MCE 325

COURSE CONTENT
Application of mechanical engineering theories to machine component design to: couplings, clutches,
brakes, welded joints, cam, bolted joints, knuckle joints, universal joints, eccentric loaded system,
Analysis, Synthesis and evaluation procedures in creative design. Use of Codes, Charts, Tables,
Standard and Empirical data. Presentation of design portfolio, using assembly and detailed drawings.
Harder examples on assembly and exploded drawing.
There shall be group project design at the end for the students to present their findings.

References
- Machine Design (Theory and practice) by Aaron D. Deutschman et al.
- Mechanical Engineering Design by Joseph Edward Shigley and Charles R. Mischke.
- Design of machine Elements by M. F. Spotts.
- Theory and problems of Machine Design by Allens S. Hall.
- A Textbook of Machine Design by R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta.

COUPLINGS
A coupling is defined as a part that makes a connection and transmits torques (without changing their
magnitude or direction) between two shafts. Couplings are used in machinery for the following common
purposes:
- To provide for the connection of the shafts units that are manufactured separately for purpose of
disconnection for repairs or alternations. e.g. motor and generator .
- To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical flexibility.
- To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
- To introduce protection against overloads.
- To alter the vibration characteristics of rotation units.

CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLINGS
(1) RIGID COUPLINGS: This are used only on shafts with low speeds and which are perfectly aligned. Shafts
joined by rigid couplings behave as a single unit in addition to torque the coupling can receive bending
moments, sharing loads and thrusts. Some examples are: the sleeve or muff couplings, clamp or split-muff or
compression couplings and flange coupling.

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Sleeve or Muff Coupling: This consist of a hollow cylinder whose inner diameter is the same as that of the shaft.
It is usually made of cast iron and fitted over the ends of the two shafts by means of key. The only disadvantage
of the type of coupling is that in other to disengage, it must be shifted along one of the length or the shaft must
be drawn apart.

Flanged-Face Coupling: This consists of two flanged drawn together by

bolts.
Torque is assumed to be transmitted in two ways
(i) By means of carefully ground and fitted bolts in holes that
are lined reamed in the radial flanges at assemble.
-Virtually no clearance between the bolt-holes and bolts.
-Bolts are subjected to only shearing stress.
-Bolts share the imposed loads equally.

(ii) By frictional force produced between the two flanges forces when bottled together.
- Bolts are subject to only tensile stress (if enough clearance is made between bolts holes, they can be
arranged in angular orientation).
- Not recommended where there is fluctuating and reversible load.
No of bolts = 0.5D + 3
Flange coupling design consideration: for (1) The coupling should be designed to avoid:
(i) Shearing or crushing of key
Allowable shear stress, s = 0.58 yp
yp = yield stress in shear
Torque capacity = ypAD
2
= s WLD
2

2
(ii) Failure by shearing off of the radial flange at its juncture with the hub:
Shear area = 2r  t

(iii) Failure of the bolts:

(a) Direct shear failure of the bolts.
Ss < UTS A = root area of bolt; UTS = ultimate tensile strength
A FS F.S = Factor of safety
(b) Bearing of the bolts.
Bearing of the projected area of bolt in contact with the side of flange hole.
Allowable stress in crushing, s = 2y (y = yield strength in tension)
N.B: Bolt must be designed on the basis of combined stress (i.e. transverse shear and bending)

Flange couple designed on the basis of friction torque capacity.

For no slip condition; Tf  T (Tf and T = frictional and applied torques)
Tf = Ff r = Fon (Do +Di)  1  T ………………… (1)
2 2
where Ff = Frictional force, r = mean radius at which F f is applied, Do & Di = outside & inside diameters of the
flange frictional face, n = no of bolt, Fo = bolt load.
S = 0.5yp = T  D = 32T____ ………………… (2)
N J D(I-Di4/Do4)
T = ypDo3 (1 - Di4/Do4)
64N
N = Factor of safety and J = Area polar moment of inertia. From (1) & (2)
Fo  ypDo3 (1 - Di4/Do4)
16n(Do Di)N
For solid shaft Di = 0
We can determine bolt force required for transmit a torque by friction based on the shearing of key
using
T = sWLD and equation (1)
2

(2) FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

These are used:
(a) To take care of a small amount of unintentional misalignment.
(b) To provide for ‘end float’, i.e. axial movement of shafts.
(c) To alleviate stock and impact loads by allowing transfer of power through springs or to absorb
some of the vibration in the coupling.
Examples are Oldham coupling, Falk flexible coupling, roller or silent chain coupling, etc.
Classification
(i) Coupling with kinematics flexibility that employs rigid parts.
(ii) Couplings that have resilient parts.

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 Coupling with kinematics flexibility:
- Designed for specific shaft misalignment (no constraints in misaligned direction)
- Transmit torque without back slack or angular play (i.e. no torsional flexibility) other than that due to
wear and manufacturing tolerance.
Disadvantage: incapable of damping the transmittal of shock or impact load Tongue
Slotted hub

Examples
Oldham’s Coupling: (Double slider coupling): used to connect
shaft that have lateral misalignment.

Slider Block: This type may be used for shafts with lateral
misalignment or angular misalignment. This is possible by
widening the slots and tongues of the Oldham’s coupling and
a block floating member.

Double Roller Chain Coupling: This type accommodates small lateral and angular misalignment. It consists
of two sprockets mounted face to face on the ends of the shafts and coupled/connected by a length of chain
wrapped around the sprockets. The couplings are enclosed in a case filled with grease.

Universal Joints (Hooker’s Joint) Coupling

This is used to connect two shafts that have a permanent angular misalignment.
They are widely used in automatic drives, aircraft and machine tools. This is because they can operate
satisfactorily under high speeds.

Disadvantage
It produces a variable velocity ratio (i.e. if the input shaft has a constant angular velocity 1, the output
shaft will have non-constant angular velocity 2).
2 = 1cos_ _
1 - Sin2 Sin2
where  = angle between shaft;  = angular displacement of the input shaft.

Output acceleration 2 = d2 = 12 Sin2 Cos2 Sin2

d (1 - Sin2 Sin2)2
2  

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This output velocity variation may introduce service vibration in machinery/equipment if  is large.
To overcome this, for   15, double universal joints or two single universal joints connected by shaft
should be used. And both the driver and the driven must be in the same plane for constant velocity ratio.

Rzeppa joint Ajax coupling Steelflex coupling

Slotted member
Flexible Coupling with Resilient Parts
- Capable of accommodating shafts misalignment
- Capable of accommodating shock and impart loads.
Steel spring
- Possess torsion flexibility
- Act as detuning devices thereby altering the vibration properties of the connected system.
Examples are Ajax/Franke coupling, Falk coupling, Steelflex coupling, leather-link coupling etc
N.B.: There are many manufactured flexible coupling to satisfy any design especially Universal Joints because
of its wide application

Compression Coupling: This coupling utilized two split cones which does not move axially and are squeezed
against the shaft by wedging action of flanges drawn by bolts. Torque transmission may be entirely by friction
produced by compression and this eliminates key and keyways.

5
 CLUTCHES
Clutches are coupling which permit the connection and disconnection of the coupled shafts during
rotation. Clutches are very useful where frequent starts, stops, changes in mode of operation and reversing are
required. E.g. vehicles, machine tools and similar equipment. Clutch may be classified according to operation
into two categories:

(1) Positive Clutches: These are designed to transmit torque without slip. They are used were positive power
transmissions is necessary. The have the following advantages:
(i) They develop very little heat because they do not depend upon friction.
(ii) They are generally lighter and
(iii) Cost less than friction clutch of similar torque capacity.
Their disadvantages are:
(i) They cannot engagement at high speed
(ii) Shock accompanies engagement at any speed
(iii) They require some relative motion in order to engage when both driving and driven shafts are at rest.
They are use in automotive transmissions, business machines presses, and household appliances.
Example is the jaw or claw clutch
- Square jaws - for driving in both directions
- Spiral jaws - for unidirectional (left or right-hand)
(2) Friction Clutch: These types are designed to reduce the coupling shock by slipping during
engagement.
Design Considerations:
- Pressure (most important parameter): should not require any external force to maintain contact of the friction
surfaces. And the friction surfaces should be back by a material stiff enough to maintained uniform
distribution of pressure.
- Geometrical (Size, shape): The moving parts of the clutch should have low weight in order to minimize the
inertia load especially in the high speed service, It should have provision for facilitating repairs.
- Tribological properties of surface liners:
Wear characteristics – The suitable material forming the contact surfaces with good resistance to wear and
scoring should be selected, and provision for taking up wear of the contact surfaces must be provided.
Friction coefficient – the contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick and hold the load
(partially or fully loaded) with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
Heat dissipation – the heat of friction should be rapidly dissipated and conducted away, and tendency to
grab should be minimum.
Types of friction clutches- (i) Disk or Plate Clutches (Single disk or multiple dick), (ii) Cone Clutches and
(iii) Centrifugal Clutches.

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PLATE OR DISK CLUTCHES
In the plate clutch, the torque is transmitted by friction between one or more pairs of co-axial annular
faces maintained in contact by an axial thrust. Both sides of plate are normally effective, so that a single-plate
clutch has two pairs of surfaces in contact.
Consider two flat annular surfaces, maintained in contact by an axial thrust W

p r1 dr

W W r
r2

T= torque transmitted
p = intensity of pressure between surfaces
r1, r2 and R = outer, inner and mean radii of faces respectively.
Normal force on elementary ring = p  2rdr
r
 total axial force, W = 2 1prdr
r2
Friction force on ring = p  2rdr
 moment of friction force about axis = p  2r2dr
r1
 torque transmitted, T = 2 pr2dr
r2
Uniform Pressure
If it is assumed that the pressure is uniform over the contact area; the p is constant.
Then, W = p  (r12 – r22)
T = 2/3p(r12 – r22)
= 2/3W r13 – r23
r12 – r22
= WR (as r2  r1)

Uniform Wear
If it is assumed that the wear is uniform over the contact area, then since
Wear  pressure  velocity
 pressure  radius
i.e. pr = constant (C)
 W = 2C(r1 – r2)
and T = C(r12 – r22)
= W(r12 – r22)
r
= WR (as r2  r1)

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MULTI PLATE CLUTCHES
From the figure, B are usually bronze while A are steel
The torque capacity, T = WRn
Where n = nsteel + nbronze – l
=5+4–1=8 (n must be even)

CONE CLUTCHES
Advantages:
- to have wider area of contact
- to increase the thrust produced by specific axial load
A cone clutch consists of one pair of friction faces only, the area of contact being a frustum of a cone.
dr

r p r1
r2

W

If p is the normal pressure between the surfaces, normal force on elementary ring
= p  2r dr Cosec 
Axial component of this force = p  2r dr Cosec  Sin
= 2pr dr
r1
 Total axial force W = 2 pr dr
r2
Friction force on ring = p  2r dr Cosec
Moment of force about axis = p  2r2 dr Cosec
r1
 Torque transmitted, T = 2 Cosec pr dr
r2
For uniform pressure, p is assumed constant
 T = 2 W r13 - r23 Cosec
3 r12 - r22
For uniform wear, pr is constant
 T = W (r1 + r2) Cosec
2
= WR Cosec

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CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCHES
A centrifugal clutch consists of a number of shoes which can move in radial guide and bears on the
inside of an annual rim. The outer surface of the shoes are covered with a friction material, and as the speed rise
the centrifugal force on the shoes causes them to transmit power by friction to the rim.
Springs are fitted to keep the shoes clear of the rim at low speed and this allows the motor to gain speed
before taking up the load. Fc
Let n = number of shoes,
F = centrifugal force on each shoes

P = in ward force on each shoes exacted by spring of rim
R = inside radius of rim
Engagement at a
 = coefficient of friction between shoes and rim. 
specific speed
Then the radial force on rim = F - P Fc
 Friction forces between each shoes and rim = (F - P)
Friction torque on rim = R(F - P)

Total friction torque = nR(F - P)

Power capacity of clutch Disengagement at a

specific speed
Powers = TN (2/60)W
Where T = torque and N = speed of rotation

AUTOMATIC CLUTCHES
(1) To release overload (safety clutch, e.g. shear pin clutch or over load release clutch). It furnishes quick
disengagement should the applied torque exceed the rated torque capacity. Spring loading is used to
provide necessary force.
(2) To transmit the applied torque in one direction only (overrunning clutches).
(3) To ensure engagement or disengagement at a specified speed (centrifugal clutch or expand clutch).

Example
A single plate disc clutch, with both sides of the plate effective, is to be used in an automobile. The friction
material that he clutch is made of has a coefficient of friction of pressure of 140 Nm 2. if the outside radius
of the clutch is 200 mm and the inside is 140 mm, determine the torque that can be transmitted and the
actuating force.

9
 Solution
Uniform wear
T = r2 (r12 – r22)
=   0.3  1400  0.14 (0.22 – 0.142)  103
= 3768.4 Nm
Therefore for 2 sides, T = 2 x 3768.4
= 7536.8 Nm
From W = 2r2 P(r1 – r2)
= 2  0.14  1400 (0.2 – 0.14)  103
= 25.1 kN
Uniform pressure,
T = 2/3P (r13 – r23)
= 2/3  0.3  1400 (0.23- 0.143)
= 4623.4 Nm
For 2 sides effective,
T = 2  4623.4 = 9246.8 Nm
W = p (r12 – r22)
=   1400 (0.22 – 0.142) = 89723.8
= 89.7 kN
The result show that uniform wear is more conservative of the two assumptions. This implies the wear theory
should be used during design calculation, except if otherwise stated (e.g. where the plates are flexible to permit
deflection when wear occurs).

Example
A multiple plate disk clutch, steel and bronze, is to transmit 4 kW at 750 rev/mm. The inner radius of contact is
40 mm and the outer radius of contact is 70 mm. The clutch operates in oil with an expected coefficient of
friction 0.10. The outrage allowable pressure 350 kN/m 2 maximum.
(1) How many total disks of steel and bronze are required?
(2) What is the average pressure?
(3) What axial force is required?
(4) What is the actual maximum pressure?

Solution
First determine the torque capacity of one pair of surface in contact, using uniform wear assumption.
T = W (r1  r2) = 0.1  4000(0.07  0.04) = 22 Nm
2 2
where F = p(r12 - r22) =   350  103(0.072 - 0.042) = 3629 N
Total torque, T = 4000(60) = 50.9 Nm
750(2)
(a) Number of pairs of surfaces = Total torque = 50.9
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 Torque per pair 20.9
= 2.54
Since the number must be even, use four pairs of surfaces with three steel and two bronze disks (n a + nb – l ).
(b) Using 4 pairs of surfaces, we can use a reduce pressure.
The actual torque per pair of surface = total torque = 50.9 = 12.7 Nm
Pair of surfaces 4
To find the actual force required:
T = W (r1  r2) = 0.1  W  (0.07  0.04) = 12.7 Nm
2 2
 W = 2315 N
(c) The average pressure, P = W/A = 2315 .
(0.072 - 0.042)
= 22330 N/m2 = 22.3 kN/m2
(d) Maximum pressure occurs where r = r2
 p(max) = F = 2315 Nm
2(r1 - r2)r 2(0.07 - 0.04)(0.04)
= 307034 N/m2  307 kN/m2

Problem
A cone clutch is mounted on a shaft which transmits power at 225 rev/min. The small diameter of the cone is
230 mm, the cone face is 500 mm and the face makes an angle of 15 0 with the horizontal. Determine the axial
force necessary to engage the clutch to transmit 4.5 kW if the coefficient of friction of the contact surfaces is
0.25. What is the maximum pressure on the contact surfaces assuming uniform wear. Ans: 3146 N, 165
kN/m2.

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 BRAKE
Machine member which absorbs energy (either K.E. or P.E.) from operating system in the process of slowing
down or stopping a moving part. Absorbed energy is the brake is dissipated as heat.
Clutches and brakes are functionally different but analytically the same.
Clutches – Functionally allows change/transferred of motion in a machine moving parts during operation.
Brakes connect moving part to frame thereby bringing it to stop.
Clutch/Brake capacity depends on certain parameters
Pressure – most important parameter
Geometrical – Size, shape
Tribological properties of surface liners: Wear characteristics, Friction coefficient, Heat dissipation

Types of Brakes
1. Hydraulic brakes e.g. pump or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator.
2. Electric brakes e.g. generators and eddy current brakes and
3. Mechanical brakes. This can be divided into Radial brakes (e.g. external and internal brakes) and Axial
brakes (e.g. disc and cone brakes).

EXTERNAL SHOE OR BLOCK BRAKES

This consists of shoes or block pressed against the surface of a rotating cylinder called the brake drum.
Shoe Rigid mounted on pivoted lever
Pivoted to the pivoted lever

Rigid Shoe Mounted on Pivoted Lever

N = Normal force
N = Frictional force
F = Actuating force
R W = Weight of shoe and leer arm

N F
N From the figure, if moments are summed about
c the fixed pivot O, we will have
O W
a a(N + W) – Nc – Fb
b  F = a(N + W) – Nc – F.b
b
Braking Torque = NR where N = total normal force

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N.B: For clockwise rotation of the drum, the N aids the actuating force, F, thus the brake is partially self-
actuating (i.e. self-locking).
For a given coefficient of friction and assuming weight W is negligible:
Then if F = Na – Nc  0
b
a/c  F This is condition for wholly self-actuating (self-locking) for a given .
The equations above hold with negligible error if   60

Pivoted Shoe Mounted on Pivoted Lever

For   60, the frictional force and normal force

shifted from acting at the midpoint of the contact
R
 of the shoe. But they now act at distance as
N h F shown in the figure.
N Braking torque, T = Nh = N 4R Sin1/2
c
 + Sin
O W
a
b

BAND BRAKE
This consists of a flexible band (leather, one or more ropes, or steel lined with friction material)
wrapped partly around drum.

R 

T2 P
T1

Fig. 5 Fixed support

Figure above shows a simple band brake with positive servo action.
Operation: actuated by pulling the band tightly against the drum
i.e. tightened band  Friction force on band and then brake 
Energy dissipation at the interface
Materials: leather, asbestos, fibres, steel etc. (friction material as applicable to belt drive)
Application: Machines of varying size from small to large and ruggedly installed machines e.g. drawwork
braking system used in the oil drilling rigs.
Advantages
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 (1) Transmission of higher torque for given capacity conditions than the shoe or block brakes
(2) More compact than cylinder shoe or block brakes i.e. good space economy
(3) Cheaper to produce than other brakes.
(4) Very flexible in achieving positive and negative servo action.

Force Analysis
Consider fig 5 above with one band end fixed and force applied at the other end. With the very low
speed of the band, the system is considered semi-static.  effect of centrifugal force  0
Analysis follows
T1/T2 = e …………….(1) (from the flat belt drive)
T1 = tension on tight side of band
T2 = tension on slack side of band
 = coefficient of friction between band and drum
 = contact angle between band and drum
Torque braking capacity of the brake wheel is
MT = (T1 – T2) R , Nm …………….(2), R = drum radius
From equations (1) and (2)
T1 = MT e
R e - 1 ……………. (3)
T2 = MT 1
R e - 1 ……………. (4)
If fixed end is tight side, the required force to operate brake system is lesser than tight side tension; thus
result in an advantage to the operator; hence the term positive servo action.
If drum motion is reversed, the tight side would become the effort side negative servo action.
When operation of drum is desired in both direction then a reversible or equal acting band brake is used.

Mo for the lever


- Pl + (T1 + T2)a = 0
Pl = (T1 + T2)a ……………. (5)
Substituting for T1 and T2 from equations (3) and
T1 T2
(4) in equation (5) P
Level
P = aMT e+1 a
lR e+1 a
l
Fig. 6 Reversible or equal acting band brake

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Variation of reversible band brake is the
differential band brake in Fig 7.
For this band brake, the moment arm of the 
lever subjected to greater tension is smaller than the
Fig. 7 Differential band brake
moment arm of the lever subjected to the smaller
tension; i.e. b > a. The brake is only suitable for P
T1 T2 Level
static operation or application such as in automotive
parking brake. a b
When the drum rotates clockwise, the clockwise T 1a applied to the brake is in the same sense as that by
actuating force P. This means that the brake is self-energizing with the moment. T 1a referred to as self-
energizing moment.
Mo = 0  -Pl + T2b – T1a = 0
Pl = T2b – T1a
P = 1/l (T2b – T1a)
Using analysis of belt drive:
T1 = T2 e
P= 1
/l T2 (b – ae)
= MT b – a e
lR e - 1 ……………. 7
From equation 7, If ae > b  P< 0
Practically this means that once the band engages the drum, the brake would grab or be self-locking. Thus no
applied force is required. This is not desirable for most practical application and so the designer must check to
avoid ae > b; i.e. ensure ae  b.
The closer the brake approaches self-locking condition the smaller is the required P to operate it; hence
many brakes are designed with self-energization below that required for self-locking.

INTERNAL SHOE BRAKE

The Internal expanding brake is widely used in automotive

15
 Fa = MFn – MFr
A
Leading or Trailing or
primary shoe Fa Fb secondary shoe
MFn = moment due to normal
Fn force about O.
d
r
MFr = moment due to frictional
 2
a force about O.
Fr 1
c
o

When  > 600, Pressure  constant

Assuming uniform wear

 Pressure  C Sin  Sin
Where C = constant and pressure varies directly as Sin
 P = K Sin K = Proportionality constant
P = Pressure at arbitrary angle 
If Pmax = maximum allowable pressure
Then, K = P = Pmax__
Sin  Sinmax
P= Pmax  Sin
Sinmax
2  900 , Sinmax = Sin2
2  900 , Sinmax = Sin 900
Usually brake is designed for 1  100 and maximum pressure occurs at  = 900. If 2 is made larger the
pressure decrease in magnitude, therefore there is little gain by allowing 2 > 1200.
Since P  constant (i.e. uniform wear)
Taking moment about 
Moment of normal force about 

MFn =  2Pwrd c Sin where w = width of the brake pad.
1

=  2(Pmax/Sinmax) Sinrd c Sin

1

= Pmax wrc 1/2(2 - 1) – 1/4(Sin22 - Sin21)

Sinmax
Moment of frictional force about O;
2
MFr =  Pwrd (r - c Cos)
1
=  2 (Pmax/Sinmax)Sinwrd (r - c Cos)
1
=  Pmax wr - r (Cos2 - Cos1) – C/2 (Sin22 – Sin21)
Sinmax

16
 Moment about O.
Fa = MFn - MFr
a
For clockwise rotation, frictional force will change direction
Fa = MFn + MFr Fa Fa
a Fa

Fa

For the direction of rotation,

For the direction of rotation, only the upper shoe is self-
both shows are self- energizing. In the reverse
energizing and for reverse direction only the lower shoe is.
direction neither is.

BRAKE ACTUATION
The following methods are employed to activate brakes;
Mechanical activated brake:
- Used for low torque, low speed application e.g. scooters, conveyors, golf cart, minibikes etc.
- The braking torque depends on magnitude and length of time the operator can exert the require pressure.
- It requires lubrication of mechanical linkages.

Pneumatic and hydraulic activated brakes: most brake are activated by either or combination of the two.
- Hydraulic brake are used in most passenger vehicle
- Combination brakes – are used for heavy rolling equipment e.g. in truck and trailer.

Electrically activated brake: there are two types

(1) Depends upon a friction-faced magnet attracting a rotating armature.
(2) Spring-set and is released by magnetic means. This is independent of the electrical power.

Material for brakes

The following are to be put into consideration when selecting material for brakes (i) Wear factor (hardness: cost
of manufacture) (ii) heat conduction (iii) assemble and replacement.
Drum – Cast Iron with alloying material added. Stainless steel, aluminium, monel are used where quick heat
conduction is important
Brake lining – Molded asbestos and binders: high coefficient of friction
Woven lining: low temperature operation < 4000F
Sintered metal lining: ceramic particles are added for stability at high temperature (up to 1800 0F).
Advantages – heat conductivity is high, long life span and stable friction characteristics.
Disadvantages – They are relatively expensive, have low coefficient of friction and high rigidity
(most be manufactured to shape)
Most linings are attached to the drums by either riveting (countersunk into lining) or bonding (proper
alignment).

17
Overall design consideration
Analysis should be based upon
1. Torque capacity
2. Energy that must be absorbed and dissipated
Following factors must be considered: Required lining area, method of activation available, space,
characteristics of the frictional material, effect of the activating force on the structure supporting the
element, characteristics of the machine which the element is to be part, operation environment.
N.B.: Compromise of all these factors ensures economically competitive product.

18
 SPRINGS
Applications
- to exert forces e.g. brakes and clutches
- to measure forces e.g. spring balances & engine indicators
- to cushion, absorb or control energy and provide flexibility e.g. railway buffers, aircraft landing gears,
shock-absorbers, vibration dampers
- to store energy e.g. watches and toys

Spring can be classified into:

Wire spring – compression, tension & torsion springs (helical torsion and spiral torsion springs)
(a) Helical spring: made up of a wire coiled in form of helix and used primary for compressive or tensile
load. It can be closed coiled or open coiled helical spring. They have the advantages of easy to
manufacture, wide range availability, good reliability and constant spring rate. Major stresses produced
are shear stresses due to twist.
(b) Conical and volute spring: they are major used in special application where a telescoping spring or spring
with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired. E.g. vibration problem where springs are used to
support a body that has a varying mass. Major stresses produced are shear stresses due to twist.
Laminated or Leaf springs – cantilever, semi-elliptic leaf spring used mostly in automobiles.
Disk (bellevile) spring and Negator spring – used where high spring rate and compact spring units are required.
Special purpose spring – fluid, rubber spring, ring spring

Coil spring parameters and terminology

Wire diameter (d) and coil diameter (D), number of coils (n), Load (W)
Spring index, C = D/d
Solid length: when compression spring compressed until the coils are in contact with each other. L S = nd
Free length: length of unload compression spring (solid length + maximum compression + clash allowance)
LF = nd + max + 0.15max { = n.d + (n-1)}
Spring rate: also known as stiffness or spring constant is load required per unit deflection of spring.
K = W/
Pitch: axial distance between adjacent coils in uncompressed state
P = Free length/(n – 1) [ P = (LF – LS)/n + d]
End connection for compression helical springs: (1) Plain ends, (2) Ground ends, (3) Square ends and
(4) Squared & ground ends. W
Shear stress due to torsional load given by
t = Tr/J = Td/2J
Direct load owing to axial load, d = W/A
(A = cross sectional area of wire) d T
Resultant shear induced in the wire T = t  d
D
= Td/2J  W/A W
Free body diagram for wire subjected
to torsional shear and direct shear
19
+  compressive force for inside fibre
-  tensile force for outside fibre
T = WDm/2 and A = d2/4 (Dm & d = mean diameter and wire diameter of coil respectively)
J = d4/32 (polar moment of inertia for solid shaft)
Thus, T = WDmd/4d4/32  4W/d2
= 8WDm/d3  4W/d2
But C = Dm/d (spring index, C indicate the degree of curvature of the coil)
From equation for shear stress
T = 8WDm/d3(1 + 1/2 d/Dm)
= 8WDm/d3(1 + 0.5/C)
Let KS = 1 + 0.5/C; KS = shear stress multiplication factor
T = KS8WDm …………………. (i)
d3
For most practical spring, C ranges between 6 and 12 for a particular spring, the K s is a constant
Equation (i) applies to both static and dynamic spring and it gives the maximum stress at the inner fibre of the
spring.
Illustration of Superposition of stress in Helical Spring
Direct + torsional and
Pure torsional Pure direct stress Direct + torsional stress curvature
stress I
O O I O
I I O

Correction Factor K
K = KSKC (where KS stress factor due to shear and KC stress factor due to curvature)
K = 4C – 1 + 0.615
4C – 1 C
This includes direct and curvature effect, K is known as the Wahl Correction Factor. It includes effects of both
direct shear and curvature effect.
Therefore resultant shear, T = K8WDm
d3
Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire
In figure above, dx is element of wire bounded by x-x through a & b. After deflection, ab  ac. If  is angle of
twist, then; dx
 =  = 8WDm
G d3G a b
bc =  dx (G = modulus of rigidity d d
for spring material) c c
dx x-x of helical spring

d =  dx/(d/2) = 2 dx/d (If N = no. of active coil; the total length of wire is DmN)

20
thus, d = 2  8WDm  dx = 16WDm dx
d3G d d4G
DmN
 = 0 16WD
d G4
m dx = 16WDm2N
d4G
If moment arm of load W is Dm/2, the total deflection  is given by Dm/2
  = 8WDm3N
d4G
Spring constant (rate or stiffness), K = W/ = d4G (for program purpose, this equation
WDm3N can be converted to log)

From the equation, for soft spring K is small while for hard spring K is large. And value of K depends on d and
Dm since the rest are constants. And equations are valid for both spring in tension and compression.

Eccentric Loading of Springs: When load does not coincide with the axis of the spring, the safe load for the
spring decreases and stiffness of the spring is also affected. Thus,

the safe load, W = W D where e = offset distance

2e + D

Buckling of Compression Springs: Free length, LF, of coils (spring) should be  4Dm, otherwise it behaves like
column and failure by buckling may occur. The critical axial load that causes buckling, W cr = K  KB  LF
(where K = spring rate, KB = buckling factor depending on LF/D). N.B : In order to avoid buckling, spring
should be mounted on central rod or located on a tube, but suffice clearance for increase in diameter during
compression should be provided.

Surge in Springs: This is the phenomenon which occurs as a result of large deflection due to resonance when
time or interval of applications of load (as in internal combustion engine, ICE) equal to the time required for
wave of compression to travel from one end to the other end of (which is rigidly supported) spring and this may
cause failure. Surge may be avoided by;
- using friction dampers on the centre coils so that the wave propagation dies out.
- using spring of high natural frequency. Natural frequency must  20 times the frequency of application
of periodic load.
- using spring having pitch of the coils near the ends different from that at the centre to have different
natural frequency.
Energy Stored in Helical Spring, U = 1/2W ( = deflection)

LAMINATED LEAF SPRINGS

Advantages
- Leaf ends may be guided along define path as it deflects to act as a structural member in addition to
energy absorption. Springs may therefore carry lateral load, brake torque, driving torque etc in addition
to shock load.
- Eliminate surge because of uneven length of leaves. L W

t 21
A B
Flat Spring (Cantilever type)
Bending stress,  = M = W  L = 6WL
Z 1/6  bt2 bt2
Maximum deflection,  = W  L3 = 2L2 (where b = width of leaf, t = thickness and E = modulus of
3EI 3Et elasticity)

Flat Spring (Simply supported seam type)

A B
Bending stress,  = M = W  L = 6WL t
Z 1/6  bt2 bt2 L L
Maximum deflection,  = L 3
(I = bt /12)W
3 W
3EI

L W
For a plate of cantilever with n full strips,
Bending stress,  = 6WL t
nbt2
deflection,  = 4WL3 = 2L2
nEbt3 3Et

L W
For graduated leaves,
Bending stress,  = 6WL t
nbt2
deflection,  = L2 ( F = 3/2G )
Et
N.B: The stress in full-length leaves is 50% greater than the graduated leaves.

The leaves of a laminated spring are of

different length to give even stress distribution and
allow for varying frequency of spring vibration.
Rebound leaves are sometimes fitted above the main
leaf to prevent the latter being overloaded during
rebound.
Due to the sliding action between the leaves friction occurs which may lead to “act harder”. To prevent
this a gaiter is fitted around the spring to retain lubricant. Alternatively, strip of zinc or rubber are inserted
between leaves or plastic interleave pads with filled recesses are fitted at the end of the leave.
The bending stress, F, in the extra full length leaves if they are installed without an initial pre-stress
will be
F = 18WL
bt2 (3nF + 2nG)
where W = Total applied load at the end of the spring, N
L = Length of the cantilever ½ length of semi-elliptic spring
b = width of each spring leaf, m; and t = thickness of each spring leaf, m
nF = no of extra full length (rebound) leaves; and nG = no of graduated leaves.

22
The bending stress, G, in the graduated leaves if they are assembled with rebound leaves.
G = 12WL = 2F
bt2 (3nF + 2nG) 3

The Deflection of a multi-leaf spring (graduated + rebound)

 = 12WL3
bt3E(3nF + 2nG)
where  = deflection at the end of the spring, m and E = modulus of elasticity N/m 2

The bending stress,  = 6FL

nbt2
If the rebound leaves are not present so that all leaves experienced the same stress.

Equalised stress in spring leaves (Nipping): This is done by making the full leaves of smaller thickness than the
graduated leaves and by giving a greater radius of curvature to the full length leaves than graduated leaves.
The initial , C = G + F = 2WL3
nbt3E

Length of leaf spring leaves: Length of the smallest leaf = Effective length  1 + ineffective length
n-1
Length of the (n – 1) leaf = Effective length  (n – 1) + ineffective length
n-1
Length of the master leaf = 2L1 + (d + t)  2

Energy Stored, U in springs having a linear force deflection relationship and obeying Hooke’s law.
U = ½ W = ½ T
For helical spring subjected to an axial load, U =  J/m3
4G
For helical spring subjected to a torsional load, U = 2 and 2 J/m3 (for round and rectangular wire)
8E 6E
For a cantilever beam of constant strength subjected to a bending force at the end, U =  J/m3
6E
For a spiral spring subjected to a torsional load, U = 2 J/m3
6E
where E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2; G = modulus of rigidity N/m2;  = shear stress, N/m2;
 = bending stress, N/m2;  = linear deflection, m;  = angular deflection, rad.

23
 WELDING DESIGN
A weld is a union between metal surfaces brought about by the localized application of heat. It is used as
alternative method for casting or forging, and riveting.
Choice: (i) cost of construction (cost of material such as structural steel, cost of cutting  from parts cost of
positioning part weld and machining)
(ii) Serviceability – strength and stiffness of the parts. Damping capacity of structure (deflection
required)
Advantages
- Save production cost where deflection or damping is limited
- Welded assemblies usually provide greater strength at a reduction in weigh.
- Smaller amount of machining is necessary than equivalent casting
- Used as a repair medium
Methods of Welding
(1) Forge welding: parts are heated to plastic state at the regions to be joined, and then impact by which
causes the parts to unite.
(2) Electric Resistance welding: the parts to be joined are pressed together and an electric current is passed
from one part to the other until the metal is heated to the fusion temp at the joint.
(3) Fusion welding: the parts to be welded must be held in position while molten metal is placed at the
joints, thus fusion the metal of the parts. The molten metal then solidifies to from the weld joints.
(a) Thermit welding:– this types of welding is used principal to repair heavy cast-iron and heavy steel
parts. Mould is built round the joints to confine the molten metal.
(b) Gas welding (Autogenous welding):- use an oxygen-hydrogen or oxygen-aceltylene gas, which
burned in a torch providing pointed flame. The flame heats the parts to be welded and melts the
welding metal, or filler rod, which on cooling forms the joint. The O 2-H2 gas welding is used for
non-ferrous metals.
(c) Electric-Arc welding:- employs either carbon-rod with separate rod for weld metal or metallic-rod
electrode which serves both functions.

Strength of Transverse Fillet Welded Joint

Maximum area of the weld (throat area) = t  L
where t = throat thickness (= s  sin 450 = 0.707s)
s = leg or size of weld = thickness of plate
L = length of weld
 Tensile strength for joint, P = throat area  allowable tensile stress
= Ltt = 0.707s  L  t
For double fillet weld, P = 2  0.707s  L  t

24
Weld in shear:- When butt weld joined two plates is load in the plane of the plate parallel to the weld, shear
failure is likely to occur. Parallel fillet weld are designed for shear strength.
Joint strength, P = 0.707s  L  

Where  = allowable shear stress

For double parallel fillet weld P = 2  0.707s  L  

Special cases of fillet welded joints

Circular fillet weld subjected to torsion: max. shear stress, max = 2.83T/(sd2)
Circular fillet weld subjected to bending moment: max. bending stress, max = 5.66M/(sd2)
Long fillet weld subjected to torsion: max. shear stress, max = 4.242T/(sL)
where T = torque action on the rod; d = diameter of rod; M = bending moment acting on the rod.

Strength of Butt Joint

Tensile strength of joint, P = t  L  t [= (t1 + t2)  L  t for double butt)
where t = throat thickness

Eccentrically Load Joints

If parts are relatively rigid, the stress due to local eccentricity is proportional to distance from the weld
centre of the weld group.
Case 1: The shear stress in the weld when loaded at distance e as shown
 = P/A = P/(1.414s  L)
bending stress,b = M/Z = 4.242P  e/(s  L2)
where Z = section modulus of the weld metal through throat = s L2/4.242 and M = bending moment = P  e
 max. normal stress, b(max) = 1/2b + 1/2 (b2 + 42)
max. shear stress, max = 1/2 (b2 + 42)

Case 2: The shear stress in the weld when loaded as shown

1 = P/A = P/(1.414s  L) (primary shear stress)
2 = Tr/J = (P  e  r2)/J
where P = applied load, A = total throat area, T = Torque (T = P  its distance from centre of gravity of load
group); e = distance from centre of gravity of the weld group; r 2 = distance from centre of gravity to
point of interest.
J = Polar moment of inertia about centre of gravity (can be obtained by the parallel axis theorem).
i.e. J = 2[Ixx + A  x2] = 2 A  L2 + A  x2 = 2A L2 + x2 (A & L = throat and length of weld
12 12 x = ar distance btw the 2 axes)
Resultant shear stress to point of interest, 2 = P/A + Tr/J
= [(1)2 + (2)2 + 21  2  cos ]
 = angle between 1 and 2 (cos  = r1/r2)

25
 BEARING
Bearings are machine elements that take up the radial and axial loads imposed on the shafts or axle.
They are supporting and transmit them to the casing and machine frame. They also fix the shaft in the axial
direction and enable it to rotate about the specified geometrical axis.
Bearing may be classified depending upon:
(1) the direction of load to be supported:
- Radial bearing: load is perpendicular to direction of motion of moving element
- Thrust bearing: load acts along axis of rotation.
(2) the nature of contact:
- Sliding (sleeves or plain) bearing: these in which the mating part slide
- Rolling (Antifriction) bearing: these in which the moving parts roll on one another e.g. ball and roller
bearings.
Types of Sliding Contact
Full journal bearing: angle of contact of bearing with journal is 360 0
Partial (or clearance) journal bearing: angle of contact of bearing with journal is 120 0, load is in direction and
there is less friction.
Fitted journal bearing: partial journal with no clearance

Bearing Selection Parameters

(1) Space limitation: If the radial dimension is limited (i.e. diameter) the sleeve bearing is preferable
and when axial dimension is limited (length) then antifriction bearing is preferred.
(2) If starting torque is high, the rolling bearings are preferred.
(3) If the bearing must resist thrust loads, rolling bearings are also preferred.
(4) Rolling bearing give warning (by becoming noisy) when failure is imminent.
(5) If shafts and machine elements such as gears or grinding wheels must be accurately located radically
and axially then antifriction bearing is the choice.
(6) If electric currents must not be allowed to flow across the bearing then a sleeve bearing is the best.
(7) The sleeve bearing is also preferred for high speeds, heavy load and long life.

PLAIN BEARING AND LUBRICATION

They can be solid bearing (sleeve) or split bearings
- Smaller in diameter
- They can be split and mounted on any type of shaft.
- They can handle relative high rotational speed
- They can operate in corrosive medium and water
- They appear to be insensitive to impacts and vibration
- Used in precision machinery such a coordinate bonny machine because it permits radial clearance
adjustment.

26
 Material  The material for shell must have good resistant to wear, low coefficient of friction. Resist
seizure, be adequately tough (fatigue and compressive strength), high thermal conductively, conformability,
easy to no in be ready to receive the lubricant and offer resistance to fretting corrosion.
Shield or bushings are made of cast metals (bronzes or antifriction cast, clad metals or powder
materials.
To reduce friction and wear, bearing require lubrication because good lubricant reduces friction thus
minimizes wear and heating of contact surfaces.
- It removes heat
- Protects the working surfaces against corrosion
- Enhance smooth operation of shafts and axles, reduce level of noise
- Make up for load fluctuation

Design Procedure for Journal Bearing

1. Determination of the bearing length from table of L/d ratio
2. Check the bearing pressure, P = W/Ld with table for satisfactory value.
3. Choose operating lubricant and temperature range; 26.50C - 600C, 820C maximum for high temperature
operation (e.g. turbine)
4. Determine the operating value of ZN/P for the assumed bearing temperature and check with
corresponding values in table. To determine the maintaining fluid film operation [ZN/P is called
bearing characteristic number, its minimum value is known as bearing modulus for journal bearing].
where Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant (kg/ms);
P = bearing pressure on the projected area (N/mm 2)
Coefficient of friction,  =  ZN , d , L where  = functional relationship
P c d c = diameter clearance.
5. Assume a clearance ratio (mostly 0.001 for journal bearing)
6. Determine the coefficient of friction by using  = 33 ZN d +K (K = factor to correct for end
108 P c leakage depends on L/d)
7. Determine the heat generated by using Qg = WV (Nm/s) [where W = P(L  d)]
P = pressure of the bearing = ZN d 2
L (N/mm2)
4.75  106 c d+L
V = rubbing velocity = dN (m/s)
60
8. Determine the heat dissipated, Qd = CA (tb - ta)
where C = heat dissipation coefficient (unventilated bearings = 140 to 420 W/m/ 0C and ventilated
bearings = 490 to 1400 W/m/0C); A = projected area (L  d); tb & ta = temperature of bearing
surface and surrounding air respectively.
9. Determine the thermal equilibrium to se that heat Qd  Qg. In case Qg > Qd then either the bearing is
redesigned or it is artificially cooled by water.

Types of Lubrication: Fluid lubrication greases, solid-film lubrication and gaseous.

Methods of Lubrication: Continuous, intermittent, circulating, permanent, forced-feed, immersion, fog, wick-
fed, ring and drop-feed lubrication.
27
 The most important property of a lubricant is its viscosity. Viscosity depends on temperature, therefore
very high viscosity oils must be used to lubricate surface operated at higher temperature – Elevated temperature
of operation reduces the viscosity to a desirable level. High-viscosity oils must also be used in bearings
supporting heavy load.
Viscosity of the lubricant must be carefully selected to suit the temperature and the pressure of the
bearing. There are data for various lubricants which indicates viscosity index, pour paint and additive to
improve the performance.
The naphthalene lubricants are preferred for bearing lubrication. This may include additives such as
oxidation inhibitors, rust inhibitors, pour point depressants, EP(extreme pressure) additives.
Grease: This is lubricating oil in some soap compound that keeps the oil in some suspension. The soaps
employed for greases may use calcium, sodium, lithium, aluminium, or barium as their metal base.
Solid lubricants: E.g. molybdenum disulfide and graphite. They are good at very high temperature and
extreme pressure operation.
Some special types of bearing (Aircraft bearing) may use synthetic lubricants – polyglysols, silicones or
diesters. Less common still are gas-lubricated bearings.
Plastic bearings are able to operate without lubrication under light loads and slow speeds.
Full-Film Fluid Lubrication:
- Boundary lubrication: Fluid doesn’t behave like in compressible and viscosity has no effect. This is
cause by insufficient area, a drop in speed decrease in lubricant volume, increase in bearing load,
decrease in viscosity due to increase in temperature.
- Hydrodynamic lubrication: This is possible only at high speed. It does not depend on introduction of
lubricant under pressure. Film pressure is created by moving surface itself which consequently pulling
lubricants into a wedge-shaped zone at a velocity relatively high to create pressure necessary to separate
surfaces.
- Hydrostatic lubrication: This is used where there is low speed and under heavy shaft loads. Lubricants
are force to separate sliding surfaces.

Rolling-Contact Bearing
It consists of (1) outer and inner rings; (2) rolling element - from high carbon chromium steel and
(3) separator (cages or retainer) - soft iron. High speed used antifriction bronze, anodized duralumin
Advantages
(1) Easy to maintenance and replacement. Available at low cost, and use less oil.
(2) Do not require much scarce non-ferrous metals
(3) Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.
(4) Accuracy of shaft alignment.
(5) Reliability of service.
(6) Easy to mount (and erect), and cleanliness.

28
Disadvantages
(1) More noisy at very high speeds.
(2) Low resistance to shock loading (but has ability to withstand momentary shock).
(3) Design of bearing housing complicated.
Classification: (1) Ball
(2) Roller - Short and long cylindrical roller -tappered, needle roller, helical etc.

For the some inner bore, it may differ in size which is function of load carrying capacity.
Basic Rolling–Contact Bearings
Single–row deep groove radial ball bearing: common used, ball bearing take up impact load at low speed
Double-row spherical (self- aligning) radial ball bearing: They have high load rating, allows for angular
misalignment.
Radial, Helical and Needle rollers bearings: are used in supporting radial load, they have high load rating.
Angular–contact ball bearing and tapered roller bearing: are good for both axial and radial loads. They have
load-carrying capacity than others.
Seals: To exclude dirt and foreign matters and to retain lubricant. There are 3 types:
Commercial: for low speed
Felt seal: for low speed, used with grease lubricant, they should be place in machines groove for protection
from dirt.
Labyrinth seal: good for high speed installations.
Mode of failure:
Fatigue pitting, abrasive wear of rubbing surfaces
Permanent setting, scouring of the working surfaces
Break down of rolling elements and ring, and retainers.
Friction Torque T = NF(D/2)

Static capacity of bearing, Co (Stribeck’s equation)

Co = kZD2 or kZDL (for ball and roller bearings respectively)
5 5
k = a constant.
Basic static load a Rating: This is the static load which correspond to a total performance of ball and races
at the heavily stressed contact of 0.0001 of ball diameter.
Co = FoiZleD2 cos  (for radial ball bearing)
Z = no of ball, D = diameter of balls, I = no of rows of balls in one bearing, F o = A factor depending upon the
type of bearing (3.33 or 12.3),  = nominal angle of contact (angle between the line of action of the roller
resultant and a plane perpendicular to the axis of the bearing).

29
 PRESSURE CYLINDERS
Classification:
(1) According to the dimension:- thin walled and thick walled cylinder [ratio of wall thickness to cylinder
diameter, if t/d < 1/10 then it is thin walled and if t/d  1/10 then it is thick walled cylinder, also if the
internal pressure is < 1/6 of the allowable stress then it is thin walled otherwise it is thick walled].
(2) According to the end constructions:- open end or closed
Open end: This has only circumferential or hoop stresses due to fluid pressure.
Closed end: This has longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stress. The relative rigidity and
constraint offered by the ends often induce indeterminate stresses at the juncture of the
cylinder and the head.
Materials: brittle – cast iron, or ductile – low carbon steel.
Service: conditions of service are affected by temperature, pressure and environment.
Temperature: This may influence choice of materials – creeping of material may occurs if temperature is
above 3400C, thermal stresses may be induced due to heating or cooling.
Pressure: Internal pressure and external pressure must be considered. Pressure vessel should be designed
for vacuum and buckling.
Chemical: Chemical apparatus or refining equipment, may, require stainless steel or erosion resistant
lining.

Thin Walled Cylinder

Circumferential tensile stress, t1 = Pd/2t
(where P = internal pressure)
Longitudinal tensile stress, t2 = Pd/4t

Thin Walled Cylinder

The assumption of uniformly distributed tensile hoop stress no longer applied. Pressure loading is independent
of the angular direction. Thus, the principal stress; axial, radial and tangential stresses are independent.
Axial stress, a = Piri
r02 - ri2
Maximum tangential stress (max. principal stress at the inner surface), t(max) = P(r02 + ri2)
r02 - ri2
Maximum radial stress (min. principal stress at the outer surface), r(max) = - P
where r0, ri = outer and inner radius of cylinder respectively; P = internal pressure.
Cylinder thickness, t = r0 - ri = ri t + P - 1 ……………… (i) (N.B.: this hold for brittle material
t - P
where t = allowable tensile stress for material.

Maximum strain theory, t = ri t + (1 - )P - 1 ……………… (ii)

t - (1 - )P

Maximum shear stress theory, t = ri s -1 ……………… (iii)

30
 s - P
where s = allowable shear stress = /2t
1

Maximum energy of distortion theory, t = ri q - 1 ……………… (vi)

q - 1
where q = (1/3P)t

For brittle material, open and closed ends, equation (i) is appropriate
For ductile material, open ends, equation (ii) or (iii) is appropriate
For ductile material, closed ends, equation (iii) or (iv) is appropriate

Thermal Stress: As a result of non-uniform temperature distribution or of different coefficient of thermal

expansion, thermal stresses are produced. In case of thick-walled tube subjected to steady-state heat flow the
following thermal stresses are obtained.
Allowable tensile stress, t = E(Ti – T0) r ri2 1 + r0 2
2
logr0
1 - log 0
2(1 - ) log(r0/ri) r r0 – ri
2 2
ri ri

Allowable shear stress, s = E(Ti – T0) 1 - 2logr0 2ri2 log r0

2(1 - ) log(r0/ri) r r02 – ri2 ri

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 POWER TRANSMITTING SHAFTS
A shaft is a rotating member used for the purpose of transmitting power.
Other special shaft
Axle: Stationary member used for as support for rotating belts.
Spindle: A short shaft or axle (e.g. head stock spindle)
Stud shaft, line shaft and jack shaft
Flexible: Transmission between two points with angular rotational axes, low power transmission.

Shaft design
This consists of determination of correct diameter to ensure satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft is
transmitting power under various operating conditions. Shafts are always subjected to torsion, bending stresses
or a combination of both caused by fluctuating loads. They are also subjected to axial loading.
Associate procedure/steps in shafts analysis design:
Step 1: The shaft diameter is determined tentatively
Step 2: The shaft is proportional on the basis of the adopted diameter
Step 3: The shaft is analysed for strength.
If the shaft fails to meet appropriate conditions for strength its dimension would be changed and the
entire procedure would be repeated again.

For Torsional load

T/J = /r = G/L
where polar moment of inertia, J = d4/32 and J = (d04 – d14)/32 for solid and hollow shafts respectively.
A circular shaft of length L acted upon by torque T will experience a torsional deformation given by:
 = TL/GJ where G = modulus of rigidity

For Bending
M=  =F (for circular sections, I = d4/64)
I y R
Power Transmitted
P = T [ = 2N/60 (rad/sec), N = rpm]
Most shafts are subjected to bending and torsion simultaneously. Thus, the maximum shear stress in
this respect is given as:
max = [ (x/2)2 + 2xy
x = 32M/d3; xy = 16T/d3
M = bending moment, x = torsional stress, x = bending stress, T = torsional moment and d = diameter

For a hollow shaft, x = 32M and max = 16T

d [1 – (di/do)4]
3
d [1 – (di/do)4]
3

The bending moment, M and the torque, T are multiplied by Cb and Ct respectively (shock and the
fatigue factors)
max = 16T (CbM)2 + (CtT)2 1/2
d3

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 values for Cb and Ct
Types of loading Cb CT
1. Stationary shaft
Load applied gradually 1 1
Load applied suddenly 1.3 – 2.0 1.5 – 2.0
2. Rotating shaft
Gradual loading 1.5 1.0
Steady loading 1.5 1.0
Sudden (minor shocks) 1.5 – 2.0 1.0 – 1.5
Sudden (heavy shocks) 2.0 – 3.0 1.5 – 3.0

Allowances for key ways

dr = 1.05 dc (steel shaft); dR = shaft diameter, allowed for key ways and
dc = shaft diameter calculated without position for key way.

Power transmitted by the system, P = T

Say for the given drive you can assume that T1 = 2T2
(1) Draw the bending moment diagram for the shaft
(2) Determine the diameter of this shaft

Solution
P = T [If the shaft is rotating at N rpm.  = 2N/60]
T = P/ = 60P/2N
Pulley A Pulley B
Torque = T = (T1A – T2A)rA Torque = T = (T1 – T2)rB
But T1A = 2T2A But T1 = 2T2
 T1A – T2A = T2A  T1 – T2 = T2
 T = T2ArA  T = T2rB
60P/2N = T2ArA 60P/2N = T2rB (T = 60P/2N)
T2A = 60P/2NrA T2 = 60P/2NrB
T1A = 120P/ 2NrA and T1 = 120P/2NrB
The same for pulley B.

Vertical reactions Horizontal reactions

RCV + RDV = Q …………. (1) RDH + RCH = K ……… (3)
Take moment about B Taking moment about A
x  RCV = (y + z)RDV ……… (2) (x + y)RCH = Z  RDH ……… (4)
Solve simultaneously equation (1) and (2) RCH and RDH
RCV and RDV

Having gotten RCV, RDV, RCH and RDH

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Moment at B Moment at A
MBV = RCV.  x MAV = RDV.  z
MBH = RCH.  x MAH = RDH.  Z
MB = [(MBV)2 + (MBH)2] MA = [(MAV)2 + (MAH)2]

Critical speed
The critical speed is the theoretical angular velocity which excites the natural frequency of a rotating
shaft. As the speed of rotation approaches the objects natural frequency, the object begins to resonate
which dramatically increases systemic vibration. When critical speed is achieved, the driveshaft will
begin to whip or bend in the middle.

At the critical speed, the deflection becomes excessive thereby causing objectionable noise and
permanent deformation or structural damage due to violent vibration of shaft. The large or excessive
deflection e.g. rotor blade of turbine may contact stator blades, large bearing reactions at the critical
speed can result in bearing failure or structural damage to the bearing supports.

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 SURFACE FINISH FRICTION AND WEAR
Surface Irregularities:

Waviness: a pattern of periodically recurring peaks and valleys of the same order of magnitude which are
spaced apart at a distance (wave spacing) that substantially exceeds their height.
Surface Roughness: This is a multitude of irregularities with a relatively short spacing and height.
Surface Flaws: occurs at random intervals for instance scratches, checks, etc caused by the processing operation.
Combination: It combines all the above.

Measurement of surface deviations:

Instrument used include: Profilograph, Profilometer, Surfagage, Brush surface analyzer, etc.
Damage to surfaces
Metallurgical damage: High pressure requirement and the high temperature produced by grinding causes
changes to structure of steel up to 0.001 cm below surface.
Mechanical damage: This is caused as a result of “Built-up edge” adheres to metal cutting tools such as planers,
shapers, milling cutter etc. This changes the shape of the tool point and likewise the form of the surface being
machine.
Production of Smooth Surfaces:
The production of a smooth surface is necessarily a step-by-step process.
- Firstly, rough machining followed by fine machining to bring surface to approximate dimensions.
- The part may be rough-ground, followed by fine grinding to established dimensional accuracy of the part
- For the finishing operations, the part may be:
(i) Honed:– low pressure and random motion of abrasive elements to prevent metallurgical and mechanical
damage “Microhoning” produce smooth surface with a cross hatched pattern favourable to lubrication
and antiscoring
(ii) Lapped:– The peaks of the surface irregularities are progressively removed like honing. The pressure
between the lap and the work is comparatively low and the motion is slower than honing. Considerable
time may be necessary to finish a surface.
(iii) Superfinishing:– This produces a surface that has only small irregularities. It is similar to lapping except
that the low pressure and relative motion of abrasive stone and the part is the result of 3 to 6
superimposed motion so that the path of a particular abrasive point over the work is very complicated.

Specification of surface finish

A designation symbol is used on the drawing by designer to indicate method and degree of
roughness/smoothness to which surface is to be finished. E.g. symbol “f 4 buff”  4 represents the degree of
smoothness.
(a) One number donates overage roughness value
(b) Show maximum and minimum roughness
(c) The waviness-height rating is added

35
(d) The 0.010 value is the roughness-width cut off value and the lay is indicated as perpendicular to the edge.
Symbol X for angular in both direction, C for approximately circular pattern relative to centre of piece, M
for multidirectional, R for approximate radial relative to centre.

Mechanical Wear
This may be defined as cumulative surface damage or deterioration due to use. Types of wear
(1) Adhesive wear, (2) Delamination, (3) Abrasive, (4) Mechanical pitting
(5) Mechanical fretting (6) Corrosive wear

SOLID FRICTION
Force of friction is a force that resists showing or relative motion cause by external force.
Law of dry surfaces friction (Coulomb’s law)
(1) The frictional resistance is approximately proportional to the load on the rubbing surfaces.
(2) The frictional resistance is slightly greatly for large areas and small pressures than small areas and
larger pressure.
(3) The frictional resistance, except for low speed, decrees as the velocity increases.

Frictional force, F = N ( = static and dynamic friction coefficient)

Clinging Friction: This is the friction that operates after moving, sliding surface has been at rest for some
period. It is higher than initial static and dynamic friction.

36
 Exercises
1. Design a square and ground ends coil spring to have a mean diameter of 120 mm, spring index of 6 and
spring rate of 36 KN/m. The maximum load is 8000N and the allowable shear stress is 580 MPa. Take G =
82 GPa and clash clearance of 35%. [Hint: Determine the wire diameter, no of coil, closed and open length,
volume of material, pitch of coil].
2. Determine the required number of coils & permissible deflection in a helical spring made of 1.5 mm
diameter steal wire, assuming a spring made of 8 & an allowable stress of 350 Mpa in shear. The spring rate
is 2000N/m. The shear modules G = 80 Gpa.
3. Design a coil spring to have a mean diameter of 150mm and a spring rate of 100KN/m. the total load is 10KN
and the allowable shear stress is 300mpa. (Assume c = 6.12 for first trial and choose standard wire size).
4. A truck spring has number of leaves, two of which are full length leaves. The spring supports are 1005 m
apart and the central band is 85 mm wide. The central load is to be 5.4 kN with a permissible stress of 280
MPa. Determine the thickness and width of the steel spring leaves. The ratio of the total depth to the width
of the spring is 3. Also determine the deflection of the spring.
5. Design a leaf spring for the following specifications: Total load = 140 kN; number of springs supporting the
load = 4; max. number of leaves = 10; span of the spring = 1000 mm; permissible deflection = 80 mm. Take
E = 200 kN/mm2 and allowable stress in spring material at 600 MPa.
6. A band brake in Figure 6 has 450 mm diameter
drum and a width of lining equal to 85 mm, Figure 6

speed is 200 rev/min, a = 250 mm, m = 75 mm,
 = 2700 and  = 0.2. Find the actuating force
P, torque and power that it can absorb if T2 P
maximum lining pressure is 0.5 MPa.
T1 a
m

7. A differential band brake has a force 220 N applied at

end of a lever as shown in Figure 1. Coefficient of 150 Figure 7
friction, , between the band and the drum is 0.4. the
angle of lap,  = 1800. Find:
220 N
(i) the maximum and minimum force in the band,
when a clockwise torque of 450 Nm is applied
to the drum and 50 100
N 200
(ii) the maximum torque that the brake may sustain N
All dimensions in mm
for counter clockwise rotation of the drum.

8. Design a journal bearing for a centrifugal pump from the following data: Load on the journal = 20,000N;
speed of the journal = 900 rpm; type of oil is SAE 10, for which the absolute viscosity at 55 0C = 0.017
kg/ms; ambient temp. of oil = 15.50C; max. bearing pressure for the pump = 1.5 N/mm2. Calculate the mass
of the lubricating oil required for artificial cooling, if rise of temperature of oil be limited to 10 0C. Heat
dissipation coefficient = 1232 W/m2/0C.

37
9. The load on the journal bearing is 150 kN due to turbine shaft of 300 mm diameter running at 1800 rpm.
Determine: (i) Length of the bearing if allowable bearing pressure is 1.6 N/mm 2, and (ii) Amount of heat to
be removed by the lubricant per minute if the bearing temperature is 60 0C and viscosity of the oil at 600C is
0.02 kg/ms and the bearing clearance is 0.25 mm. 25 kN
500
10. A rectangular cross section bar is welded to a support by
means of fillet welds as shown in the figure. Determine 150

the size of the weld if the permissible shear stress in the 100

weld is limited to 75 MPa. All dimensions in mm

15 kN
200
11. A 50 mm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate as
shown in Figure 5. If the size of the weld is 15 mm, find 50
the maximum normal and shear stress in the weld
12. An arm A is welded to hollow shaft at section “1”. The All dimensions in mm
hollow shaft is welded to a plate C at section “2’. The
arrangement is shown in the figure. A force P = 15 kN
acts at arm A perpendicular to the axis of the arm.
Calculate the size of weld at section “1” and “2”. The
permissible shear stress in the weld is 120 MPa.
12b. Find the value of static load P in Figure 10b if
electrode E6010 with yield stress = 345 MN/m2
is used at a factor of safety 2
13. A hydraulic press has a max. capacity of 1000
kN. The piston diameter is 250 mm. Calculate
the wall thickness if the cylinder is made of
material for which the permissible strength may
be taken as 80 MPa. This material may be Figure 12b
assumed as a brittle material.
14. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 220 mm in diameter. The pressure of the fluid is 14 N/mm 2 by
guage. Determine suitable thickness of the cylinder wall assuming that the maximum permissible tensile
stress is not exceed 105 MPa.
15. A shaft is supported by two bearings placed 1.1 m apart. A 650 mm diameter pulley is mounted at a distance
of 300 mm to the right of left hand bearing and this drives a pulley directly below it with the help of belt
having maximum tension of 2.3 KN. Another pulley 400 mm diameter is placed 200 mm to the left of right
hand bearing and is driven with the help of electric motor and belt which is placed horizontally to the right.
The angle of contact for both the pulleys is 1800 and coefficient of friction is 0.24. Determine the suitable
diameter for a solid shaft, allowing working stress of 63 MPa in tension and 42 MPa in shear for the material
of shaft. Assume that the torque on one pulley is equal to that on the other pulley.
16. A shaft is supported by two bearings A and B, 800 mm between centers. A 20 0 straight tooth spur gear
having 600 mm pitch diameter, is located 200 mm to the right of the left hand bearing A, and a 700 mm
diameter pulley is mounted 250 mm towards the left of bearing B. The gear is driven by a pinion with a

38
 downward tangential force while the pulley drives a horizontal belt having 180 0 angle of wrap. The pulley
also serves as a flywheel and weighs 2000 N. The max. belt tension is 3000 N and the tension ratio is 3:1.
Determine the max. bending moment and the necessary shaft diameter if the allowable shear stress of the
material is 40 MPa.
17. Design a shaft to transmit power from electric motor to a lathe head stock through a pulley by means of a
belt drive. The pulley weighs 200 N and is located at 300 mm from the centre of the bearing. The diameter of
the pulley is 200 mm and the maximum power transmitted is 1.2 kW at 140 rev/min. The angle of lap of the
belt is 1800 and coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.3. The shock and fatigue factors
for bending and twisting are 1.5 and 2.0 respectively. The allowable shear stress in the shaft may be taken as
40 MPa.
18. What is assembly drawing and mention four types of assemble drawing used in
machine design.
19. Mention three advantages of using exploded view diagrams in machine design.
20. List adequate information the assembly drawing must provide to enable assembly of a
component.
21. What are features of working assembly or detailed assembly drawing?
22. What is meant by working drawing package? What drawings must be included in
working drawing package?
23. Examples 23.23, 23.24, 24.8, 13.13 (R.S. Khurmi & J.K. Gupta)

39