CHAPTER

10
Roots of Algebraic
and Transcendental
Equations

chapter outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bisection Method
10.3 Regula Falsi Method
10.4 Newton–Raphson Method
10.5 Secant Method

10.1 IntroductIon
n n -1 n-2
An expression of the form f ( x ) = a0 x + a1 x + a2 x +  + an -1 x + an , where a0,
a1, a2, ..., an are constants and n is a positive integer, is called an algebraic polynomial
of degree n if a0 π 0. The equation f (x) = 0 is called an algebraic equation if f (x)
is an algebraic polynomial, e.g., x3 – 4x – 9 = 0. If f (x) contains functions such as
trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, etc., then f (x) = 0 is called a transcendental
equation, e.g., 2x3 – log (x + 3) tan x + ex = 0.
In general, an equation is solved by factorization. But in many cases, the method of
factorization fails. In such cases, numerical methods are used. There are some methods
to solve the equation f (x) = 0 such as
(i) Bisection method
(ii) Regula Falsi method
(iii) Newton–Raphson method
(iv) Secant method
10.2 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

10.2 BIsectIon Method

Let f (x) = 0 be the given equation. Let x0
and x1 be two real values of x at P and Q
respectively such that f (x1) is positive and
f (x0) is negative or vice versa (Fig. 10.1).
Then there is one root of the equation f (x)
= 0 between x0 and x1. Now, this interval
[x0, x1] is divided into two sub-intervals
x +x
[x0, x2] and [x2, x1], where x2 = 0 1 .
2
If f (x0) and f (x2) are of opposite signs
then the interval [x0, x2] is divided into
x + x2
[x0, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 0 .
2 Fig. 10.1
However, if f (x0) and f (x2) are of the same
sign then f (x1) and f (x2) will be opposite signs and the interval [x1, x2] is divided into
x +x
[x1, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 1 2 . This process is continued till the desired
2
accuracy is obtained.

example 1
Find the positive root of x3 – 2x – 5 = 0, correct up to two decimal
places.
Solution

Let f (x) = x3 – 2x – 5

f (1) = –6 and f (2) = –1, f (3) = 16

Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = 5.625
Since f (2.5) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 2.
2.5 + 2
x2 = = 2.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.25) = 1.8906
Since f (2.25) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.25 and 2.
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.3

2.25 + 2
x3 = = 2.125
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.125) = 0.3457
Since f (2.125) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.125 and 2.
2.125 + 2
x4 = = 2.0625
2
f ( x4 ) = f (2.0625) = -0.3513
Since f (2.0625) < 0 and f (2.125) > 0, the root lies between 2.0625 and 2.125.
2.0625 + 2.125
x5 = = 2.09375
2
f ( x5 ) = f (2.09375) = -0.0089
Since f (2.09375) < 0 and f (2.125) > 0, the root lies between 2.09375 and 2.125.
2.09375 + 2.125
x6 = = 2.109375
2
f ( x6 ) = f (2.109375) = 0.1668
Since f (2.109375) > 0 and f (2.09375) < 0, the root lies between 2.109375 and
2.09375.
2.109375 + 2.09375
x7 = = 2.10156
2
Since x6 and x7 are same up to two decimal places, the positive root is 2.10.

example 2
Find a root of x3 – 5x + 3 = 0 by the bisection method correct up to four
decimal places. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 5x + 3
f (0) = 3 and f (1) = –1
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = 0.625
Since f (0.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = -0.3281
10.4 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Since f (0.75) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = 0.1191
Since f (0.625) > 0 and f (0.75) < 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = -0.1125
Since f (0.6875) < 0 and f (0.625) > 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.625.
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.65625
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.65625) = 0.00137
Since f (0.65625) > 0 and f (0.6875) < 0, the root lies between 0.65625 and 0.6875.
0.65625 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.67188
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.67188) = -0.0561

Since f (0.67188) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.67188 and 0.65625.
0.67188 + 0.65625
x7 = = 0.66407
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.66407) = -0.02750
Since f (0.66407) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.66407 and 0.65625.
0.66407 + 0.65625
x8 = = 0.66016
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.66016) = -0.01309
Since f (0.66016) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.66016 and 0.65625.
0.66016 + 0.65625
x9 = = 0.65821
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.65821) = -0.00589
Since f (0.65821) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65821 and 0.65625.
0.65821 + 0.65625
x10 = = 0.65723
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.65723) = -0.0023
Since f (0.65723) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65723 and 0.65625.
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.5

0.65723 + 0.65625
x11 = = 0.65674
2
f ( x11 ) = f (0.65674) = -0.00044
Since f (0.65674) < 0 and f (0.65625) > 0, the root lies between 0.65674 and 0.65625.
0.65674 + 0.65625
x12 = = 0.6565
2
f ( x12 ) = f (0.6565) = 0.00044
Since f (0.6565) > 0 and f (0.65674) < 0, the root lies between 0.6565 and 0.65674.
0.6565 + 0.65674
x13 = = 0.6566
2
f ( x13 ) = f (0.6566) = 0.00075
Since f (0.6566) > 0 and f (0.65674) < 0, the root lies between 0.6566 and 0.65674.
0.6566 + 0.65674
x14 = = 0.65667
2
Since x13 and x14 are same up to four decimal places, the root is 0.6566.

example 3
Perform the five iterations of the bisection method to obtain a root of the
equation f(x) = x3 – x – 1 = 0.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – x – 1
f (1) = –1 and f (2) = 5

Since f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.875
Since f (1.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 1.5 and 1.
1.5 + 1
x2 = = 1.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.25) = -0.2968
Since f (1.25) < 0 and f (1.5) > 0, the root lies between 1.25 and 1.5.
1.25 + 1.5
x3 = = 1.375
2
f ( x3 ) = f (1.375) = 0.2246
10.6 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Since f (1.375) > 0 and f (1.25) < 0, the root lies between 1.375 and 1.25.
1.375 + 1.25
x4 = = 1.3125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (1.3125) = -0.0515
Since f (1.3125) < 0 and f (1.375) > 0, the root lies between 1.3125 and 1.375.
1.3125 + 1.375
x5 = = 1.3438
2
Hence, the root is 1.3438 up to five iterations.

example 4
Find the approximate solution of x3 + x – 1 = 0 correct to three decimal
places. [Winter 2013]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 + x – 1
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 1
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = -0.375
Since f (0.5) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.1719
Since f (0.75) > 0 and f (0.5) < 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = -0.1309
Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = 0.01245
Since f (0.6875) > 0 and f (0.625) < 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.625.
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.6563
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.6563) = -0.0644
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.7

Since f (0.6563) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6563 and 0.6875.
0.6563 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.6719
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.6719) = -0.0248
Since f (0.6719) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6719 and 0.6875.
0.6719 + 0.6875
x7 = = 0.6797
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.6797) = -0.0141
Since f (0.6797) < 0 and f (0.6875) > 0, the root lies between 0.6797 and 0.6875.
0.6797 + 0.6875
x8 = = 0.6836
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.6836) = 0.0031
Since f (0.6836) > 0 and f (0.6797) < 0, the root lies between 0.6836 and 0.6797.
0.6836 + 0.6797
x9 = = 0.6817
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.6817) = -0.0015
Since f (0.6817) < 0 and f (0.6836) > 0, the root lies between 0.6817 and 0.6836.
0.6817 + 0.6836
x10 = = 0.6827
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.6827) = 0.00089
Since f (0.6827) > 0 and f (0.6817) < 0, the root lies between 0.6827 and 0.6817.
0.6827 + 0.6817
x11 = = 0.6822
2
Since x10 and x11 are same up to three decimal points, the root is 0.682.

example 5
Find a root of the equation x3 – 4x – 9 = 0 using the bisection method in
four stages.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 4x – 9
f (2) = –9 and f (3) = 6
Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
10.8 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = -3.375
Since f (2.5) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 3.
2.5 + 3
x2 = = 2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.75) = 0.7969
Since f (2.75) > 0 and f (2.5) < 0, the root lies between 2.75 and 2.5.
2.75 + 2.5
x3 = = 2.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.625) = -1.4121
Since f (2.625) < 0 and f (2.75) > 0, the root lies between 2.625 and 2.75.
2.625 + 2.75
x4 = = 2.6875
2
Hence, the root is 2.6875 up to four stages.

example 6
Find the negative root of x3 – 7x + 3 by the bisection method up to three
decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 7x + 3
f (–2) = 9 and f (–3) = –3
Since f (–2) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2 and –3.
-2 - 3
x1 = = -2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (-2.5) = 4.875
Since f (–2.5) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.5 and –3.
-2.5 - 3
x2 = = -2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (-2.75) = 1.4531
Since f (–2.75) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.75 and –3.
-2.75 - 3
x3 = = -2.875
2
f ( x3 ) = f (-2.875) = -0.6387
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.9

Since f (–2.875) < 0 and f (–2.75) > 0, the root lies between –2.875 and –2.75.
-2.875 - 2.75
x4 = = -2.8125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (-2.8125) = 0.4402
Since f (–2.8125) > 0 and f (–2.875) < 0, the root lies between –2.8125 and –2.875.
-2.8125 - 2.875
x5 = = -2.8438
2
f ( x5 ) = f (-2.8438) = - 0.0918
Since f (–2.8438) < 0 and f (–2.8125) > 0, the root lies between –2.8438 and –2.8125.
-2.8438 - 2.8125
x6 = = -2.8282
2
f ( x6 ) = f (-2.8282) = 0.1754
Since f (–2.8282) > 0 and f (–2.8438) < 0, the root lies between –2.8282 and –2.8438.
-2.8282 - 2.8438
x7 = = -2.836
2
f ( x7 ) = f (-2.836) = 0.0423
Since f (–2.836) > 0 and f (–2.8438) < 0, the root lies between –2.836 and –2.8438.
-2.836 - 2.8438
x8 = = -2.8399
2
f ( x8 ) = f (-2.8399) = - 0.0246
Since f (–2.8399) < 0 and f (–2.836) > 0, the root lies between –2.8399 and –2.836.
-2.8399 - 2.836
x9 = = -2.838
2
f ( x9 ) = f (-2.838) = 0.0081
Since f (–2.838) > 0 and f (–2.8399) < 0, the root lies between –2.838 and –2.8399.
-2.838 - 2.8399
x10 = = -2.8389
2
Since x9 and x10 are same up to three decimal places, the negative root is –2.838.

example 7
Perform three iterations of the bisection method to obtain the root of the
equation 2 sin x – x = 0, correct up to three decimal places.
[Summer 2015]
10.10 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Solution
Let f (x) = 2 sin x – x
f (1) = 0.6829 and f (2) = – 0.1814
Since f (1) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.4949
Since f (1.5) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1.5 and 2.
1.5 + 2
x2 = = 1.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.75) = 0.2179
Since f (1.75) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1.75 and 2.
1.75 + 2
x3 = = 1.875
2
Hence, the root is 1.875 up to three iterations.

example 8
Solve x = cos x by the bisection method correct to two decimal places.
[Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x) = x – cos x
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 0.4597
Since f (0) < 1 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = - 0.3776
Since f (0.5) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.0183
Since f (0.75) > 0 and f (0.5) < 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = - 0.186
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.11

Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = - 0.0853
Since f (0.6875) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.75.
0.6875 + 0.75
x5 = = 0.71875
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.71875) = - 0.0338
Since f (0.71875) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.71875 and 0.75.
0.71875 + 0.75
x6 = = 0.7344
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.7344) = - 0.0078
Since f (0.7344) < 0 and f (0.75) > 0, the root lies between 0.7344 and 0.75.
0.7344 + 0.75
x7 = = 0.7422
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.7422) = 0.0052
Since f (0.7422) > 0 and f (0.7344) < 0, the root lies between 0.7422 and 0.7344.
0.7422 + 0.7344
x8 = = 0.7383
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.7383) = -0.0013
Since f (0.7383) < 0 and f (0.7422) > 0, the root lies between 0.7383 and 0.7422.
0.7383 + 0.7422
x9 = = 0.74025
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.74025) = 0.00195
Since f (0.74025) > 0 and f (0.7383) < 0, the root lies between 0.74025 and 0.7383.
0.74025 + 0.7383
x10 = = 0.7393
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.7393) = 0.0004
Since f (0.7393) > 0 and f (0.7383) < 0, the root lies between 0.7393 and 0.7383.
0.7393 + 0.7383
x11 = = 0.7388
2
Since x 10 and x11 are the same up to two decimal places, the root is 0.73.
10.12 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

example 9
Find a real root between 0 and 1 of the equation e–x – x = 0, correct up
to three decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = e–x – x
f (0) = 1 and f (1) = – 0.63
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = 0.1065
Since f (0.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = - 0.2776
Since f (0.75) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = - 0.0897
Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.5.
0.625 + 0.5
x4 = = 0.5625
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5625) = 7.28 ¥ 10 -3
Since f (0.5625) > 0 and f (0.625) < 0, the root lies between 0.5625 and 0.625.
0.5625 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.5938
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.5938) = - 0.0416
Since f (0.5938) < 0 and f (0.5625) > 0, the root lies between 0.5938 and 0.5625.
0.5938 + 0.5625
x6 = = 0.5782
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.5782) = - 0.0173
Since f (0.5782) < 0 and f (0.5625) > 0, the root lies between 0.5782 and 0.5625.
0.5782 + 0.5625
x7 = = 0.5704
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.5704) = -5.1007 ¥ 10 -3
 10.2 Bisection Method 10.13

Since f (0.5704) < 0 and f (0.5625) > 0, the root lies between 0.5704 and 0.5625.
0.5704 + 0.5625
x8 = = 0.5665
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.5665) = 1.008 ¥ 10 -3
Since f (0.5665) > 0 and f (0.5704) < 0, the root lies between 0.5665 and 0.5704.
0.5665 + 0.5704
x9 = = 0.5685
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.5685) = -2.1256 ¥ 10 -3
Since f (0.5685) < 0 and f (0.5665) > 0, the root lies between 0.5685 and 0.5665.
0.5685 + 0.5665
x10 = = 0.5675
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.5675) = -5.5898 ¥ 10 -4
Since f (0.5675) < 0 and f (0.5665) > 0, the root lies between 0.5675 and 0.5665.
0.5675 + 0.5665
x11 = = 0.567
2
Since x10 and x11 are the same up to three decimal places, the root is 0.567.

example 10
Find the root of cos x – xex = 0 in four steps.
Solution
Let f (x) = cos x – xex
f (0) = 1 and f (1) = –2.18
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = 0.0532
Since f (0.5) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = - 0.8561
Since f (0.75) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.75 and 0.5.
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = - 0.3567
10.14 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Since f (0.625) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.5.
0.625 + 0.5
x4 = = 0.5625
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5625) = - 0.1413
Since f (0.5625) < 0 and f (0.5) > 0, the root lies between 0.5625 and 0.5.
0.5625 + 0.5
x5 = = 0.53125
2
Hence, the root is 0.53125 in four steps.

exercIse 10.1
Find a positive root of the following equations correct to four decimal
places using bisection method:
1. x 3 - 4 x - 9 = 0
[Ans.: 2.7065]
2. x 3 + 3x - 1 = 0
[Ans.: 0.3222]
3. x 3 + x 2 - 1 = 0
[Ans.: 0.7549]
4. x 4 - x 3 - x 2 - 6 x - 4 = 0
[Ans.: 2.5528]
5. 3x = 1 + sin x
[Ans.: 0.3918]
6. 3x = cos x + 1
[Ans.: 0.6071]
7. x - cos x = 0
[Ans.: 0.7391]

8. xe = 1
x

[Ans.: 0.5671]
9. x log10 x = 1.2 lying between 2 and 3
[Ans.: 2.7406]
 10.3 Regula Falsi Method 10.15

10.3 regulA FAlsI Method

This method resembles the bisection method. In this method, two points x0 and x1
are chosen such that f (x0) and f (x1) are of opposite signs, i.e., the graph of y = f (x)
crosses the x-axis between these points. Hence, a root lies between x0 and x1 and
f (x0) f (x1) < 0 (Fig.10.2).
The equation of the chord joining the points
P[ x0 , f ( x0 )] and Q [ x1 , f ( x1 )] is

f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
y - f ( x0 ) = ( x - x0 )
x1 - x0

In this method, the curve PQ is replaced by

the chord PQ and the point of intersection of
the chord with the x-axis is taken as an
approximation to the root.
If x2 is the point of intersection of the
x-axis and the line joining P[x0, f (x0) and
Q[x1, f (x1)] then x2 is closer to the root a
than x0 and x1.
Fig. 10.2
Using slope formula,
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 ) f ( x2 ) - f ( x0 ) 0 - f ( x0 )
m= = =
x1 - x0 x2 - x0 x2 - x0
x1 - x0
x2 - x0 = - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
which is an approximation to the root.
If f (x0) and f (x2) are of opposite signs, the root lies between x0 and x2, and the next
approximation x3 is obtained as
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x0 )
If the root lies between x1 and x2, the next approximation x3 is obtained as
x1 - x2
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x2 )
This process is repeated till the root is obtained to the desired accuracy. This iteration
process is known as the method of false position or regula falsi method.
10.16 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

example 1
Find a positive root of x3 – 4x + 1 correct up to three decimal places.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 4x + 1
f (0) = 1 and f (1) = –2
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 0, x1 = 1
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1- 0
= 0- (1)
-2 - 1
= 0.3333
f ( x2 ) = f (0.3333) = - 0.2962
Since f (0.3333) < 0 and f (0) > 0, the root lies between 0.3333 and 0, i.e., x2 and x0.
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x 0 )
0.3333 - 0
= 0- (1)
- 0.2962 - 1
= 0.2571
f ( x3 ) = f (0.2571) = - 0.0114
Since f (0.2571) < 0 and f (0) > 0, the root lies between 0.2571 and 0, i.e., x3 and x0.
x3 - x0
x 4 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x0 )
0.2571 - 0
= 0- (1)
- 0.0114 - 1
= 0.2542
f ( x4 ) = f (0.2542) = - 0.0004
Since f (0.2542) < 0 and f (0) > 0, the root lies between 0.2542 and 0, i.e., x4 and x0.
x 4 - x0
x5 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x 4 ) - f ( x0 )
0.2542 - 0
= 0- (1)
- 0.0004 - 1
= 0.2541
 10.3 Regula Falsi Method 10.17

Since x4 and x5 are same up to three decimal places, a positive root is 0.254.

example 2
Find the root of the equation 2x – log10x = 7, which lies between 3.5 and
4, correct up to five places of decimal.
Solution
Let f (x) = 2x – log10x – 7
f (3.5) = –0.54407 and f (4) = 0.39794
Since f (3.5) < 0 and f (4) > 0, the root lies between 3.5 and 4.
Let x0 = 3.5, x1 = 4
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
4 - 3.5
= 3.5 - (- 0.54407)
0.39794 + 0.54407
= 3.78878
f ( x2 ) = f (3.78878) = - 0.00094
Since f (3.78878) < 0 and f (4) > 0, the root lies between 3.78878 and 4, i.e., x2 and x1.
x1 - x2
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x2 )
4 - 3.78878
= 3.78878 - (- 0.00094)
0.39794 + 0.00094
= 3.78928
f ( x3 ) = f (3.78928) = 0.000003
Since f (3.78928) > 0 and f (3.78878) < 0, the root lies between 3.78928 and 3.78878,
i.e., x3 and x2.
x3 - x2
x 4 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
3.78928 - 3.78878
= 3.78878 - (- 0.00094)
0.000003 + 0.00094
= 3.78928
Since x3 and x4 are same up to five decimal places, the root is 3.78928.
10.18 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

example 3
Find a real root of the equation x log10 x = 1.2 by the regula falsi method.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x log10x – 1.2
f (2) = – 0.5979 and f (3) = 0.2314
Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
Let x0 = 2, x1 = 3
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
3-2
= 2- (- 0.5979)
0.2314 + 0.5979
= 2.721
f ( x2 ) = f (2.721) = - 0.0171
Since f (2.721) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2.721 and 3, i.e., x2 and x1.
x1 - x2
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x2 )
3 - 2.721
= 2.721 - (- 0.0171)
0.2314 + 0.0171
= 2.7402
f ( x3 ) = f (2.7402) = - 0.0004
Since f (2.7402) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2.7402 and 3, i.e., x3 and x1.
x3 - x1
x4 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x1 )
2.7042 - 3
= 3- (0.2314)
- 0.0004 - 0.2314
= 2.7406
Since x3 and x4 are same up to three decimal places, a real root is 2.740.

example 4
Solve the equation x tan x = –1, starting with x0 = 2.5 and x1 = 3, correct
up to three decimal places.
 10.3 Regula Falsi Method 10.19

Solution
Let f (x) = x tan x + 1
f (2.5) = – 0.8676 and f (3) = 0.5724
Since f (2.5) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 3.
Let x0 = 2.5, x1 = 3
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
3 - 2.5
= 2.5 - (- 0.8676)
0.5724 + 0.8676
= 2.8013
f ( x2 ) = f (2.8013) = 0.0082
Since f (2.8013) > 0 and f (2.5) < 0, the root lies between 2.8013 and 2.5, i.e., x2 and
x0.
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x 0 )
2.8013 - 2.5
= 2.5 - (- 0.8676)
0.0082 + 0.8676
= 2.7985
f ( x3 ) = f (2.7985) = 0.0003

Since f (2.7985) > 0 and f (2.5) < 0, the root lies between 2.7985 and 2.5, i.e., x3 and
x0.
x3 - x0
x 4 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x0 )
2.7985 - 2.5
= 2.5 - (- 0.8676)
0.0003 + 0.8676
= 2.7984
Since x3 and x4 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 2.798.

example 5
Find the real root of the equation log10 x – cos x = 0, correct to four
decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = log10x – cos x
f (1) = – 0.5403 and f (1.5) = 0.10535
Since f (1) < 0 and f (1.5) > 0, the root lies between 1 and 1.5.
10.20 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Let x0 = 1, x1 = 1.5
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1.5 - 1
= 1- (- 0.5403)
0.10535 + 0.5403
= 1.41842
f ( x2 ) = f (1.41842) = 0.00002
Since f (1.41842) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 1.41842 and 1, i.e., x2 and x0.
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x0 )
1.41842 - 1
= 1- (- 0.5403)
0.00002 + 0.5403
= 1.41840
Since x2 and x3 are same up to four decimal places, the real root is 1.4184.

example 6
Find the smallest root of an equation x – e–x = 0 correct to three
significant digits. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x – e–x
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 0.6321
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 0, x1 = 1
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1- 0
= 0- (-1)
0.6321 + 1
= 0.6127
f ( x2 ) = f (0.6127) = 0.0708
Since f (0.6127) > 0 and f (0) < 0, the root lies between 0.6127 and 0, i.e., x2 and x0.
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x 0 )
0.6127 - 0
= 0- (-1)
0.0708 + 1
= 0.5722
f ( x3 ) = f (0.5722) = 0.0079
 10.3 Regula Falsi Method 10.21

Since f (0.5722) > 0 and f (0) < 0, the root lies between 0.5722 and 0, i.e., x3 and x0.
x3 - x0
x 4 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x0 )
0.5722 - 0
= 0- (-1)
0.0079 + 1
= 0.5677
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5677) = 0.0009
Since f (0.5677) > 0 and f (0) < 0, the root lies between 0.5677 and 0, i.e., x4 and x0.
x 4 - x0
x5 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x 4 ) - f ( x0 )
0.5677 - 0
= 0- (-1)
0.0009 + 1
= 0.5672
Since x4 and x5 are same up to three significant digits, a positive root is 0.567.

example 7
Find the root of the equation cos x – xex = 0 correct up to three decimal
places, lying between 0.5 and 0.7.
Solution
Let f (x) = cos x – xex
f (0.5) = 0.0532 and f (0.7) = – 0.6448
Since f (0.5) > 0 and f (0.7) < 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 0.7.
Let x0 = 0.5, x1 = 0.7
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
0.7 - 0.5
= 0.5 - (0.0532)
- 0.6448 - 0.0532
= 0.5152
f ( x2 ) = f (0.5152) = 0.0078
Since f (0.5152) > 0 and f (0.7) < 0, the root lies between 0.5152 and 0.7, i.e., x2 and x1.
x1 - x2
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x2 )
0.7 - 0.5152
= 0.5152 - (0.0078)
- 0.6448 - 0.0078
= 0.5174
f ( x3 ) = f (0.5174) = 0.0011
10.22 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Since f (0.5174) > 0 and f (0.7) < 0, the root lies between 0.5174 and 0.7, i.e., x3 and
x1.
x1 - x3
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x3 )
0.7 - 0.5174
= 0.5174 - (0.0011)
- 0.6448 - 0.0011
= 0.5177
Since x3 and x4 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 0.517.

exercIse 10.2
Find a real root of the following equations correct to three decimal places
using regula falsi method:
1. x + x - 1 = 0
3

[Ans.: 0.682]
2. x 3 - 4 x - 9 = 0
[Ans.: 2.707]
3. x 3 - 5x - 7 = 0
[Ans.: 2.747]
4. xe 3 = 3
[Ans.: 1.050]
-x
5. e - sin x = 0
[Ans.: 0.5885]
6. 2 x = cos x + 3
[Ans.: 1.524]

7. x - loge x = 12
2

[Ans.: 3.646]
8. e = 3x
x

[Ans.: 1.512]

10.4 newton—rAphson Method

Let f (x) = 0 be the given equation and x0 be an approximate root of the equation. If
x1 = x0 + h be the exact root then f (x1) = 0.
i.e., f (x0 + h) = 0
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.23

h2
f ( x0 ) + hf ¢( x0 ) + f ¢¢( x0 ) +  = 0 [By Taylor’s series]
2!
Since h is small, neglecting h2 and higher powers of h,
f ( x0 ) + h f ¢ ( x0 ) = 0
f ( x0 )
h=-
f ¢ ( x0 )
f ( x0 )
\ x1 = x0 + h = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
Similarly, starting with x1, a still better approximation x2 is obtained.
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
f ( xn )
In general, xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
This equation is known as the Newton–Raphson formula or Newton’s iteration
formula.

10.4.1 geometrical Interpretation

Let x0 be a point near the root a of the
equation f (x) = 0 (Fig. 10.3). The equation
of the tangent at P0[x0, f(x0)] is
y - f ( x0 ) = f ¢( x0 )( x - x0 )
This line cuts the x-axis at x1.
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
Fig. 10.3
which is a first approximation to the root a.
If P1 is the point corresponding to x1 on the curve then the tangent at P1 will cut the
x-axis at x2 which is nearer to a and is the second approximation to the root. Repeating
this process, the root a is approached quite rapidly. Thus, this method consists of
replacing the part of the curve between the point P0 and the x-axis by means of the
tangent to the curve at P0.

10.4.2 convergence of the newton—raphson Method

By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn - = f ( xn ) ...(10.1)
f ¢( xn )
10.24 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

The Newton–Raphson method converges if |f¢(x)| < 1.

f ( x)
f ( x) = x -
f ¢( x )
È [ f ¢( x )]2 - f ( x ) f ¢¢( x ) ˘ f ( x ) f ¢¢( x )
f ¢( x ) = 1 - Í ˙=
Í
Î [ f ¢ ( x ) ]2
˙
˚ [f ¢( x)]2
f ( x ) f ¢¢( x )
f ¢( x ) =
[f ¢( x)]2
Hence, the Newton–Raphson method converges if
f ( x ) f ¢¢( x )
<1
[f ¢( x)]2
f ( x ) f ¢¢( x ) < [ f ¢( x )]
2
...(10.2)
If a is the actual root of f (x) = 0, a small interval should be selected in which f (x), f¢ (x)
and f¢¢ (x) are all continuous and the condition given by Eq. (10.2) is satisfied.
Hence, the Newton–Raphson method always converges provided the initial
approximation x0 is taken very close to the actual root a.

10.4.3 rate of convergence of the newton—raphson

Method
Let a be exact root of f (x) = 0 and let xn, xn + 1 be two successive approximations to the
actual root. If Œn and Œn + 1 are the corresponding errors then
xn = a + Œn
xn+1 = a + Œn+1
Substituting in Eq. (10.1),
f (a + Œn )
a + Œn +1 = a + Œn -
f ¢(a + Œn )
f (a + Œn )
Œn +1 = Œn -
f ¢(a + Œn )
Œ2n
f (a ) + Œn f ¢(a ) + f ¢¢(a ) + 
= Œn - 2! [By Taylor’s series]
f ¢(a ) + Œn f ¢¢(a ) + 
Œ2n
Œn f ¢(a ) + f ¢¢(a ) + 
= Œn - 2 [∵ f (a ) = 0]
f ¢(a ) + Œn f ¢¢(a )
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.25

Neglecting the derivatives of order higher than two,

Œ2n
Œn f ¢(a ) + f ¢¢(a )
Œn +1 = Œn - 2
f ¢(a ) + Œn f ¢¢(a )
1È Œ2n f ¢¢(a ) ˘
= Í ˙
2 ÎÍ f ¢(a ) + Œn f ¢¢(a ) ˚˙
È f ¢¢(a ) ˘
Œ2n Í f ¢(a ) ˙
= Í ˙
2 Í f ¢¢(a ) ˙
1+ Œn
ÍÎ f ¢(a ) ˙˚
Œ2n f ¢¢(a )
ª ...(10.3)
2 f ¢(a )

Equation 10.3 shows that the error at each stage is proportional to the square of the
error in the previous stage. Hence, the Newton–Raphson method has a quadratic con-
vergence and the convergence is of the order 2.

example 1
Find the root of the equation x3 + x – 1 = 0, correct up to four decimal
places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 + x – 1
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 1
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 1
f¢ (x) = 3x2 + 1
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (1) = 1
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(1) = 4
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
1
= 1-
4
= 0.75
10.26 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

f ( x1 ) = f (0.75) = 0.171875
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(0.75) = 2.6875
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
0.171875
= 0.75 -
2.6875
= 0.68605
f ( x2 ) = f (0.68605) = 0.00894
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(0.68605) = 2.41198
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
0.00894
= 0.68605 -
2.41198
= 0.68234
f ( x3 ) = f (0.68234) = 0.000028
f ¢( x3 ) = f ¢(0.68234) = 2.39676
f ( x3 )
x4 = x3 -
f ¢( x3 )
0.000028
= 0.68234 -
2.39676
= 0.68233
Since x3 and x4 are same up to four decimal places, the root is 0.6823.

example 2
Find a root of x4 – x3 + 10x + 7 = 0, correct up to three decimal places
between –2 and –1 by the Newton–Raphson method.
Solution
Let f (x) = x4 – x3 + 10x + 7
The root lies between –2 and –1.
Let x0 = –2
f¢ (x) = 4x3 – 3x2 + 10
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (-2) = 11
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.27

f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(-2) = -34
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
11
= -2 -
(-34)
= -1.6765
f ( x1 ) = f (-1.6765) = 2.8468
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(-1.6765) = -17.2802
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
2.8468
= -1.6765 -
(-17.2802)
= -1.5118
f ( x2 ) = f (-1.5118) = 0.561
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(-1.5118) = -10.6777
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
0.561
= -1.5118 -
(-10.6777)
= -1.4593
f ( x3 ) = f (-1.4593) = 0.0497
f ¢( x3 ) = f (-1.4593) = -8.8193
f ( x3 )
x4 = x3 -
f ¢( x3 )
0.0497
= -1.4593 -
(-8.8193)
= -1.4537
f ( x4 ) = f (-1.4537) = 0.0008
f ¢( x4 ) = f ¢(-1.4537) = -8.6278
f ( x4 )
x5 = x 4 -
f ¢( x4 )
0.0008
= -1.4537 -
(-8.6278)
= -1.4536
Since x4 and x5 are same up to three decimal places, a root is –1.453.
10.28 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

example 3
Find the root of x4 – x – 10 = 0, correct up to three decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x4 – x – 10
f (1) = –10, and f (2) = 4
Since f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
Let x0 = 2
f¢ (x) = 4x3 – 1
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )

f ( x0 ) = f (2) = 4
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(2) = 31

f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
4
= 2-
31
= 1.871
f ( x1 ) = f (1.871) = 0.3835
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(1.871) = 25.1988
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
0.3835
= 1.871 -
25.1988
= 1.8558
f ( x2 ) = f (1.8558) = 5.2922 ¥ 10 -3
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(1.8558) = 24.5655
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
5.2922 ¥ 10 -3
= 1.8558 -
24.5655
= 1.8556
Since x2 and x3 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 1.855.
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.29

example 4
Find the real root of x log10 x – 1.2 = 0, correct up to three decimal
places. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x log10 x – 1.2
f (1) = –1.2, f (2) = – 0.5979 and f (3) = 0.2314
Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
Let x0 = 3
1
f ¢( x ) = log10 x + x = log10 x + log10 e = log10 x + 0.4343
x loge 10
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (3) = 0.2314
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(3) = 0.9114
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
0.2314
= 3-
0.9114
= 2.7461
f ( x1 ) = f (2.7461) = 4.759 ¥ 10 -3
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(2.7461) = 0.8730
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
4.759 ¥ 10 -3
= 2.7461 -
0.8730
= 2.7406
f ( x2 ) = f (2.7406) = - 4.0202 ¥ 10 -5
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(2.7406) = 0.8721
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
(- 4.0202 ¥ 10 -5 )
= 2.7406 -
0.8721
= 2.7406
Since x2 and x3 are the same up to three decimal places, the real root is 2.7406.
10.30 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

example 5
Find a root between 0 and 1 of the equation ex sin x = 1, correct up to
four decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = ex sin x – 1
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 1.28
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 0
f¢ (x) = ex (cos x + sin x)
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (0) = -1
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(0) = 1

f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
(-1)
= 0-
1
=1
f ( x1 ) = f (1) = 1.2874
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(1) = 3.7560

f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
1.2874
= 1-
3.7560
= 0.6572
f ( x2 ) = f (0.6572) = 0.1787
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(0.6572) = 2.7062
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
0.1787
= 0.6572 -
2.7062
= 0.5912
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.31

f ( x3 ) = f (0.5912) = 6.6742 ¥ 10 -3
f ¢( x3 ) = f ¢(0.5912) = 2.5063
f ( x3 )
x4 = x3 -
f ¢( x3 )
6.6742 ¥ 10 -3
= 0.5912 -
2.5063
= 0.5885
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5885) = -8.1802 ¥ 10 -5
f ¢( x4 ) = f ¢(0.5885) = 2.4982
f ( x4 )
x5 = x 4 -
f ¢( x4 )
-8.1802 ¥ 10 -5
= 0.5885 -
2.4982
= 0.5885
Since x4 and x5 are the same up to four decimal places, the root is 0.5885.

example 6
Find the real root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, correct up to four
decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = 3x – cos x – 1
f (0) = –2 and f (1) = 1.4597
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 1
f¢ (x) = 3 + sin x
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (1) = 1.4597
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(1) = 3.8415
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
1.4597
= 1-
3.8415
= 0.62
10.32 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

f ( x1 ) = f (0.62) = 0.0461
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(0.62) = 3.5810
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
0.0461
= 0.62 -
3.5810
= 0.6071
f ( x2 ) = f (0.6071) = -5.8845 ¥ 10- 6
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(0.6071) = 3.5705
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
-5.8845 ¥ 10- 6
= 0.6071 -
3.5705
= 0.6071
Since x2 and x3 are the same up to four decimal places, the real root is 0.6071.

example 7
Find the real positive root of the equation x sin x + cos x = 0, which is
near x = p correct up to four significant digits. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x sin x + cos x
Let x0 = p
f¢ (x) = x cos x + sin x – sin x = x cos x
By the Newton–Raphson method,
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (p ) = -1
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(p ) = -p
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
(-1)
=p-
(-p )
= 2.82328
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.33

f ( x1 ) = f (2.82328) = - 0.06618
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(2.823287) = -2.68145
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
(- 0.06618)
= 2.82328 -
(-2.68145)
= 2.7986
f ( x2 ) = f (2.7986) = - 0.00056
f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(2.7986) = -2.63559
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
(- 0.00056)
= 2.7986 -
(-2.63559)
= 2.79839
f ( x3 ) = f (2.79839) = - 0.0001
f ¢( x3 ) = f ¢(2.79839) = -2.63519

f ( x3 )
x4 = x3 -
f ¢( x3 )
(- 0.0001)
= 2.79839 -
(-2.63519)
= 2.79839
Since x3 and x4 are same up to four decimal point, the root is 2.7983.

example 8
Find the positive root of x = cos x using Newton’s method correct to
three decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x – cos x
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 0.4597
Since f (0) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0 = 1
f¢ (x) = 1 + sin x
10.34 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

By the Newton–Raphson method,

f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
f ( x0 ) = f (1) = 0.4597
f ¢( x0 ) = f ¢(1) = 1.8415
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 -
f ¢ ( x0 )
0.4597
= 1-
1.8415
= 0.7504
f ( x1 ) = f (0.7504) = 0.019
f ¢( x1 ) = f ¢(0.7504) = 1.6819
f ( x1 )
x2 = x1 -
f ¢( x1 )
0.019
= 0.7504 -
1.6819
= 0.7391
f ( x2 ) = f (0.7391) = 0.00002

f ¢( x2 ) = f ¢(0.7391) = 1.6736
f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 -
f ¢ ( x2 )
0.00002
= 0.7391 -
1.6736
= 0.7391
Since x2 and x3 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 0.739.

example 9
Derive the iteration formula for N and, hence, find
(i) 28 [Summer 2015]
(ii) 65 [Winter 2014]
(iii) 3 [Winter 2014]
correct up to three decimal places.
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.35

Solution
Let x= N
2
x –N=0

Let f (x) = x2 – N
f¢ (x) = 2x

By the Newton–Raphson method,

f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
xn2 - N
= xn -
2 xn
xn2 + N
=
2 xn

This is the iteration formula for N .

(i) For N = 28, f (x) = x2 – 28
f (5) = –3 and f (6) = 8
Since f (5) < 0 and f (6) > 0, the root lies between 5 and 6.
Let x0 = 5
xn2 + 28
xn +1 =
2 xn
x02 + 28
x1 = = 5.3
2 x0
x12 + 28
x2 = = 5.2915
2 x1
x22 + 28
x3 = = 5.2915
2 x2
Since x2 and x3 are same up to three decimal places,
28 = 5.2915
(ii) For N = 65, f (x) = x2 – 65
f (8) = –1 and f (9) = 16
Since f (8) < 0 and f (9) > 0, the root lies between 8 and 9.
10.36 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Let x0 = 8
xn2 + 65
xn +1 =
2 xn
x02 + 65
x1 = = 8.0625
2 x0
x12 + 65
x2 = = 8.0623
2 x1
Since x1 and x2 are same up to three decimal places,
65 = 8.0623

(iii) For N = 3, f ( x ) = x 2 - 3
f (1) = -2 and f (2) = 1

Since f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.

Let x0 = 2
xn2 + 3
xn +1 =
2 xn
x02 + 3
x1 = = 1.75
2 x0
x12 + 3
x2 = = 1.7321
2 x1
x22 + 3
x3 = = 1.7321
2 x2
Since x2 and x3 are same up to three decimal places,
3 = 1.7321

example 10
k
Find an iterative formula for N , where N is a positive number and
hence, evaluate (i) 3 11 , and (ii) 3
58 [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let x= k
N
k
x –N=0
 10.4 Newton—Raphson Method 10.37

Let f (x) = xk – N
f¢ (x) = kxk – 1

By the Newton–Raphson method,

f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
xnk - N
= xn -
k xnk -1
(k - 1) xnk + N
=
k xnk -1

k
This is the iterative formula for N .
(i) When N = 11 and k = 3,
f (x) = x3 – 11
f (2) = –3 and f (3) = 16
Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
Let x0 = 3
2 xn3 + 11
xn +1 =
3 xn2
2 x03 + 11
x1 = = 2.4074
3 x02
2 x13 + 11
x2 = = 2.2376
3 x12
2 x23 + 11
x3 = = 2.2240
3 x22
2 x33 + 11
x4 = = 2.2240
3 x32
Since x3 and x4 are same up to four decimal places,
3
11 = 2.2240

(ii) When N = 58 and k = 3,

f (x) = x3 – 58
f (3) = –31 and f (4) = 6
Since f (3) < 0 and f (4) > 0, the root lies between 3 and 4.
10.38 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Let x0 = 4
2 xn3 + 58
xn +1 =
3 xn2
2 x03 + 58
x1 = = 3.875
3 x02

2 x13 + 58
x2 = = 3.8709
3 x12
2 x23 + 58
x3 = = 3.8709
3 x22
Since x2 and x3 are same up to four decimal places,
3
58 = 3.8709

exercIse 10.3
I. Find the roots of the following equations.
1. x3 – x – 1 = 0
[Ans.: 1.3247]
3 2
2. x + 2x + 50x + 7 = 0
[Ans.: – 0.1407]
3
3. x – 5x + 3 = 0
[Ans.: 0.6566]
4
4. x – x – 9 = 0
[Ans.: 1.8134]
x
5. cos x – xe = 0
[Ans.: 0.5177]
6. x log10 x = 4.772393
[Ans.: 6.0851]
7. x – 2sin x = 0
[Ans.: 1.8955]
8. x tan x = 1.28
[Ans.: 6.4783]
2
9. cos x = x
[Ans.: 0.8241]
 10.5 Secant Method 10.39

II. Find the values of the following:

1. 35
[Ans.: 5.916]
3
2. 24
[Ans.: 2.884]
1
3.
14 [Ans.: 0.2673]

10.5 secAnt Method

The Newton–Raphson method requires the evaluation of two functions (the function
and its derivative) per iteration. For complicated expressions, the method takes a large
amount of time. Hence, it is desirable to have a method that converges as fast as the
Newton–Raphson method but involves
only evaluation of the function.
Let f (x) = 0 be the given equation. Let
x0 and x1 be the approximate roots of the
equation f (x) = 0 and f (x0) and f (x1) are
their function values respectively. If x2 is
the point of intersection of the x-axis and
the line joining points P[x0, f (x0)] and
Q[x1, f(x1)] then x2 is closer to the root a
than x0 and x1 (Fig. 10.4).
Fig. 10.4
Using the slope formula,
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 ) f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 ) 0 - f ( x1 )
m= = =
x1 - x0 x2 - x1 x2 - x1
x1 - x0
x2 - x1 = - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
Using x1 and x2, the process is repeated to obtain x3.
In general,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn ), n ≥1
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )

This method is similar to the regula falsi method. This method starts with two initial
approximations x0 and x1 and calculates x2 by the same formula as in the regula falsi
10.40 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

method but proceeds to the next iteration without considering any root bracketing, i.e.,
the condition f (x0) f (x1) < 0.

convergence of the secant Method

By the Secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn ) …(10.4)
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
Let a be the exact root of f (x) = 0 and let xn, xn + 1 be two successive approximations
to the actual root.
If Œn, Œn – 1, are the corresponding error then
xn = a + Œn
xn -1 = a + Œn -1
xn +1 = a + Œn +1

Substituting in Eq. (10.4),

Œn - Œn -1
a + Œn +1 = a + Œn - f (a + Œn )
f (a + Œn ) - f (a + Œn -1 )
Œn - Œn -1
Œn +1 = Œn - f (a + Œn )
f (a + Œn ) - f (a + Œn -1 )
È Œ2 ˘
(Œn - Œn -1 ) Í f (a ) + Œn f ¢(a ) + n f ¢¢(a ) + ˙
= Œn - Î 2 ˚
1 2 2
(Œn - Œn -1 ) f ¢(a ) + (Œn - Œn -1 ) f ¢¢(a ) +  [By Taylor’s series]
2
È Œ2n ˘ È∵ f (a ) = 0 ˘
(Œn - Œn-1 ) ÍŒn f ¢(a ) +
2
f ¢¢(a )˙ Í ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚ Íand neglecting ˙
= Œn -
(Œn - Œn-1 ) f ¢(a ) + 12 (Œ2n - Œ2n-1 ) Íhigher order
f ¢¢(a ) Í
˙
˙
Îderivativess of f (a ) ˚
È Œ f ¢¢(a ) ˘
(Œn - Œn-1 ) Œn
f ¢(a ) Í1 + n
2 f (a ) ˙˚
= Œn - Î
È (Œ + Œ ) ˘
(Œn - Œn-1 ) f ¢(a ) + Í1 + n 2 n-1 ff¢¢((aa)) ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
Œn (1 + c Œn )
= Œn -
1 + c (Œn + Œn -1 )
1 f ¢¢(a )
where c = ...(10.5)
2 f (a )
 10.5 Secant Method 10.41

Œn + c Œ2n + c Œn Œn -1 - Œn - c Œ2n
Œn +1 =
1 + c (Œn + Œn -1 )
c Œn Œn -1
=
1 + c (Œn + Œn -1 )
ª c Œn Œn -1 ÈÎ∵ 1 + c (Œn + Œn -1 ) ª 1˘˚ ...(10.6)

Equation (10.5) is a nonlinear difference equation which can be solved by letting

Œn +1 = A Œnp or Œn = A Œnp-1 .
1 1
-
\ Œn -1 = Œnp A p

Substituting in Eq. (10.6),

1 1
-
A Œnp = c Œn Œnp A p

Ê 1ˆ 1
- Á 1+ ˜ 1+
Ë p¯
Œnp = c A Œn p

Equating the power of Œn on both the sides,

1
p =1+
p
p2 - p - 1 = 0
1
p = (1 ± 5)
2
Taking the positive sign only,
p = 1.618
Œn +1 = A Œ1.618
n

Hence, the rate of convergence of the secant method is 1.618 which is lesser than
the Newton–Raphson method. The secant method evaluates the function only once in
each iteration, whereas the Newton–Raphson method evaluates two functions f (x) and
f ¢ (x) in each iteration. Hence, the secant method is more efficient than the Newton–
Raphson method.

example 1
Find the approximate root of x3 – 2x – 1 = 0, starting from x0 = 1.5,
x1 = 2, correct upto three decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 2x – 1
10.42 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

x0 = 1.5, x1 = 2
f (x0) = f (1.5) = – 0.625 and f (x1) = f(2) = 3
By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
2 - 1.5
= 2- (3)
3 + 0.625
= 1.5862
f ( x2 ) = f (1.5862) = - 0.1815
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
1.5862 - 2
= 1.5862 - (- 0.1815)
-0.1815 - 3
= 1.6098
f ( x3 ) = f (1.6098) = - 0.0479
x3 - x2
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
1.6098 - 1.5862
= 1.6098 - (- 0.0479)
- 0.0479 + 0.1815
= 1.6183
f ( x4 ) = f (1.6183) = 0.0016
x4 - x3
x5 = x 4 - f ( x4 )
f ( x4 ) - f ( x3 )
1.6183 - 1.6098
= 1.6183 - (0.0016)
0.0016 + 0.0479
= 1.6181
Since x4 and x5 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 1.618.

example 2
Find the approximate root of the equation x3 + x2 – 3x – 3 = 0, correct
up to five decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 + x2 – 3x – 3 = 0
 10.5 Secant Method 10.43

Let x0 = 1, x1 = 2
f (x0) = f (1) = –4 and f (x1) = f(2) = 3
By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
2 -1
= 2- (3)
3+4
= 1.57143
f ( x2 ) = f (1.57143) = -1.36442
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
1.57143 - 2
= 1.57143 - (-1.36442)
-1.36442 - 3
= 1.70541
f ( x3 ) = f (1.70541) = -0.24775
x3 - x2
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
1.70541 - 1.57143
= 1.70541 - (- 0.24775)
-0.24775 + 1.36442
= 1.73514
f ( x4 ) = f (1.73514) = 0.0293
x4 - x3
x5 = x 4 - f ( x4 )
f ( x4 ) - f ( x3 )
1.73514 - 1.70541
= 1.73514 - (0.0293)
0.0293 + 0.24775
= 1.732
f ( x5 ) = f (1.732) = - 0.00048
x5 - x 4
x6 = x5 - f ( x5 )
f ( x5 ) - f ( x 4 )
1.732 - 1.73514
= 1.732 - (- 0.00048)
- 0.00048 - 0.0293
= 1.73205
f ( x6 ) = f (1.73205) = - 0.000008
10.44 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

x6 - x5
x7 = x6 - f ( x6 )
f ( x6 ) - f ( x5 )
1.73205 - 1.732
= 1.73205 - (- 0.000008)
-0.000008 + 0.00048
= 1.73205
Since x6 and x7 are same up to five decimal places, the root is 1.73205.

example 3
Find the root of x log10 x – 1.9 = 0, correct up to three decimal places
with x0 = 3 and x1 = 4.
Solution
Let f (x) = x log10 x – 1.9
x0 = 3, x1 = 4
f (x0) = f(3) = – 0.4686 and f (x1) = f(4) = 0.5082
By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
4-3
= 4- (0.5082)
0.5082 + 0.4686
= 3.4797
f ( x2 ) = f (3.4797) = -0.0156
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
3.4797 - 4
= 3.4797 - (- 0.0156)
- 0.0156 - 0.5082
= 3.4952
f ( x3 ) = f (3.4952) = - 0.0005
x3 - x2
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
3.4952 - 3.4797
= 3.4952 - (- 0.0005)
- 0.0005 + 0.0156
= 3.4957
Since x3 and x4 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 3.495.
 10.5 Secant Method 10.45

example 4
Find the positive solution of x – 2 sin x = 0, correct up to three decimal
places starting from x0 = 2 and x1 = 1.9. [Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x) = x – 2 sin x
x0 = 2, x1 = 1.9
f (x0) = f(2) = 0.1814 and f (x1) = f(1.9) = 0.0074
By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1.9 - 2
= 1.9 - (0.0074)
0.0074 - 0.1814
= 1.8957
f ( x2 ) = f (1.8957) = 0.00034
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
1.8957 - 1.9
= 1.8957 - (0.00034)
0.00034 - 0.0074
= 1.8955
Since x2 and x3 are same up to three decimal places, the positive root is 1.895.

example 5
Solve xex – 1 = 0, correct up to three decimal places between 0 and 1.
Solution
Let f (x) = xex – 1
Let x0 = 0, x1 = 1

f (x0) = f(0) = –1 and f (x1) = f(1) = 1.7183

By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
10.46 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1- 0
= 1- (1.7183)
1.7183 + 1
= 0.3679
f ( x2 ) = f (0.3679) = - 0.4685
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
0.3679 - 1
= 0.3679 - (- 0.4685)
- 0.4685 - 1.7183
= 0.5033
f ( x3 ) = f (0.5033) = - 0.1675
x3 - x2
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
0.5033 - 0.3679
= 0.5033 - (- 0.1675)
- 0.1675 + 0.4685
= 0.5786
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5786) = 0.032
x4 - x3
x5 = x 4 - f ( x4 )
f ( x4 ) - f ( x3 )
0.5786 - 0.5033
= 0.5786 - (0.032)
0.032 + 0.1675
= 0.5665
f ( x5 ) = f (0.5665) = - 0.0018
x5 - x 4
x6 = x5 - f ( x5 )
f ( x5 ) - f ( x 4 )
0.5665 - 0.5786
= 0.5665 - (- 0.0018)
- 0.0018 - 0.032
= 0.5671
f ( x6 ) = f (0.5671) = - 0.0001
x6 - x5
x7 = x6 - f ( x6 )
f ( x6 ) - f ( x5 )
0.5671 - 0.5665
= 0.5671 - (- 0.0001)
- 0.0001 + 0.0018
= 0.5671
Since x6 and x7 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 0.567.
 10.5 Secant Method 10.47

example 6
Find the root of cos x – xex = 0, correct up to three decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = cos x – xex
Let x0 = 0, x1 = 1
f (x0) = f(0) = 1 and f (x1) = f(1) = –2.178
By the secant method,
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
x1 - x0
x2 = x1 - f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
1- 0
= 1- (-2.178)
-2.178 - 1
= 0.3147
f ( x2 ) = f (0.3147) = 0.5198
x2 - x1
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 )
0.3147 - 1
= 0.3147 - (0.5198)
0.5198 + 2.178
= 0.4467
f ( x3 ) = f (0.4467) = 0.2036
x3 - x2
x4 = x3 - f ( x3 )
f ( x3 ) - f ( x2 )
0.4467 - 0.3147
= 0.4467 - (0.2036)
0.2036 - 0.5198
= 0.5317
f ( x4 ) = f (0.5317) = - 0.0429
x4 - x3
x5 = x 4 - f ( x4 )
f ( x4 ) - f ( x3 )
0.5317 - 0.4467
= 0.5317 - (- 0.0429)
- 0.0429 - 0.2036
= 0.5169
f ( x5 ) = f (0.5169) = 0.0026
10.48 Chapter 10 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

x5 - x 4
x6 = x5 - f ( x5 )
f ( x5 ) - f ( x 4 )
0.5169 - 0.5317
= 0.5169 - (0.0026)
0.0026 + 0.0429
= 0.5177
f ( x6 ) = f (0.5177) = 0.0002
x6 - x5
x7 = x6 - f ( x6 )
f ( x6 ) - f ( x5 )
0.5177 - 0.5169
= 0.5177 - (0.0002)
0.0002 - 0.0026
= 0.5178
Since x6 and x7 are same up to three decimal places, the root is 0.517.

exercIse 10.4
Find a real root of the following equations correct upto three decimal
places using secant method:
1. x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 4 = 0
[Ans.: 1.650]
3 2
2. x + 3x – 3 = 0
[Ans.: 0.879]
x
3. e – 4x = 0
[Ans.: 0.357]
x
4. sin x = e – 3x
[Ans.: 0.360]
5. 2x – 7 – log10 x = 0
[Ans.: 3.789]
x
6. e tan x = 1
[Ans.: 3.183]
7. 3x – 6 = log10 x
[Ans.: 2.108]
 Points to Remember 10.49

points to remember
Bisection Method
In this method, two points x0 and x1 are chosen such that f(x0) and f(x1) are of opposite
signs. The first approximation to the root is
x0 + x1
x2 =
2
If f(x0)and f(x2) are of opposite signs, the root lies between x0 and x2 and the next
approximation x3 is obtained as
x0 + x2
x3 =
2
This process is repeated till the root is obtained to the desired accuracy.
Regula Falsi Method
In this method, two points x0 and x1 are chosen such that f (x0) and f (x1) are of op-
posite signs.
x1 - x0
x2 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x0 )
which is an approximation to the root.
If f (x0) and f (x2) are of opposite signs, the root lies between x0 and x2, and the next
approximation x3 is obtained as
x2 - x0
x3 = x0 - f ( x0 )
f ( x2 ) - f ( x0 )
If the root lies between x1 and x2, the next approximation x3 is obtained as
x1 - x2
x3 = x2 - f ( x2 )
f ( x1 ) - f ( x2 )
This process is repeated till the root is obtained to the desired accuracy.
Newton–Raphson Method
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn -
f ¢( xn )
The Newton–Raphson method has a quadratic convergence and the convergence is
of the order 2.

Secant Method
xn - xn -1
xn +1 = xn - f ( xn )
f ( xn ) - f ( xn -1 )
The rate of convergence of the secant method is 1.618.