Solid State Electronics (EEE 718)

 Band Structure and Doping of Semiconductors

 Drift-Diffusion Equations; Density of States; Fermi function; Law of
Mass Action

Presented By

BENSON OYINBUNUGHA LAMULE

(AFIT/21/PEE0024)
BAND STRUCTURE AND DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Every material (conductor, semiconductor and insulators) exits between three

bands which are; valence band, Energy gap or forbidden energy gap and
conduction band.

Band Structure

The representation of the allowed electrical energy level of solid materials is

known as Band Structure.

Valence Band

The energy bad involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as
valence band. It’s the highest occupied energy band. When compared with
insulators, the bandgap in the semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in
the valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving any external
energy.

Fig. 1: (a) Schematic representation of valence band, conduction band, and

forbidden energy gap. Energy band structure of (b) Insulator (c) Conductor (d)
Semiconductor.
Conduction Band

Conduction Band is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of
positive (holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting
electrons resulting in the flow of current.

Energy Gap or Forbidden Gap

This is the energy range between valence band and conduction band.

Conductor

These are materials that allows electricity to flow through them. Examples of
Conductor are Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc.

Semiconductor

Semiconductor, a simple yet important and useful substance in the field of

electronics.
A semiconductor is a material, typically a solid chemical element or compound,
that can conduct electricity under certain conditions but not others, making it an
excellent medium for controlling the flow of the electrical current. A
semiconductor is a type of crystalline solid that is halfway between a conductor
and an insulator in terms of electrical conductivity.

Insulators, semiconductors, and conductors are the three basic types of solid-state
materials. (At low temperatures some conductors, semiconductors, and insulators
can become superconductors.) The conductivities (and corresponding resistivities =
1/σ) associated with some essential materials in each of the three groups are shown
in the diagram given below. Insulators, such as fused quartz and glass, have low
conductivities of 10−18 to 10−10 siemens per centimeter, whereas conductors,
such as aluminum, have high conductivities of 104 to 106 siemens per centimeter.
Semiconductors' conductivities fall somewhere in between these two extremes and
they're usually affected by temperature, light, magnetic fields and trace amounts of
impurity atoms. The addition of about 10 atoms of boron (known as a dopant) per
million atoms of silicon, for example, will increase its electrical conductivity by a
thousandfold.

Semiconductors' Characteristics:
Semiconductors have the ability to conduct electricity under optimal conditions.
This distinguishes it as an excellent material for conducting electricity in a
controlled manner. In contrast to conductors, charge carriers in semiconductors are
generated solely by external energy (thermal agitation).

It allows a certain number of valence electrons to leap into the conduction band
and cross the energy gap, leaving an equal number of unoccupied energy states,
i.e., holes. The importance of electron and hole conduction is similar.

 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ω m.

 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 ohm/m.
 Temperature resistance coefficient: Negative.
 Electrons and holes trigger current flow.
Fig. 2:

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases as the temperature rises because the

number of charge carriers increases rapidly, resulting in a fractional shift in
resistivity.

Types of Semiconductors:
Semiconductors come in a number of shapes and sizes. Semiconductors are
divided into two categories: Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Chemically, an intrinsic form of semiconductor material is created to be very pure.
There is only one form of a feature in it.
Fig. 3: (a) In absence of electric field. (b) In presence of electric Field.

The most common intrinsic semiconductor elements are germanium (Ge) and
silicon (Si). They have four electrons in their valence shell (tetravalent). At
absolute zero temperature, they form a covalent bond with the atom. Owing to
collisions, a few electrons become unbounded and free to pass through the lattice
as the temperature increases, resulting in an absence in its original location (hole).
The conduction of electricity in the semiconductor is supported by these free
electrons and holes. The number of negative and positive charge carriers is equal.
Thermal energy will only ionise a few atoms in the lattice, resulting in lower
conductivity.

Present flows in intrinsic semiconductors due to the motion of free electrons and
holes. The total current is the sum of the thermally induced electron current Ie and
the hole current Ih.

Ie + Ih = Complete Current (I)

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
It is a type of semiconductor that has no intrinsic properties.

By adding a small number of suitable substitute atoms known as IMPURITIES, the

conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved. DOPING is the method
of introducing impurity atoms into a pure semiconductor. In a doped
semiconductor, just 1 out of every 107 atoms is substituted by a dopant atom.
Extrinsic semiconductors are further categorized into the following categories:

N-type Semiconductor

P-type Semiconductor

Fig. 4: Extrinsic Semiconductors

N-type:
1. Mostly because of electrons.
2. Absolutely unchanged.
3. I = Ih and nh >> ne
4. Electrons are in the majority, and holes are in the minority.
When a pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi) is doped into a pure semiconductor
(Silicon or Germanium), four of the five valence electrons bond with the four
electrons of Ge or Si.
The dopant's fifth electron is liberated. As a result, the impurity atom donates a
free electron to the lattice for conduction and is called “Donar“.

P type:
1. Mainly because of the holes.
2. Entirely neutral.
3. I = Ih and nh >> ne.
4. Holes are in the majority, and electrons are in the minority.
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga), the
impurity's three valence electrons bond with three of the semiconductor's four
valence electrons.

S/ Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

N
1 Semiconductor in a pure form is Semiconductor which are doped
called intrinsic semiconductor with impurity is called extrinsic
semiconductor
2 Here the change carriers are Here the change carriers are
produced only due to thermal produced due to impurities and may
agitation also be produced due to thermal
agitation
3 They have low electrical They have high electrical
conductivity conductivity
4 They have low operating They have high operating
temperature temperature
5 At 0 Kelvin, Fermi level exactly lies At 0 Kelvin, Fermi level exactly lies
between conduction band and closer to conduction band in 'n' type
 valence band semiconductor and lies near the
valence band in 'p' type
semiconductor
6 Examples: Si, Ge, etc. Examples: Si and Ge doped with Al,
In, P, As etc.

Applications of semiconductors:

Semiconductors are used in a number of applications.

Let's look at how semiconductors are used in everyday life. Almost all electronic
devices contain semiconductors. Our lives would be very different if they didn't
exist.
Their dependability, compactness, low cost, and regulated conductivity are all
advantages.

 Semiconductor devices are used to make temperature sensors.

Microchips and self-driving vehicles use it.
 Calculators, solar plates, computers, and other electronic devices use this
material.
 Semiconductors are used to produce transistors and MOSFET, which are used
as switches in electrical circuits.
 Semiconductors' physical and chemical properties allow them to create
technological marvels such as microchips, transistors, LEDs, and solar cells.
 Transistors and other controlling devices made of semiconductor materials
create the microprocessor used to power the operation of space ships, trains,
robots, and other devices.
Insulator
A perfect insulator does not exist because even insulators contain small numbers of
mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators
become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the
electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as the breakdown
voltage of an insulator.
Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical
conductors without allowing current through themselves.

Doping

This is a technique used to vary the number of electrons and hole in semi-
conductors.

Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic (pure) semiconductors to

alter their properties.

Doping increases n-type materials when semi-conductor materials from group (IV)
are doped with group (V) atoms from the periodic table whereas p-type materials
are created when semi-conductor materials from group (IV) are doped with group
(III) atoms from the periodic table.
Fig. 4: Doping Diagram

DRIFT-DIFFUSION EQUATIONS; DENSITY OF STATES; FERMI

FUNCTION; LAW OF MASS ACTION.

Drift

Drift is define as the motion of a charged particle in response to an applied electric

field.

When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor, the carriers start moving,
producing a current. ... “Drift Current” in a semiconductor is the resultant of carrier
drift.

The positively charged holes move with the electric field, whereas the negatively
charged electrons move against the electric field. The motion of each carrier can be
described as a constant drift velocity. This constant takes into consideration the
collisions and setbacks each carrier has while moving from one place to another.

I
vd¿ neA
Where; vd = drift velocity, I = current flow, n = free electron density, e = charge of
an electron, A = cross sectional area

Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of molecules or particles from area of higher

concentration to area of lower concentration.

In a semiconductor, charge carriers naturally (no applied voltage or electric field)

move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
This movement is called diffusion and it occurs to maintain thermal equilibrium.

dn( x )
Jn diff¿ qD n N-type diffusion equation
dx

dn ( x )
Jp diff¿ qD p P-type diffusion equation
dx

Where; Jn and Jp = the diffusion current densities, q = electron charge, Dn and Dp

= diffusion coefficients for electrons and holes, n and p = electron and hole
concentrations.

Difference between Diffusion Current and Drift Current

Diffusion Current doesn’t require electric field or external forces whereas Drift
Current depends on the electric field applied on the p-n junction diode

Fermi function equation

The Fermi function f(E) gives the probability that a given available electron energy
state will be occupied at a given temperature. The Fermi function comes from
Fermi-Dirac statistics and has the form;

Where f(E) = fermi function or level, (E-EF) = energy difference between

conduction band and valence band, K = Boltzmann constant (1.38X10-3 J/k), T =
absolute temperature.

The
illustration shows the implications of the Fermi function for the electrical
conductivity of a semiconductor. The band theory of solids gives the picture that
there is a sizable gap between the Fermi level and the conduction band of the
semiconductor. At higher temperatures, a larger fraction of the electrons can bridge
this gap and participate in electrical conduction.

Fermi Level

Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron
energy levels at absolute zero temperature. At absolute zero they pack into the
lowest available energy states and build up a "Fermi sea" of electron energy states.
The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no electrons will
have enough energy to rise above the surface. The concept of the Fermi energy is a
crucially important concept for the understanding of the electrical and thermal
properties of solids. Both ordinary electrical and thermal processes involve
energies of a small fraction of an electron volt.

At higher temperatures a certain fraction, characterized by the Fermi function, will

exist above the Fermi level. The Fermi level plays an important role in the band
theory of solids. In doped semiconductors, p-type and n-type, the Fermi level is
shifted by the impurities, illustrated by their band gaps. The Fermi level is referred
to as the electron chemical potential in other contexts.

Density of State
The density of a state describes the proportion of states that are to be occupied by
at each energy.

The Density of States (DOS) is essentially the number of different states at a

particular energy level that electrons are allowed to occupy, i.e. the number of
electron states per unit volume per unit energy.

Where DOS = Density of State, N = free electron density, (E-Ei) = energy

difference between conduction band and valence band, r = distance

The Fermi function gives the probability of occupying an available energy state,
but this must be factored by the number of available energy states to determine
how many electrons would reach the conduction band. This density of states is the
electron density of states, but there are differences in its implications for
conductors and semiconductors. For the conductor, the density of states can be
considered to start at the bottom of the valence band and fill up to the Fermi level,
but since the conduction band and valence band overlap, the Fermi level is in the
conduction band so there are plenty of electrons available for conduction. In the
case of the semiconductor, the density of states is of the same form, but the density
of states for conduction electrons begins at the top of the gap.

Law of Mass Action

The addition of n-type impurities decreases the number of holes below a level.
Similarly, the addition of p-type impurities decreases the number of electrons
below a level.

Hence, under the thermal equilibrium, Law of Mass Action states that for any
semiconductor, the product of number of holes and the number of electrons is
constant and independent of the amount of doping.

n.p =
n1p =2hole concentration, n = intrinsic charge
Where n = electron concentration, 1

carrier concentration.