Date: 04/10/2022

Class: #13

Syllabus Topic: Thermal Physics

Title: Caloric and Kinetic Theory

Caloric Theory

Background:

The caloric theory of heat is an obsolete theory from the 18th century. Heat was believed to

be an invisible fluid called ‘caloric’, which could combine with matter and raise its

temperature.

Main Point of Caloric Theory:

1. Heat is an invisible fluid called ‘caloric’.

2. Caloric flows from hot objects into cold objects when they come into contact.

3. Friction can create small particles caused by the rubbing process and these particles

produce more caloric.

Arguments of Caloric Theory:

1. When bodies are heated so that they change state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas),

an increase in ‘caloric’ cannot be detected.

2. When different materials are given the same amount of heat (‘caloric’), their

temperatures increase by different amounts, indicating that they receive different

quantities of ‘caloric’.
 3. The weight of a body should increase as it is heated, because it should then contain

more ‘caloric’. However, the weight remains the same.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

The Caloric Theory was later replaced by the Kinetic Theory of Matter which states:

1. All matter consists of very small particles that are in continual motion.

2. When a substance is heated, the heat energy supplied results in an increase in the

kinetic energy of the particles of the substance, and hence in its thermal energy,

causing the temperature to rise.

3. Friction facilitates the conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy.

Evidence for Kinetic Theory of Matter

The following processes shows evidence for the Kinetic Theory of Matter:

1. Brownian Motion

This is the erratic random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of

continuous bombardment from molecules of the surrounding medium.

Example: Pollen grains in air.

2. Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an

area of low concentration.

Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases.

 (a) Diffusion in liquids – This can be observed when a few drops of potassium

permanganate are placed into a beaker of water. After a period of time, you will

observe that the solution inside the beaker turns purple. This is due to the

potassium permanganate particles moving from an area of high concentration to

low concentration until the particles have been equally spread.

(b) Diffusion in gases - oxygen diffuses from the air sacs in your lungs into your

blood capillaries because the concentration of oxygen is higher in the air sacs

and lower in the capillary blood. Example: Movement of perfume.

(c) Diffusion from liquids to gases

States of Matter

All matter is made of particles and can exist in three different states:

1. The solid state

2. The liquid state

3. The gaseous state

Thermal Energy and Temperature

Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system

and is measured in Celsius (°𝐶) or Kelvin (𝐾). Heat, on the other hand, describes

the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and is measured

in Joules. Heat measures how energy moves or flows.

Equation:

𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻

where 𝑄 = energy transferred (𝐽)

𝑚 = mass of water (𝑔)

𝑐 = specific heat capacity

∆𝑇 = temperature change (𝐾 or °𝐶)

Unit of Temperature

The Celsius Scale

Celsius, also called centigrade, scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and 100° for

the boiling point of water. The Celsius Scale is sometimes called the centigrade scale

because of the 100-degree interval between the defined points.

The Kelvin Scale

In the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, or 0°𝐾, is the temperature at which molecular energy is

at zero, and it corresponds to a temperature of −273°on the Celsius temperature scale. The

Kelvin degree is the same size as the Celsius degree; hence the two reference temperatures

for Celsius, the freezing point of water (0°𝐶), and the boiling point of water (100°𝐶),

correspond to 273°𝐾 and 373°𝐾, respectively.

Conversion of Celsius (°𝑪) to Kelvin (𝑲):

Formula:

Temperature in Kelvin = Temperature in °𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Temperature in °𝑪 = Temperature in Kelvin − 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Question:

Convert 10 °𝐶 to Kelvin.

Answer:

Temperature in Kelvin = 10 + 273

Temperature in Kelvin = 283 𝐾

Question:

Convert 100 Kelvin to °𝐶.

Answer:

Temperature in °𝐶 = 100 − 273

Temperature in °𝐶 = 173 °𝐶

Types of Thermometers

Two main types of liquid in glass thermometers are:

1. Mercury Thermometer – typically has a range from 39 °C to 357 °C. Mercury has the

same expansion coefficient at all temperatures, however, mercury is toxic and not

very responsive.

2. Alcohol Thermometer – typically has a range from -117 °C to 79 °C. The lower

temperature range indicates that this thermometer can be used to measure low

temperatures.
General Characteristics of a Thermometer

Diagram:

Characteristics:

A thermometer should have the following characteristics:

1. A relatively large bulb.

2. The glass of the thermometer around the bulb should be thin. This is to increase the

sensitivity of the thermometer.

3. A thin bore is preferrable.

Hybrid Clinical Thermometer

1. Range

These have a limited range of 35 °C to 40 °C and has a very fine tube to have an

increased sensitivity.

2. Shape

Hybrid clinical thermometers are usually pear-shaped cross-section.

3. Constriction

A narrow constriction in the tube just above the bulb allows the expanding mercury

to move.

Thermocouple Thermometer

Diagram:
Note:

Thermocouple thermometers are a temperature-measuring device consisting of two wires

of different metals joined at each end.

One junction is placed where the temperature is to be measured, and the other is kept at a

constant lower temperature.

A measuring instrument is connected in the circuit.

The voltage increases as the temperature difference between the two junctions increase.

If one junction is kept at a fixed cold temperature such as 0 °𝐶, then the other junction can

be used as a small probe to measure temperatures above 0 °𝐶.

Methods of Heat Transfer

There are three methods of heat transfer:

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

Conduction

• Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions

between neighbouring atoms or molecules.

• Metals are good conductors of electricity as a result of the mobile electrons within

its atomic structure.

• Non-metals, on the other hand, are insulators and do no conduct electricity.

Convection

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the

whole medium moves and carries the heat energy with it.

Natural Convection in Air

At the coast, there is often a temperature difference between the land and the sea. The

water in the sea hardly changes its temperature between the night and day. During the day,

the land becomes much hotter than the sea. As air is heated by the hot land, it rises and is

replaced by sea breezes. During the night, the air above the sea is warmer and rises

drawing cooler air off the land forming land breezes.

Radiation

Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles

through space or through a material medium.

This includes electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible

light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation.

Important Points:

1. Radiant heat energy is absorbed by all objects and surfaces, this results in a

temperature rise.

2. Black surfaces absorb radiant heat energy more quickly than shiny or white

surfaces.

3. Dull black or matte surfaces emit more radiant heat than shiny surfaces.
 4. Radiant heat energy is part of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation. This is a

family of various types of radiation which exhibits common characteristics. Radiant

heat energy is called infra-red radiation.

Vacuum Flask

Diagram:

Plastic Cap

Double-walled
glass container
Hot liquid

Vacuum
Silvered surfaces

A thermos flask has double walls, which are evacuated and the vacuum bottle is silvered on

the inside. The vacuum between the two walls prevents heat being transferred from the

inside to the outside by conduction and convection. With very little air between the walls,

there is almost no transfer of heat from the inner wall to the outer wall by convection.

Conduction can only occur at the points where the two walls meet, at the top of the bottle

and through an insulated support at the bottom. The silvered walls reflect radiated heat

back to the inside, the same way a space blanket does.

Expansion

The increase in size of objects when they get hotter is called expansion. This expansion can

be the cause of problems in the construction of machines and buildings.

Demonstrating Expansion in a Solid:

A metal ball and a metal ring are both cold. Initially, the ball can pass through the ring. The

ball is then heated. Immediately after the ball is heated, it will be observed that the ball can

no longer pass through the ring. With the rise in temperature of the ball comes an increase

in the size, an expansion. The ring shows that the diameter of the ball has increased in all

directions.

Expansion in a Bimetallic Strip:

Brass

Iron
A bimetallic strip consists of two strips of different metals, for example, brass and iron,

welded or riveted together. When cold, the bimetallic strip is straight as shown above. As it

is heated, however, the brass expands more than the iron and so the brass forms the

outside of a curve and the iron inside as shown in the diagram below.

Iron

Brass

Heat is applied to
the bimetallic strip.

Bimetallic strips are used in mechanical switching circuits. A common example is operation

of a thermostat. The heater will switch on when the temperature falls.

Electrical Connection Electrical Connection

Bimetallic Strip
Contact
Movement

Fixed Point Closed circuit. Heat Open circuit

(b) Electrical contacts are closed (a) Electrical contacts are opened
when the temperature is cold. due to heat.