----------

-a+2

-a+2

--------

- -

(b) X-2x2-5x+6x-3

61
 X2-2x
-----------
-3x+6
-3x+6
--------------
--
Ans=x-3

(c)
2y+3 2y3-3y2-5y+6 y2-3y+2
2y3+3y2
--------------
-6y2-5y
-6y2-9y
------------------
4y+6
4y+6
------------
---
Ans=y -3y+2.
2

6.2.5 ReminderTheorem

ReminderTheoremstatesthatiff(x)isdividedbyx-a,thenthereminderisthe

valueoff(a).Sincex-a=0 x=a

ThefactorTheoremstatesthatiff(a)=0,thenx-aisafactoroff(x).

Example6.7

Factorisex3-2x2-5x+6

Solution

Ifx-1isafactor

x-1=0 x=1

Thereforef(1)=(1)3-2(1)2-5(1)+6=1-2-5+6=0

62
x-1 x3-2x2-5x+6 x2-x-6

x3-x2

---------

-x2-5x

-x2+x

----------------

-6x+6

-6x+6

------------

--

X2-x-6=(x-3)(x+2)

Hencex3-2x2-5x+6=(x-1)(x-3)(x+2).

Example6.8

Findthereminderswhen:

a. 2x3-3x2-5x+1isdividedby3x-2
b. 2x2+x+1isdividedbyx+3

Solutions

(a) f(x)=2x3-3x2-5x+1
3x-2=0 x=2/3
16 12 10
f(2/3)=2(2/3)3-3(2/3)2-5(2/3)+1= - - +1=-3.073
27 9 3
(b) f(x)=2x2+x+1
x+3=0 x=-3
f(-3)=2(-3) +(-3)+1=18-3+1=16
2

Example6.9

If(x-1)and(x+3)arefactorsofx3+ax2+bx+12.Determinethe:

63
(i) aandb
(ii) remainingfactor

Solution

(i) x3+ax2+bx+12

ifx-1isafactor,thenx-1=0 x=1andf(x)=0

Therefore(1)3+a(1)2+b(1)+12=0

1+a+b+12=0 a+b=-13 -------(1)

Ifx+3isafactor,thenx+3=0 x=-3andf(-3)=0

Therefore(-3)3+a(-3)2+b(-3)+12=0 9a-3b=15 -------(2)

Solveequations(1)and(2)simultaneously

Fromequation(1)a=-13-b ---------(3)

Putequation(3)intoequation(2)

Hence,equation(2)becomes

9(-13-b)–3b=15

-117-9b-3b=15

-12b=132

-132
b= =-11
12

Fromequation(3),a=-13+11=-2

(ii) f(x)=x3-2x2-11x+12
(x-1)(x+3)=x2+2x-3

x2+2x-3 x3-2x2-11x+12x-4

x3+2x2-3x

-----------------

-4x2-8x+12

64
 -4x2-8x+12

-------------------

--

Therefore,theremainingfactorisx-4.

PROBLEMDRILLSIX

1. Solvethefollowingequations,usingfactorizationmethod:
(a) X2+5x+4=0
(b) K2-k-1=0
(c) 2x2+3x-2=0
2. Solvethefollowingequations,usingmethodofcompletingthesquare:
(a) x2-14x+9=0
(b) a2-3a+2=0
(c) 2y2=8x+11
3. Solvethequadraticequationsbyusingtheformulae:
(a) 3x2-5x=2
(b) m2-10m+21=0
(c) x2+4x+2=0
4. Findthereminderswhen
(a) k2-3k+2isdividedby2k+1
(b) x3+3x-6isdividedbyx-3
5. Usingtheremindertheorem,factorize:
(a) a3-1
(b) 2x3+x2-5x+2
6. If(x-2)isafactorof2x3+ax2+bx-
2andwhentheexpressionisdividedby(x+3),theremainderis-50.Find:
(i) aandb
(ii) theremainingfactor

therootsoftheequation2x3+ax2+bx-2=0

65
66
Week7
Trigonometry

7.0Trigonometry

7.1TheTrigonometricalRatios

Considertheright-
angledtriangleABCbelowwitharightangleatB.ThesidejoiningpointsAandBisreferredto
asAB,thesidejoiningpointsAandCisreferredtoasAC.TheangleatAmadebythesidesABan
dACiswrittenas∠BACor∠Aandithasbeenlabelledangleθ.

Thesideoppositetherightangledtriangleisalwayscalledthe”HYPOTENUS”andthehypotenuseint
hefigurebelowisAC.ThesideoppositeθisBCandtheremainingsideABissaidtobeadjacenttoθ.

ACisthehypotenuse BCisthesideoppositetoθ
67
Fig.7.1AB

ABisthesideadjacenttoθ

∠Aright-angledtriangleABC

BC
Fromtheabove,
AC

canbecalculatediflengthsBCandACareknownandthisisknownassinofθorsimplyassinθ.
AB BC
Similarly,wecall ,thecosineofθwrittenascosθandfinally,
AC AB

isknownasthetangentofθ,writtenastanθ.

Sine,CosineandTangentareknownastheTrigonometricalratios.

Thus,

side opposite to θ BC
Sinθ= =
hypotenus AC

side adjacent to θ AB
Cosθ= =
hypotenus AC

side opposite to θ BC
Tanθ= =
side adjacent toθ AB

NOTE;Alltrigonometricratiosaredefinedastheratiosoftwolengthsandsotheythemselveshaven
ounit.

Also,sincethehypotenuseisalwaysthelongestsideofatriangle,sinθandcosθcanneverbegreatert
han1.

EXAMPLE1:Calculatesinθ,cosθandtanθfor△ABCasshowninthefigurebelow

Cθ
5

53

Fig.7.2

A4B

68
SOLUTION

Sideoppositetoθ=4

Sideadjacenttoθ=3

Hypotenuse=5

side opposite to θ AB 4
Therefore,Sinθ= = = =0.8
hypotenus AC 5

side adjacent to θ AB 3
Cosθ= = = =0.6
hypotenus AC 5

side opposite to θ BC 4
Tanθ= = = =1.333
side adjacent to θ AB 3

EXAMPLE2:Calculatesinθ,cosθandtanθfortheright-angledtriangleshownbelowCCC

300

Fig7.3(a) 21Fig7.3(b)2 3

A4501BA6001B

SOLUTION

AB 1 BC 1 BC 3
Sin300= = Sin450= = 2Sin600= =
AC 2 AC AC 2

BC 3 AB 1 AB 1
Cos300= = Cos450= = 2Cos600= =
AC 2 AC AC 2

AB 1 BC 1 BC 3
Tan300= = 3Tan450= = =1Tan600= = = 3
BC AB 1 AB 1

69
7.2.0DerivativesofOtherTrigonometric

7.2.1ProofofPythagoreanIdentities

Fig7.4ry

7.2.2ProofofTheReciprocalRelations

Bydefinition

y
Sinθ=
r

1 r
And =y
sin θ

1
Wheresin θ =cosecθ

r
Thus,cosecθ=y

Therefore,

1 r
= = cosecθ……………………………………………………………………………..(1)
sin θ y

Bydefinition

x
Cosθ=
r

70
 1 r
Andcos θ=
x

1
Wherecos θ=secantθ

r
Thus,secant=
x

Therefore,

1 r
= = secantθ………………………………………………………………(2)
cos θ x

Bydefinition

y
Tanθ=
x

1 x
Andtan θ=y

Ondividingboththenumeratoranddenominatorbyr,wehave

y/r
Tanθ=
x/r

y x
Recall,sinθ= andcosθ=
r r

sin θ
Therefore,tanθ= ………………………………………………………….(3)
cos θ

Fromthedefinitionabove,

1 cos θ
=
tan θ sin θ

1
Wheretan θ=cotangentθwrittenascotƟ

1 cos θ
Thus,tan θ= =cotθ
sin θ

7.2.3ProofofthePythagoreanIdentities

Provethat;

a.sin2θ+cos2θ=1

71
b.1+tan2θ=sec2θ

c.1+cot2θ=cosec2θ

SOLUTION

AccordingtothePythagorastheorem,

X2+y2=r2 -------------4

Ondividingbothsidesbyr2,wehave

x2 y2 r2
+ =
r2 r2 r2

x y r
i.e( )2+( )2=( )2
r r r

Recall,

x y r
=cosθ, =sinθand =1
r r r

Therefore,equation(4)nowbecomes

Cos2θ+sin2θ=1…………….proved(5)

b.Dividingequation(5)throughbyCos2θ,wehave

cos2 θ sin2θ 1
+ =
cos θ cos θ cos2 θ
2 2

cos2 θ sin2θ 1
Where =1, =tan2θand =sec2θ
cos θ2 2
cos θ cos2 θ

Thus,wenowhave1+tan2θ=sec2θ…………proved

c.Dividingequation(5)throughbysin2θ

cos2 θ sin2θ 1
+ =
sin θ2
sin θ sin2 θ
2

sin2θ cos2 θ 1
Where =1, =cot2θand =cosec2θ
sin2 θ sin2θ sin2 θ

Thus,wehave1+cot2θ=cosec2θ ……….proved

72
7.3FurtherTrigonometricProblems

Sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+sinBcosA

Sin(A–B)=sinAcosB-sinBcosA

Sin(A+A)=sinAcosA+sinAcosA=2sinAcosA

Cos(A+B)=cosAcosB–sinAsinB

Cos(A-B)=cosAcosB+sinAsinB

Cos(A+A)=cosAcosA–sinAsinA=cos2A–sin2A

=2cos2A-1

=1-2sin2A

EXAMPLES:

1.Simplify1–sinAcosAtanA

1 - cos2θ + sin2θ
2.showthat =tanθ
1 + cos2θ + sin2θ

15 1
3.Iftan θ= ,0° < θ < 90°,determinesin θ
8

SOLUTION

1.1–sinAcosAtanA

sinA
Recall,tanA=
cosA

Therefore,wenowhave

sinA
1–sinAcosA =1–sinAsinA
cosA

i.e1-sin2A=cos2A(Recall,sin2A+cos2A=1)

73
 1 - cos2θ + sin2θ
2. =tanθ
1 + cos2θ + sin2θ

Recall,cos2θ=cos2A–sin2A

Andsin2θ=2sinAcosA

1 - (cos2θ -sin2θ) + 2sinθcosθ 1 - cos2θ +sin2θ + 2sinθcosθ

=
1 + (cos2θ -sin2θ) + 2sinθcosθ 1 + cos2θ -sin2θ + 2sinθcosθ

Where1-cos2A=sin2A

and1-sin2A=cos2A

sin2θ +sin2θ + 2sinθcosθ 2sin2θ + 2sinθcosθ

Thus, =
cos2θ +cos2θ + 2sinθcosθ 2cos2θ + 2sinθcosθ

Byfactorizingwehave,

2sinθ(sinθ + cosθ) sinθ

=
2cosθ(sinθ + cosθ) cosθ

sinθ
Itcanberecalledthat = tanθ
cosθ

1 - cos2θ + sin2θ
Thus, =tanθ ………proved
1 + cos2θ + sin2θ

15 opp
3. tan θ= 8 = adj 15

Hyp2=Opp2+Adj2

=152+82=225+64=289

∴ Hyp= 289=17

1 17
=
sin θ 15

7.4Assignment

74
 1
1.Showthat –cosA=sinAtanA
cosA

1 cosA
2.Showthat -sinA=
sinA tanA

3.Nothingthattan450=1,simplify

1 - tanθ
1 + tanθ

1
4. Showthattan2θ+1=
cos2θ
7
5. Iftan φ= ,0° < φ < 90°determinesin φandcos φ
24
2t
6. Giventhatsin β= andβisanacuteangle,expresscos βandtan βintermsoft
1 + t2

75
Week8
SetTheory

76
8.0TheLanguageofSets:SomeDefinitions

Herearesomeusefultermsanddefinitionsofset:

 Asetisacollectionofobjects,withsomethingincommon.Asetmightbe,forexample,prime
numbers,birdsthatcomeintoyourgarden,orpeopletowhomyouhavesentChristmascard
sinthelastfiveyears,allnumbers,includingnegativeintegers.
 Theelementsofasetarethethingswithinit,suchasprimenumbers,birdsorpeopleasinthee
xamplesabove.Theyarealsocalledthemembersofaset.
 Thesymbol∈means‘isanelementof’or‘belongto’.Forexample,youmightwrite2∈A,whi
chwouldmeanthat2wasanelementofsetA.Youcanalsowrite∉,whichmeans‘isnotanele
mentof’or‘notbelongto’i.e.2∉A.
 Youcanshowthatsomethingisinasetintwosimpleways:
o Inwords,forexample‘AllthespeciesofbirdsIhaveseeninmygarden’,or‘theprimen
umbersbetween0and100’;and
o Byputtingcurlybracketsaroundalistoftheelements.Forexample,thesetofprimen
umbersbetween0and10couldbewritten{1,2,3,5,7}.Youcanalsouseellipsesifyou
wouldhavetowritetoomanynumbers.Forexample,ifyoursetwereallthenumbers
between1and20,youcouldwrite{1,2,3,…20}.
 SetsareusuallyshownbyacapitallettersA,B,C,etc,whilesmalllettersa,b,cetcareusedtode
notetheelementofset.
 Setsmaycontaintangibleorintangibleelements,providedthatyoudefinethemclearlyan
dunambiguously.
 Thecardinalityofasetisthenumberofelementsasetcontains.
 Setsthatcontainthesameelementsaresaidtobeequal.Youcanalsosaythattheyareequiv
alentoridentical.
 AsetAwhoseelementsareallcontainedwithinanother,largersetB,withmoreelements,iss
aidtobeasubsetofB.Thesymbol⊂means‘isasubsetof’.Inthiscase,A⊂B.
 Theemptysethasnoelementsatall.Itiswritten{}orØ.Becauseallemptysetsarethesame,t
hereisonlyone(inotherwords,theyareallequal).Itisalsoasubsetofeveryothersetinthewh
oleworld!

77
  Theuniversalset,orU,iseverything.Itis,however,specifictoaparticularproblem,ratherth
anbeing‘everythinginthewholeworld’.Thesetofalltheobjectsofspecificinterestfromwhi
chothersetsofparticularinterestaredrawn.Thismeansthatyoucould,forexample,define
theuniversalsetas‘allnumbersbetween1and100’,or‘allnumbersbetween1and10’,depe
ndingonyourproblem.
 AVenndiagramisapictorialrepresentationofsets.

8.2 Operationsofsets

Therearefourbasicoperationsforsets:

Union,Intersection,RelativecomplementandComplement

Wecanlookateachoftheseusingthreesets:

A={1,2,4,7}

B={2,5,6,8}

C={5,10,15,20}

8.2.1 Union

Unionislikeadding.Theunionoftwosetsistheircombinedelements,thatis,alltheelementsthatare
ineitherset.Thesymbolforunionis∪.UnionofthesetsAandB,denotedbyA∪B,isthesetofdistincte
lementbelongstosetAorsetB,orboth.

A∪B={1,2,4,7}∪{2,5,6,8}={1,2,4,5,6,7,8}

Fig.8.1:TheVenndiagramofAUB.

78
8.2.2 Intersection

Theintersectionbetweentwosetsistheelementsthattheyhaveincommon.Thesymbolforinterse
ctionis∩.TheintersectionofthesetsAandB,denotedbyA∩B,isthesetofelementsbelongstobothA
andBi.e.setofthecommonelementinAandB.

Usingthethreesetsabove:

A∩B={1,2,4,7}∩{2,5,6,8}={2}

A∩C={1,2,4,7}∩{5,10,15,20}={}.

Inotherwords,therearenoelementsincommon,sotheintersectionistheemptyset.

Fig8.2:TheVenndiagramofA∩B.

8.2.3 Disjoint
Twosetsaresaidtobedisjointiftheirintersectionistheemptyset.i.e.setshavenocommonelement
s.

Fig8.3:TheVenndiagramofAdisjointB.

79
Forinstance
LetA={1,3,5,7,9}andB={2,4,6,8}.
AandBaredisjointsetbothofthemhavenocommonelements.

8.2.4 RelativeComplement(SetDifference)

Ifunionislikeaddition,relativecomplementisabitlikesubtraction.Thesymbolforitistheminussign
,-.Differencebetweensetsisdenotedby‘A–
B’,isthesetcontainingelementsofsetAbutnotinB.i.eallelementsofAexcepttheelementofB.

Fig8.4:TheVenndiagramofA-B.

Youstartwiththefirstsetandtakeouteveryelementthatappearsinthesecondsetaswell.

A–B={1,2,4,7}−{2,5,6,8}={1,4,7}

B–A={2,5,6,8}−{1,2,4,7}={5,6,8}

Ineachcase,theonlynumberthatisinbothis2,sothatistheonlynumberthatisremovedfromthefirs
tset.

8.2.5 Complement

Thecomplementofasetiseverythingthatisnotinit.ThisiswheretheuniversalsetUcomesuseful,be
causethisisthesetyouareworkingwithi.e.ComplementofthesetAisU–A.

Thesymbolforcomplementis‘,soyouwouldwriteA’orB’forthesets.

80
Fig8.5:AboveistheVennDiagramofA’

Note: BothcomplementandreversecomplementareverysimilartosubtractionBUT

 Togetthecomplementofaset,yousubtractthesetfromtheuniversalset.
 Togetthereversecomplementofaset,yousubtractitfromanotherdefinedset.

Example8.1:

LetA={0,2,4,6,8},B={0,1,2,3,4}andC={0,3,6,9}.WhatareA∪B∪CandA∩B∩C?

Solution:

SetA∪B∪CcontainselementswhicharepresentinatleastoneofA,B,andC.

A∪B∪C={0,1,2,3,4,6,8,9}.

SetA∩B∩CcontainsanelementwhichispresentinallthesetsA,BandC.i.e.{0}.

A∩B∩C={0}.

8.3 SetsFormulas

Someofthemostimportantsetformulasare:

ForanythreesetsA,BandC

1. n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)–n(A∩B)
2. IfA∩B=∅,thenn(A∪B)–n(A)+n(B)
3. n(A–B)+n(A∩B)+n(B–A)=n(A∪B)
4. n(A∪B∪C)=n(A)+n(B)+n(C)–n(A∩B)–n(B∩C)–n(C∩A)+n(A∩B∩C)

81
8.4 TypesofSets

 EmptySet: Asetwhichdoesnotcontainanyelementiscalledanemptysetorvoidsetornulls
et.Itisdenotedby{}orØ.
 SingletonSet: Asetwhichcontainsasingleelementiscalledsingletonset
 Finiteset: Asetwhichconsistsofadefinitenumberofelementsiscalledfiniteset
 Infiniteset: Asetwhichisnotfiniteiscalledinfiniteset
 Equivalentset:Ifthecardinalnumberofthetwofinitesetsareequal,thenitiscalledanequiv
alentset.I.e,n(A)=n(B)
 Equalsets: ThetwosetsAandBaresaidtobeequaliftheyhaveexactlythesameelements
 Subsets:Aset‘A’issaidtobeasubsetofBifeveryelementofAisalsoanelementofB.Intervals
aresubsetsofR
 DisjointSets:ThetwosetsAandBaresaidtobedisjointifthesetdoesnotcontainanycommo
nelement
 Properset:IfA⊆BandA≠B,thenAiscalledthepropersetofBanditcanbewrittenasA⊂B

8.5 PropertiesandLawsofSet

CommutativeProperty:

 A∪B=B∪A
 A∩B=B∩A

AssociativeProperty:

 A∪(B∪C)=(A∪B)∪C
 A∩(B∩C)=(A∩B)∩C

DistributiveProperty:

 A∪(B ∩C)=(A∪B) ∩(A∪C)

 A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C)

82
Demorgan’sLaw:

 Lawofunion :(A∪B)’=A’∩B’
 Lawofintersection:(A∩B)’=A’∪B’

ComplementLaw:

 A∪A’=A’∪A=U
 A∩A’=∅

IdempotentLawAndLawofnullanduniversalset:

ForanyfinitesetA

 A∪A=A
 A∩A=A
 ∅’=U
 ∅=U’

8.6 RepresentationofSets

Thesetsarerepresentedincurlybraces,{}.Forexample,{2,3,4}or{a,b,c}or{Bat,Ball,Wickets}.Thee
lementsinthesetsaredepictedineitherthe Statementform,RosterFormorSetBuilderForm.

8.6.1 StatementForm

Instatementform,thewell-
defineddescriptionsofamemberofasetarewrittenandenclosedinthecurlybrackets.
Forexample,thesetofevennumberslessthan15.
Instatementform,itcanbewrittenas{evennumberslessthan15}.

8.6.2 RosterForm

InRosterform,alltheelementsofasetarelisted.
Forexample,thesetofnaturalnumberslessthan5.

83
NaturalNumber=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,……….
NaturalNumberlessthan5=1,2,3,4
ThereforethesetisN={1,2,3,4}

3.5.3 SetBuilderForm

Thegeneralformis,A={x:property}
Forexample:Writethefollowingsetsinsetbuilderform:A={2,4,6,8}
Solution:
2=2x1
4=2x2
6=2x3
8=2x4
So,thesetbuilderform isA={x:x=2n,n∈Nand1 ≤n≤4}
Example:
Writethegivenstatementinthreemethodsofrepresentationofaset:
Thesetofallintegersthatliesbetween-1and5
Solution:
Themethodsofrepresentationsofsetsare:
StatementForm:{Iisthesetofintegersthatliesbetween-1and5}
RosterForm:I={0,1,2,3,4}
Set-builderForm:I={x:x∈I,-1<x<5}
Example:
FindAUBandAnBandA–BandA’andB’.
IfU={a,b,c,d,e,f};A={a,b,c,d}andB={c,d}.
Solution:
A={a,b,c,d}andB={c,d}
AUB ={a,b,c,d}
AnB={c,d}and
A–B={a,b}
A’={e,f}
B’={a,b,e,f}

84
Example8.2:

1. Inarestaurantthereare50persons,20ofwhomareeatingyamwhile21areeatingbeans.If1
5personsareeatingyamandbeans,howmanypersonsareneithereatingyamnorbeans.Als
o,representitinVenndiagram

Solution

LetU={Allpersonsintherestaurant}
Y={allpersonseatingyam}
B={allpersonseatingbeans}
Then,n(U)=50
n(Y)=20; n(B)=21; n(Y∩B)=15
n(Y ∪ B)=n(Y)+n(B)–n(Y ∩ B)
n(Y∪B)=20+21–15=26
Letn(Y∪B)’=x
:.X+26=50
50-26=24
X=24

24personsareneithereatingyamnorbeans

U = 50
Y = 20
B = 21

5 15 6

(Y ∪ B)’= 24

Example8.3

85
 IfA={x:-2 < x ≤ 3}and

B={x:0 ≤ x < 5}aresubsetsof

U={x:-2 ≤ x ≤ 5}.Find(A’ ∪ B).

Solution

A={-1,0,1,2,3};B={0,1,2,3,4}

U={-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5}

A’={-2,4,5}

A’ ∪ B={-2,0,1,2,3,4,5}

Exercise

1. Thereare60sciencestudentsinaSecondarySchool.35ofwhomstudyChemistryand30stu
dyTechnicalDrawing.12outofthosestudentsstudyBiologyandchemistrybutnotTechnica
lDrawing,10studyChemistrybutneitherBiologynorTechnicalDrawing,11studyonlyTech
nicalDrawingandneitherBiologynorChemistry,10alsostudyChemistryandTechnicalDra
wingonly.

a. Howmanystudentsstudyallthethreesubjects?
b. HowmanystudentsstudyBiologyandTechnicalDrawingbutnotChemistry?
c. HowmanystudentsstudyBiologyonly?
d. HowmanystudentsstudyBiologyaltogether

2. ThesubsetsA,BandCofauniversalsetaredefinedasfollows:

A={m,a,p,e},B={a,e,i,o,u},C={l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u}

Listtheelementsofthefollowingsets:

86
(i)A∪B (ii)A∪C (iii)A∪(B∩C)

3. IfP={primenumbers}and

Q={oddnumbers}aresubsetsof

U={X:0 < X ≤ 10,andxisaninteger}.

Determine{P’ ∩ Q'}.

Week9
MatricesandComplexNumbers
87
9.0 Matrices

Amatrixisasetofrealorcomplexnumbers(orelements)arrangedinrowsandcolumnstoformarect
angulararray.Insimpleterms,amatrixissimplyanarrayofnumberswithnoarithmeticalconnectio
nsbetweenelementsanditisthereforedifferfromadeterminantinthattheelementscannotbemul
tipliedtogetherinanywaytofindanumericalvalueofthematrix.Amatrixhavingmrowsandncolum
nsiscalledanmxn(i.e.‘mbyn’)matrixandisreferredtoashavingordermxn.

Amatrixisindicatedbywritingthearraywithinbracketse.g.

æ5 7 2ö
ç ÷
ç 6 3 8÷
ç- 1 0 2÷
è ø

88
Notethat,indescribingthematrix,thenumberofrowsisstatedfirstandthenumberofcolumnsseco
nd.

Forinstance,

æ5 7 2ö
ç ÷
ç 6 3 8÷
ç- 1 0 2÷
è ø

Theabovematrixisa3x3matrix,i.ea‘3by3’where5,7,2,6,3,8,-1,0,2areelementsofthematrix.

æ5 6 4ö
ç ÷
ç2 - 3 2÷
isamatrixoforder4x3,i.e.4rowsand3columns.
ç7 8 7÷
ç ÷
è5 7 6ø

Rowmatrix:Arowmatrixconsistof1rowonlye.g ( 4 3 7 2) isarowmatrixoforder1x4.

æ6ö
Columnmatrix:Acolumnmatrixisamatrixthathasonecolumnonlye.g. ç ÷
ç3÷
ç8÷
è ø
isacolumnmatrixof1columnonly.

9.1 SPECIALMATRICES

1. Zeromatrix:thesearematriceswhoseelementsonlycontainszerosonly.E.g.

é0 0 0ù
B= ê ú
ë0 0 0û

2. SquareMatrix:Amatrixforwhichm=nissaidtobesquaredmatrixe.g.Forexampleamatrixh
aving3rowsand3column.E.g.squarematrix.

89
 é6 0 - 1ù
é1 2ù ê ú
A= ê
3 4úK= ê2 0 5 ú
ë û ê
ë3 9 4 úû

3. IdentityMatrix:aresquaredmatrixwhoseelements a11,a22 ,a33,..........,ann

formtheleadingdiagonal, a11 = a22 = a33 = 1

,whileotherelementsofthematrixcontainzeros.E.g.

é1 0 0ù
é1 0ù ê
H= ê úK= 0 1 0ú
ê ú
ë0 1û ê ú
ë0 0 1û

æ1 2 5ö
4. Symmetricmatrix:Asquarematrix (aij ) issymmetricalif aij = aji e.g. ç ÷
ç2 8 9÷
ç5 9 4÷
è ø

i.e.thematrixissymmetricabouttheleadingdiagonal.Notethat A = AT .

5. Skew-Symmetricmatrix:Asquarematrix (aij ) isskew–symmetricif aij = - aji .E.g.

æ0 2 5ö
ç ÷
ç- 2 0 9÷Suchthat A = - A .
T

ç- 5 - 9 0÷
è ø

6. TriangularMatrix:Asquarematrixistriangularifalltheentriesaboutthemaindiagonalarez
eros.Notethattherearetwomaintypesoftriangularmatrixtheuppertriangularwhichhasit
szerosentriesbelowthemaindiagonale.g.

90
 æ1 4 1ö
ç ÷
ç0 6 4÷.
ç0 0 1÷
è ø

Whilethelowertriangularmatrixhasitzerosentriesabovethemaindiagonalofthematrixas
shownbelow

æ1 0 0ö
ç ÷
ç2 8 0÷
ç4 9 7÷
è ø

9.2 MatrixNotation

Matrixcanbedenotedbyasinglegeneralelementenclosedinbracketsorbyasingleletterprintedin
boldtype.Thisisaveryneatshorthandandsavemuchspaceandwriting.Forexample

æa11 a12 a13 ö

ç ÷
ça21 a22 a23 ÷
ça ÷
è 31 a32 a33 ø

Theabovematrixcanbedenotedby ( aij ) or ( a) orbyA.

æx1 ö
Similarly, ç ÷
ç x2 ÷canbedenotedby (xi ) or (x) orsimplyby x .rix
çx ÷
è 3ø

Foran(mxn)matrix,weuseaboldcapitallettere.g.A.Butwhenwehavearoworcolumnmatrix,alow
ercaseboldletterisusedtodenotesuchmatrixe.g.x.So,ifBrepresentsa2x3matrix,wecanwriteout
theelements bij inthematrixusingthedoublesuffixnotation.Thisgives

æb b b ö
B = ç 11 12 13 ÷
èb21 b22 b23 ø

9.2.1 MatrixOperations

91
1. AdditionandSubtractionofMatrices:Toaddandsubtracttwomatrices,thematricesmustb
eofthesameorderbeforethesumordifferencescanbedetermined.Thisisusuallyachieved
byaddingorsubtractingthecorrespondingelementsofthematrix.Forexample,

Example9.1

Findthesumofthematricesbelow

æ4 2 3ö æ1 8 9ö
1. A = ç ÷B = ç ÷
è5 7 6ø è3 5 4ø
æ4 2 3ö æ1 8 9ö
A+ B = ç ÷+ ç ÷
è5 7 6ø è3 5 4ø
æ4 +1 2 + 8 3+ 9ö
=ç ÷
è5 + 3 7 + 5 6 + 4ø
æ5 10 12ö
=ç ÷
è8 12 10ø

æ6 5 4 1ö æ1 4 2 3ö
2. L = ç ÷M = ç ÷
è2 3 - 7 8ø è6 - 1 0 5ø

æ6 +1 5+ 4 4+ 2 1+ 3ö
L+M =ç ÷
è2 + 6 3+ (- 1) (- 7) + 0 8 + 5ø
æ7 9 6 4ö
=ç ÷
è8 2 - 7 8ø

Example9.2

Subtraction:

æ6 5 12ö æ3 7 1 ö
3. H = ç ÷J = ç ÷
è9 4 8 ø è2 10 - 5ø

æ6 - 3 5- 7 12 - 1 ö
H - J =ç ÷
è9 - 2 4 - 10 8 - (- 5) ø
æ3 - 2 11ö
=ç ÷
è7 - 6 13ø

92
 æ8 3 6ö æ1 2 3ö
4. C = ç5 2 7÷G = ç
ç ÷ ÷
ç4 5 6÷
ç1 0 4÷ ç7 8 9÷
è ø è ø

æ8 - 1 3- 2 6 - 3ö
C - G =ç ÷
ç5 - 4 2 - 5 7 - 6÷
ç1- 7 0 - 8 4 - 9÷
è ø
æ7 1 3 ö
ç ÷
=ç 1 -3 1 ÷
ç- 6 - 8 - 5÷
è ø

Thefollowingpropertiesholdswhereadditionispossible:

( A + B)
T
i. = AT + BT

ii. A + B = B + A (commutativelaw)

iii. ( A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) (AssociativeLaw)

iv. l ( A + B) = l A + l B (DistributiveLaw)

MultiplicationofMatrices

1. ScalarMultiplication:Tomultiplyamatrixbyasinglenumber(i.e.scalar),eachindividualele
mentofthematrixismultipliedbythatfactor.

æ3 2 5ö æ12 8 20ö
e.g. 4´ç ÷= ç ÷
è6 1 7ø è24 4 28ø

Ingeneral, K ( aij ) = ( Kaij )

2. Twomatricescanbemultipliedtogetheronlywhenthenumberofcolumnsinthefirstisequa
ltothenumberofrowsinthesecond.

93
 æb1 ö
æa11 a12 a13 ö
If A = ( aij ) = ç ç ÷
÷and b = ( bi ) = çb2 ÷
a a a
è 21 22 23 ø çb ÷
è 3ø

then

æb1 ö
æa11 a12 a13 ö ç ÷
Ab
. =ç ÷ .çb2 ÷
èa21 a22 a23 ø çb ÷
è 3ø
æa b + a b + a b ö
= ç 11 1 12 2 13 3 ÷
èa21b1 + a22b2 + a23b3 ø

NotethateachelementinthetoprowofAismultipliedbythecorrespondingelementinthefirstcolu
mnofbandtheproductsadded.Similarly,thesecondrowoftheproductisfoundbymultiplyingeach
elementinthesecondrowofAbythecorrespondingelementsinthefirstcolumnofb.

Example9.3: Row

æ8ö
æ4 7 6ö ç ÷
ç ÷.ç5÷
è2 3 1ø ç9÷
è ø Column
æ(4´8) + (7´5) + (6´9) ö æ121ö
=ç ÷= ç ÷
è(2´8) + (3´5) + (1´9) ø è 40 ø

æ3ö
ç ÷
æ2 3 5 1ö ç4÷
ç ÷.
è4 6 0 7ø ç2÷
ç ÷
è9ø
æ(2´3) + (3´ 4) + (5´ 2) + (1´9) ö
2. = ç ÷
è(4´3) + (6´ 4) + (0´ 2) + (7´9) ø
æ6 +12 +10 + 9 ö æ37ö
=ç ÷= ç ÷
è12 + 24 + 0 + 63ø è99ø

94
 æ1 5ö
IfA= (aij ) = ç ÷andB = (b ) = æ8 4 3 1ö
ç2 7 ÷ ij ç ÷
ç3 4÷ è2 5 8 6ø
è ø

æ1 5ö
ç ÷æ8 4 3 1ö
ç2 7÷ .ç ÷
ç3 4÷è2 5 8 6ø
è ø
æ(1´8) + (5´ 2) (1´ 4) + (5´5) (1´3) + (5´8) (1´1) + (5´ 6) ö
ç ÷
ThenA.B = ç(2´8) + (7´ 2) (2´ 4) + (7´5) (2´3) + (7´8) (2´1) + (7´ 6) ÷
ç(3´8) + (4´ 2) (3´ 4) + (4´5) (3´3) + (4´8) (3´1) + (4´ 6) ÷
è ø
æ18 29 43 31ö
ç ÷
= ç30 43 62 44÷
ç32 32 41 27÷
è ø

Notethatmultiplyinga(3x2)matrixgivesaproductmatrixoforder(3x4).This(3x2)xorder(2x4)yield
sorder(3x4).Ingeneralthentheproductofan(lxm)matrixandan(mxn)matrixhasanorder(lxn).

Thefollowingpropertiesofmultiplicationholds:

1. A(BC ) = ( AB)C (associativelaw)

2. l ( AB) = (l A)B = A(l B) (distributivelaw)

3. ( A + B)C = AC + BC (distributivelaw)

4. A(B + C ) = AB + AC (distributivelaw)

5. AI = A
6. ( AB)T = BT AT

9.2.2TransposeofaMatrix:

Iftherowsandcolumnsofamatrixareinterchangedsuchthatthefirstrowsbecomesthefirstcolum
n,thesecondrowbecomesthesecondcolumnandthethirdrowbecomethethirdcolumnetc.Henc

95
e,thenewmatrixformediscalledthetransposeoftheoriginalmatrix.IfAistheoriginalmatrix,itstra
nsposeisdenotedbyAT.

æ4 6ö
æ4 7 2ö
Therefore, A = ç ÷
ç7 9÷,then A = ç6 9 5÷
T

ç2 5÷ è ø
è ø

Example9.4:

æ4 0ö
æ2 7 6ö ç ÷
GiventhatA= ç ÷andB= ç3 7÷
è3 1 5ø ç1 5÷
è ø

æ4 0ö
æ2 7 6ö ç ÷
Therefore,A.B= ç ÷·ç3 7÷
è3 1 5ø ç1 5÷
è ø

æ(2´ 4) + (7´3) + (6´1) (2´ 0) + (7´ 7) + (6´5) ö

=ç ÷
è (3´ 4) + (1´3) + (5´1) (3´ 0) + (1´ 7) + (5´5) ø
æ8 + 21+ 6 0 + 49 + 30ö
=ç ÷
è12 + 3+ 5 0 + 7 + 25 ø
æ35 79ö
=ç ÷
è20 32ø

æ35 20ö
:. ( A ·B ) = ç
T
÷
è79 32ø

9.2.3 DeterminantofMatrix

Thedeterminantofasquarematrixisanumberproducedbycombiningtheelementsofthematrixin
aprescribedway.Itisdenotedas A ordetA.Thedeterminantofa2by2matrixiseasilycalculated

éa bù a b
IfA= ê úthen A = = ad - bc
ëc dû c d

96
Whilethedeterminantofa3by3matrixcanbecalculatedinanumberofways,onewaypresentedhe
reisbyexpandingthetoprowmethod.

æa11 a12 a13 ö

IfA= ç ÷
ça21 a22 a23 ÷then,
ça ÷
è 31 a32 a33 ø

a22 a23 a a a a
A = a11 - a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

Theminor M ij oftheelement aij

inamatrixisfoundbyremovingrowi.andcolumnjandtakingthedeterminantoftheremainingelem
entsintheordertheyappear.Iftheminor M ij

ismultipliedbytheplacesignweobtainthecofactoroftheelement aij ,oftenwrittenas A ij

.Fora3by3matrixA.

A = a11M11 - a12M12 + a13M13 orintermsofcofactors

A == a11A11 - a12 A12 + a13 A13

Example9.5:Evaluatethefollowingdeterminant

2 1 2
1 2 2 -1 cosq sinq
(a) (b) (c) (d) 0 3 1
3 4 -3 -3 - sinq cosq
-1 0 4

Solution:

1 2
(a) = ( 1´ 4) - (3´ 2) = 4 - 6 = - 2
3 4

2 - 1 (2´- 3) - ((- 1) ´ (- 3)
(b) =
- 3 - 3 = - 6- 3 = - 9

97
 cosq sinq
(c) - sinq cosq

(cosq ´ cosq) - (sinq ´ (- sinq))

= cos2 q + sin2 q
=1

2 1 2
a. 0 3 1
-1 0 4

3 1 0 1 0 3
=2 -1 +2
0 4 -1 4 -1 0
= 2( (3´ 4) - (0´1)) - 1( (0´ 4) - (- 1´ 4)) + 2( (0´ 0) - (- 1´3))
= 2( 12 - 0) - 1( 0 + 4) + 2( 0 + 3)
= 24 - 4 + 6
= 29

Example9.6: Solvingsimultaneousequationsusingmatrixsolution

Thesimultaneouslinearequations

2x+ 5y = 9,
3x+ 6y = 12

Canbewritteninmatrixformas

é2 5ùéxù é9 ù
ê3 6úêyú= ê12úor AX = b
ë ûë û ë û

é2 5ù éxù é9 ù
Where A = ê ú, X = êyú = and b = ê12ú
ë3 6û ë û ë û

Pre–multiplyingthematrixequationby A - 1 weobtain

A - 1AX = A - 1b ,thatis X = A - 1b

98
Theinverseofthematrix A - 1 is

-1
é2 5ù 1 é 6 - 5ù
A -1
=ê ú =
ë3 6û é2 5ù ê ú
ë- 3 2 û
ê3 6ú
ë û

Firstly,weneedtoobtainthedeterminantofthe2by2matrix.

2 5
A = = (2´ 6) - (3´5) = 12 - 15 = - 3
3 6

1 é 6 - 5ù
A - 1=
(- 3) ê ú
ë- 3 2 û

éxù 1 é 6 - 5ùé9 ù
êyú= (- 3) ê- 3 2 úê12ú
ë û ë ûë û
1 é 6 - 5ùé9 ù
=
(- 3) ê úê ú
ë- 3 2 ûë12û
Hence,
1 é(6´9) + (12´- 5)ù 1 é54 + (- 60)ù
= ú=
(- 3) ê ê ú
ë(- 3´9) + (2´12)û (- 3) ë - 27 + 24 û
1 é- 6ù é2ù
= ú= ê ú
(- 3) ê
ë- 3û ë1û

9.3 ComplexNumbers

Anumberoftheform a + jb
,where“a”and‘b”arerealnumbersiscalledcomplexnumber.Someproblems’solutionswouldnot
bemeaningfuliftheideaofsolingnumbers’problemshaving -2, -3, -56.4,

andsoon.Forthisreasons,thesymbol,“j”wasthereforeintroduced,sothat, -1 = j,or -1 = j2

Example9.7(a):

x2 +1 = 0,

x2 = - 1,

x= ± -1, andsince -1 = j,

99
 x =± j

Example9.7(b)

Similarly, x2 +4 = 0,

x2 = -4,

x =± -4 = ± ( 4)( -1) = ± j2

Also,froma + jb
,“a”iscalledrealpart,while“b”iscalledtheimaginarypart.Andthesecanberepresentedas:

a = Re(a + jb)andb = Im(a + jb)

9.3.1 MathematicalRepresentationOfVectors

Theknowledgeofcomplexnumbersbroughtalotofbreakthroughinsolvinganyvectororientedpro
blems.Avectorcanberepresentedwithaline,representingthemagnitudeandanarrowheadrepre
sentingthedirection.Withthiscomplexnumber,mostofthegraphicalorientedproblemcanbesolv
edanalytically.

Variousmethodsofvectorrepresentationsare:

(1)Symbolicnotation;(2) TrigonometricForm;(3)ExponentialFormand(4)PolarForm.

AvectorcanberepresentedintermsofitsXcomponentandYcomponent.IfEistherequired
vector,thisvectorcanthereforeberepresentedas:

E = a + jb,
where“a”isthehorizontalcomponentand“b”asverticalcomponent.

“j”istheoperator,tellingthat“a”isheldatrightangletothecomponent“b”,and

besides,“a”and“b’shouldnotbeexpressedalgebraicallyasthoughinmathematicsalgebra
.

Thisnotationisknownasthecomplexformofvectorrepresentation.Thenumericalvaluefortheab
ovevectoristherefore:

100
 E= a2 + b2,anditsanglewithx-axisis

( ).
b
ɸ = tan-1
a

Seethebelowexampleandfigureforclaritysake:

∣Hyp∣2 = ∣Opp∣2 + ∣Adj∣2,

y-axis
∣OE∣2 = ∣EK∣2 + ∣OK∣2,

∣E∣2 = ∣b∣2 + ∣a∣2, E b

E = √(b2 + a2),

Opp EK
Also, tan ɸ = = ,
Adj OK a x-axis
b
tan ɸ = ⇒ɸ = tan-1( b )
a a

Figure9.1:VectorRepresentation

9.3.2 ImportanceofJ

Thissymbolisusedtodenoterotationofavectorthrough90°
inacounterclockwisemanner.Although,jisusedinengineering,but,“i”isusedinmathematics.Eith
erof“j”or“i”isthesamething.Seetheequationbelowforbetterunderstanding,

j= -1⇒j2 = j × j = -1

Note,if“j”operatoroperatesonavector“E”,itbecomes“jE”,displacedby90°
inanticlockwisedirectionfromE.

Examples9.8:

j = 90°inccwrotation = -1

101
 j2 = 180°inccwrotation = ( -1)2 = -1

j3 = 270 inccwrotation = j( -1) = -j

j4 = 360 inccwrotation = j2 × j2 = -1 × - 1 = +1

1 j j
Also, = = = -j
j j2 -1

Thereareattimes,whenwecomeacrosstwocomplexnumbersthatareconjugate,thatis,theyonly
differbyalgebraicsignoftheirquadrature.Exampleis:a + jb,anda - jb.

9.3.3 TrigonometricalForm

Itisglaringthat,x-componentofEisEcos ɸandy-componentiksEsin ɸ
.Hence,vectorcanberepresentedintheform:

E = a + jb,

E = Ecos ɸ ± jEsin ɸ ,

Where, a = Ecos ɸ , and b = E sin ɸ

9.34 ExponentialForm

IfE = Ecos ɸ ± jEsin ɸ = E( cos ɸ ± j sin ɸ), exponentialformis,

E = Ee±jɸ,sinceejɸ = cos ɸ +jsin ɸ

9.3.5 PolarForm

Theexpression,E(cos ɸ ± jsin ɸ), isrepresentedinpolarformas:E < ɸ.

WhereE=Magnitudeandɸ=Angleofinclinationincounterclockwisedirectionwiththex-
axis.Inageneralform,polarrepresentationofEisgivenas:

E = E(cos ɸ ± jsin ɸ),

E = E <± ɸ y-axis

Examples9.9:
V j7
RepresentvectorVinthefigure9.2in:

102

8 x-axis
1) Polarform,

2) Trigonometryform,

3) Rectangularformand

4) Exponentialform.

Figure9.2:VectorTutorialExample

Solution:

V2=82+(72)=64+(49)=64+49

7
V= 113=10.63,tanɸ= =0.875,ɸ=tan-1 7=41.190
8 8

1. Polarform: V=10.63<41.19
2. Exponentialform:V=10.63ej41.19
3. Rectangularform:V=a+jb=8+j7
4. Trigonometryform:V=10.63(cos41.190+jsin41.190)

9.3.6 Addition,Subtraction,MultiplicationandDivisionofVectors.

Note:
Addorsubtracttwoormorevectorsinrectangularform.Also,multiplyordividetwoormorevectorsin
polarorexponentialform.

Examples9.10:Simplify;

(i)E=E1–E2 (ii)E=E1+E2 (iii)E=E1/E2and(iv)E=E1E2;ifE1=4+j6andE2=3-j2

Solutions:

I. E=E1–E2=(4+j6)–(3-j2)=(4-3)+j(6+2) E=1+j8

II. E=E1+E2=4+j6+3+j2=7+j8

7.21 < 56
III. E=E1/E2= =1.997<(56+33.7)=1.997<900=j1.997
3.61 < -33.7

IV. E=E1xE2=(4+j6)(3-j2)=12-j8+j18-j212=24+j10.

103
Week10
Calculus

Calculus

Learningoutcomes

i. Understandingdifferentiationanditscommontechniques
ii. Understandingintegrationandcommontechniquesemployedtoobtainintegrals.
iii. Relationshipbetweenintegrationanddifferentiation
iv. Understandingdefiniteandanindefiniteintegral.
v. Understandinghowtousethetechniquesofintegration

10.0 Differentiation
10.1 Introduction

104
 Inthismodule,wewillbefocusingonsomeaspectofdifferentialandintegralcalculus.Moreo
ver,itisexpedienttofirstofallgetoneacquaintedwithsomebasicterms.

Differentiation istheactoffindingthedegreeofchangeofthegradient/slopeofanyfunctiono
ritmaybedefinedastheprocessoffindingthederivativeofagivenfunction.It is used tofindthegradie
ntofalineorcurve,findtheco-
ordinatesofstationarypoints,whetherthesebeminimum,maximumorpointsofinflection.Differen
tiationhelpstofindtheinstantaneousrateofchangeofafunctionwithrespecttoanindependentvariab
le.Itisusedwhenaquantityshowsnon-
Linearvariation.The derivativesofitcanbeused todeterminethemaximumandminimumvalueso
fparticularfunctionslikecost,strength,amountofmaterial used inabuilding,profit,loss,etc.Differ
entiationismorereadilyperformedbymeansofcertaingeneralrulesorformulaeexpressingtheder
ivativesofthestandardfunctions.Intheseformulae,letter“u”and“v”willdenotevariablequantitiesa
ndfunctionsofxwhileletter“c”and“n”willdonateconstantquantities.
d du d
Thederivativeofaquantity“u”maybewrittenas, uor .Thesymbol
dx dx dx
d
denotes“derivativeof.”Forinstance,thederivativesof(u+v)maybewrittenas (u + v).
dx

BasicRulesforDifferentiationofAlgebraicFunctions

Rule1:Thederivativeofavariablewithrespecttoitselfisunity.Mathematically,
d
x=1
dx

ProofoftheRule
Δx dx
Thechangeinx,i.e. =1,therefore,itslimit =1.
Δx dx
Example
y=x
dy dx
Therefore, = =1
dx dx

dc
Rule2:Thederivativeofaconstantiszero.Hence, =0
dx

ProofoftheRule
Aconstantisaquantitywhosevaluedoesnotvary.
dc
Hence,Δc=0;thereforeitslimit =0.
dx
Example
y=5.Findthederivativeofy.
letc=5
d
Therefore, (5)=0
dx

105
Rule3:Thederivativeofthesumoftwovariablesisthesumoftheirderivatives.
d d d
Thus, (u + v) = u+ v
dx dx dx

ProofoftheRule
Lety=u+v.Supposethatxreceivestheincrement Δx,anduandvreceivesimilarincrementsΔuandΔ
vrespectively.Then,thenewvalueofybecomes:
y + Δy=u + Δu + v + Δv
Therefore, Δy=Δu + Δv
DividingthroughbyΔx,wehave:
Δy Δu Δv
= +
Δx Δx Δx
SupposeΔxtodiminishandapproachzero,thenthelimitsofthesefractionswilldiminishto:
dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx
Ifwethensubstituteyinthisequation,wehave:
d du dv
(u + v)= +
dx dx dx

Inageneralterm,thesameproofcanbeappliedtoanynumberoftermsconnectedbyplusorminussigns
.Mathematically,theformulacanbewrittenas:
d du dv dw
(u+v+w+…)= + + +…
dx dx dx dx

Example10.1
3x4 + 4 x3
Wewillcombinerule3,5&7insolvingthisequation
Usingrule3:letu=3x4andv=4 x3

d d d
Therefore, (u + v)= (3x4) + (4 x3)
dx dx dx

Applyingrule5&7togetherforuandv,wehave:
d n du dx dx
dx
(u )=nun-1 dx=3.4x4-1dx =12x3foruandforv,wehave:4.3x3-1 =12x2
dx

Hence,
d d d
(u + v)= (3x4) + (4 x3)=12x3+12x2=12(x3+x2)
dx dx dx

Rule4:Thederivativeoftheproductoftwovariablesisthesumoftheproductsofeachvariablebythede
d d d
rivativeoftheother.Therefore, (uv)=v u + u v-----------ProductRule
dx dx dx

ProofoftheRule
Lety=uv.Justasinformula3.
y + Δy=(u + Δu)(v + Δv)
Δy=(u + Δu)(v + Δv) -y=(u + Δu)(v + Δv) - uv=uv+vΔu+(u + Δu)Δv-uv

106
 DividethroughbyΔx,theequationbecomes:
Δy Δu Δv
=v +(u + Δu) .
Δx Δx Δx
AsΔxapproacheszero,thelimitofu+Δutendstou,wehave
dy du dv
=v +u
dx dx dx
Substitutingthevalueofy,theequationbecomes:
d du dv
(uv)=v +u
dx dx dx

Example10.2
y=(x2 +1) (x3 - x)
d
Letu=(x2 + 1), u=2x
dx
1 1
d
v=(x3 - x)2, v=1 2(x3 - x)-2(3x2 -1)
dx

dy d du dv
Hence, = (uv)= + u ,wehave:
dx dx dx dx
dy 1 (3x2 - 1)
=(x - x) .2x + (x + 1)
3 2 2 1
dx 2(x3 - x)2

4x(x3 - x) + (x2 + 1)(3x2 - 1) 7x4 - 2x2 - 1)

= 1 = 1
2(x3 - x)2 2(x3 - x)2

Rule5:Thederivativeoftheproductofaconstantandavariableistheproductoftheconstantandtheder
d d
ivativeofthevariable.Thus, (cu)=c u
dx dx

ProofoftheRule
y=cu.
Thus,y + Δy=c(u + Δu)
Δy=cΔu;
DividethroughbyΔx,theequationbecomes:
Δy Δu
: =c
Δx Δx
AsΔxapproacheszero,thelimitofΔutendstodu,therefore,
dy du
=c
dx dx

Example10.3
y=2x2
letc=2,u=x2
dy du dx2
Hence, =c =2
dx dx dx

dx2
2 =2.2x2-1=4x
dx

107
Rule6:Thederivativeofafractionisthederivativeofthenumeratormultipliedbythedenominatormi
nusthederivativeofthedenominatormultipliedbythenumerator,thisdifferencebeingdividedbythe
squareofthedenominator.Mathematically,
d d
d u v u - u v
( )= dx dx -----------------------QuotientRule
dx v v 2

ProofoftheRule
u u + Δu
y= ;y + Δy=
v v + Δv

u + Δu u vΔu - uΔv
Therefore,Δy= - v=
v + Δv (v + Δv)v

DividethroughbyΔx,theequationbecomes:
Δu Δv
Δy v -u
= Δx Δx
Δx (v + Δv)v

Now,asΔxapproacheszero,thelimitof(v+Δv)tendstov,wehave
du dv
dy v - u
= dx dx
dx v2

Substitutingthevalueofy,weobtain
du dv
d u v - u
( v )= dx dx
dx v2

Example10.4
(x + 3)
y= applyingquotientrule
(x2 + 3)

d
Letu=(x + 3), u=1
dx

d
v=(x2 +3), v=2x
dx

du dv
d u v - u
Thus,applying ( )= dx ,wehave:
dx
v dx v2

dy (x2 + 3).1 - (x + 3).2x (x2 + 3) - (x + 3).2x x2 + 3 - 2x2 - 6x

= = =
dx (x2 + 3)2 (x2 + 3)2 (x2 + 3)2

-x2 - 6x + 3 3 - x2 - 6x
= 2 2
or
(x + 3) (x2 + 3)2

Rule7:Thederivativeofanypowerofavariableistheproductoftheexponent,andthepowerwithexpo
nentdiminishedby1,andthederivativeofthevariable.Thus,
d n d
dx
u =nun-1dxu

Examples10.5

108
 y=x4
d d
Applyingrule7, (un)=nun-1 u
dx dx
Letu=xandn=4
d d dx dx
Therefore, (un)= (x4)=4x4-1 =4x3 since, =1
dx dx dx dx

TUTORIALQUESTIONS
dy
1. y=(3x10 -2x6 + x3 -5), ans. =3(10x9 -4x5 + x2)
dx
4 2 3 dy 4 6 2 12
2. y=(x2 +1)6 3 (x2 + 3
- + 4
, ans. = 3
x
- + 2
-
(x x x dx x 5 x x5
dy
3. y=(x + 2a)(x - a)2 ans. =3(x2 - a2)
dx
4 1
dy
4. y = x(x3 - 5)3 ans. = 5(x3 + 1)((x3 + 5)3
dx
2x - 1 dy 2x
5. y= 2
ans. = -
(x - 1) dx (x - 1)2

10.2 INTEGRATION

Inintegralcalculus,youdotheoppositeoperationto differentiation(findinganti-
derivative ofafunction).Integration istheareaunderthecurveofafunctionwithrespecttothexaxis.
Integration isawayofaddingportions(parts)tomakethewhole.Practicallyspeaking,it canbeusedt
ofindareas,volumes,centralpointsofobject,etc.Fewapplicationsofintegrationinourdailylifeare:

1. InElectricalEngineering,Integrationis used todeterminetheexactlengthofpowercablen

eededtoconnecttwosubstations,whicharemilesawayfromeachother.
2. AnArchitectusesintegrationindeterminingtheamountofthenecessarymaterialstoconstruc
tcurvedshapeconstructions(e.g.domeoverasportsarena)andalsotomeasuretheweightofth
atstructure.Calculusisusedtoimprovethearchitecturenotonlyofbuildingsbutalsoofimport
antinfrastructuressuchasbridges.
3. Spaceflightengineersfrequentlyusecalculuswhenplanningforlongmissions.Tolaunchan
exploratoryprobe,theymustconsiderthedifferentorbitingvelocitiesoftheEarthandtheplan
ettheprobeistargetedfor,aswellasothergravitationalinfluenceslikethesunandthemoon.
4. Biologistsusedifferentialcalculustodeterminetheexactrateofgrowthinabacterialculturew
hendifferentvariablessuchastemperatureandfoodsourcearechanged.
5. InPhysics,Integrationisverymuchneeded.Forexample,tocalculatetheCentreofMass,Cent
reofGravityandMassMomentofInertiaofasportsutilityvehicle.Also,itisusedtocalculateth
evelocityandtrajectoryofanobject,predictthepositionofplanets,andunderstandelectroma
gnetism.
6. Statisticiansusecalculustoevaluatesurveydatatohelpdevelopbusinessplansfordifferentco
mpanies.Becauseasurveyinvolvesmanydifferentquestionswitharangeofpossibleanswer
s,calculusallowsamoreaccuratepredictionfortheappropriateaction.

109
 7. Anoperationsresearchanalystwillusecalculuswhenobservingdifferentprocessesatamanu
facturingcorporation.Byconsideringthevalueofdifferentvariables,theycanhelpacompan
yimproveoperatingefficiency,increaseproduction,andraiseprofits.
8. Agraphicsartistusescalculustodeterminehowdifferentthree-
dimensionalmodelswillbehavewhensubjectedtorapidlychangingconditions.Itcancreate
arealisticenvironmentformoviesorvideogames.
9. Itisusedtodeterminetherateofachemicalreactionandtodeterminesomenecessaryinformat
ionofRadioactivedecayreaction.
10. Creditcardcompaniesusecalculustosettheminimumpaymentsdueoncreditcardstatements
attheexacttimethestatementisprocessedbyconsideringmultiplevariablessuchaschanging
interestratesandafluctuatingavailablebalance.
11. Doctorsandlawyersusecalculustohelpbuildthedisciplinenecessaryforsolvingcomplexpr
oblems,suchasdiagnosingpatientsorplanningaprosecutioncase.
12. Thefieldofepidemiology—thestudyofthespreadofinfectiousdisease—
reliesheavilyoncalculus.Itcanbeusedtodeterminehowfarandfastadiseaseisspreadingorca
nspreadfromwhereitmayhaveoriginatedandhowtobesttreatit.

IntegrationNotation:Thesymbolfor"Integral"isastylish"S"representing"Sum".AftertheIntegral
Symbol,oneputsthefunctiontheintegralistobefoundcalledtheIntegrandandthenfollowedwithdx
tomeanthatthesumgointhexdirectionandapproachzeroinwidth.Mathematically,thiscanbewritte
nas:

∫ xdx

Assumingtheaboveisintegrated,wewouldhavex2+C

Theletter“C”iscalledtheConstantofIntegration.Itistherebecausetherearemanyfunctionswhosede
rivativecangivesameanswer.Forinstance,thederivativesofx2, x2 +4, x2 -99
is2x.So,“C”helpsonetodeterminetheexactvalueoftheconstant.

ThegeneralPowerRuleforIntegrationiswrittenas:

un+1
∫ u du= n + 1+C
n

Example10.5

Integrate∫ x5dx;

Solution

n=5,du=dx

5+1 6
x x
Therefore,∫ x5dx= +C= +C
5+1 6

ThegeneralConstantRuleforIntegrationiswrittenas:

110
∫ k dx=kx+C

TheSumRuleforIntegration(TermbyTermIntegration)is:Letfandgbefunctionsthatarecontinuo
usonanopeninterval.Thenwehave:

∫[f(x) + g(x)]dx=∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx

4
x
Example10.6:∫(1 + x3)dx=∫ 1dx + ∫ x3dx=x + +C
4

Example10.7:∫ f(2x - 3)(x2 + 1)dx

Rewritingtheintegrands,weobtain
∫ f(2x3 - 3x2 + 2x - 3)dx
Applysumrulewithconstantruleandpowerrule,wehave
∫ 2x3dx ± f3x2dx + f2xdx - f3dx=2∫ x3dx + -3fx2dx + 2fxdx - 3fdx
4 3 2 4
x x x x
2. -3. +2. -3x + C= - x3 + x2 -3x + C
4 3 2 2

10.2.1 FundamentalIntegrals
Sinceintegrationistheinverseofdifferentiation,tointegrateanygivenfunctionwemustreduceittoon
eormoreofthedifferentialsoftheelementaryfunctions,expressedbythefundamentalformulasofthe
DifferentialCalculus.Correspondingtotheseformulaearelistofintegrals,whichmayberegardedasf
undamental,andtowhichallintegralsshould,ifpossible,beultimatelyreduced.

un+1 du
1. ∫ undu= 7. ∫ =log u
n+1 u

u
a u
2. ∫ audu= 8. ∫ e du= e
u
log a

3. ∫ cos u du=sin u 9. ∫ sin u du= -cos u

4. ∫ sec2 u du=tan u 10. ∫ cosec2 u du= -cot u

5. ∫ sec u tan u du=sec u 11. ∫ cosec u cot u du= -cosec u

6. ∫ tan u du=log sec u 12. ∫ cot u du=log sin u

1
Example10.8:findthe∫ (x2 + 1)2 xdx
Transformthistolooklikeequation1
1 1 3
Hence,letu=x2 +1; du=2x dx; n= ;n+1= +1=
2 2 2

111
 3
1 1 1 1
du du 1 1 u2
Thus,∫ (x2 + 1)2 xdx=∫ (u)2. x. =∫ (u) 2 =2∫ u du=2.
2
3
2x 2
2

3 3
2
u2
=
(x + 1)2
+c
3 3
2 2
(x - a )dx
Example10.9:findthe∫
3 2
x - 3a x

Transformthistolooklikeequation7byintroducingthefactor3tothenumerator.Thiswillmaket
henumeratorthedifferentialofthedenominator.
2 2 1 2 2
(x - a )dx (3x - 3a )dx
Thus,∫ = ∫
3 2 3 3 2
x - 3a x x - 3a x

Therefore,letu=x3 -3a2x; du=(3x2 - 3a2)dx

2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
(x - a )dx (3x - 3a )dx du
Hence,∫ = ∫ = ∫ = log u = log (x3 -3a2x)
3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3
x - 3a x x - 3a x u
1

= log (x3 - 3a2x)3+C

112