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4th International Conference on Engineering Sciences (ICES 2020) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1067 (2021) 012019 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1067/1/012019

Parametric architecture: the second international style

T Al-Azzawi and Z Al-Majidi

Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of
Basrah, Iraq

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Parametric architecture (parametric design) emerged as a concept or theoretical idea

in the world of architecture around 2008, in parallel with the development of digital design tools
and the rise of the new communication technologies that have spread widely in recent years,
supported by the digital revolution. Many research attempts have thus been made to deal with
parametric design, with interest focusing both on defining it as a philosophical and theoretical
concept in contemporary architecture and as a new architectural style with specific
characteristics; it may also be considered an architectural movement, or a set of techniques for
the production of form at the design and implementation levels. Many attempts have also been
made to define it in order to promote teamwork through collaboration between architects and
other engineering specialists during the design process. This paper discusses the possibility of
achieving multiple such goals by defining the notion of parametric architecture; the research
problem is thus the lack of clarity of the concept or the idea of the style in terms of formal
characteristics as a result of over-rapid adoption of the methods and techniques of parametric
design. The research aim is to discover and explain this idea more fully, demonstrating its
difference from conventional concepts of style, by comparing it with the concept of the
international style that emerged based on modern architecture theories, techniques and methods
during the first half of the twentieth century. To achieve this, the paper presents a set of global
experiences illustrating the use of digital design technologies in different stages of production,
highlighting the final characteristics of the products and what they have in common.
Schumacher’s dogmas and the taboo principles were thus adopted in an attempt to develop this
comparison with the international style that emerged from the theories and implementations of
modern architecture, and to investigate the role of modern technologies in producing its forms.
The paper ends with a general conclusion that demonstrates the possibility of presenting
parametric architecture and its products globally as a second international style, though currently
in the stage of formation, as its fundamental principles are based on the idea of renewal and
revolutionary rejection of all that has preceded it; thus, the repetition of these attempts results
from dealing with the same theoretical principles and standards imposed by the techniques that
produced the contemporary architectural form.

1. Introduction

New digital tools and recent computer technologies have allowed architectural design to provide
buildings with new forms that facilitate new ways of thinking in construction. Based on the need and

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4th International Conference on Engineering Sciences (ICES 2020) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1067 (2021) 012019 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1067/1/012019

desire to produce novelty and innovation, computer aided design systems have become increasingly
parametric, offering designs that change with the input data. Such systems give more control and
capability to designers, allowing the discovery of new forms and offering a better understanding of the
conceptual structure of such designs [1]

Studies in recent decades have provided important information on parametric design, whether
defining it as a philosophical/theoretical concept in contemporary architecture or as a new architectural
style with specific characteristics; others have seen it as an architectural movement or a set of techniques
for the production of form at the design and implementation levels. Many attempts have been made to
define parametric architecture to facilitate teamwork and collaboration between architects and other
engineering specialists during the design process, and several theories have been proposed in the
literature to better explain parametric architecture; these are listed in Table 1:

Table 1. Existing research

No. Authors Contribution

1 Sutherland (1963) The first use of parametric design concepts through a graphic
user interface system occurred in Sutherland’s PhD research,
which allowed him to draw with the computer and apply
changes parametrically at the same time [2]
2 Morretti (1971) Parametric architecture is the study of “relationships between
the dimensions” where a design is depended on parameters[3].
3 Kalay (1989) Computational geometric relations automatically updated when
parameters change[3].
4 Schumacher (2008) First presentation of the concept of “Parametricism” as a style
in the “Parametricism Manifesto”; this was followed by several
related papers and a book named “The Autopoiesis of
Architecture”, in 2011, in which he introduced some principles
of parametric design that must be followed to make a design
parametric (Dogmas) and others that must be avoided (Taboos)

5 Woodbury (2011) Parametric design defined as the process of exploring

associative connections of geometric concepts [4].
6 Frazer (2016) Parametric architecture moving to reformulate itself as a
process in a rapidly evolving process that embraces new
technologies and environmental and social purposes [6].
7 Oxman (2017) Parametric design described as a new paradigm of design
thinking. Pioneering concepts of design thinking developed,
moving from typological thinking to topological design thinking
in creative design, which should be considered one of the most
remarkable changes in design thinking [5].

The current research investigates the possibility of achieving all of the above goals by defining the
concept of parametric design, starting with the main terms and their origin, based on a research problem
identifying the lack of clarity in concept or the idea of style in formal characteristics as a result of over-
rapid adoption of the methods and techniques of parametric design. Accordingly, the research aim is to
discover and explain this idea, then to demonstrate its differences from conventional concepts of style,
by comparing it with the concept of the international style that emerged from modern architecture
theories, techniques and methods during the first half of the twentieth century.

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Schumacher’s principles were thus adopted for the theoretical framework applied to a set of a globally
selected case studies in order to clarify the meaning of parametric design in relation to the wide spread
of related techniques which has led designers and researchers to adopt this way of thinking as more than
just a design tool, generating a new style in architecture.
This paper offers a conclusion resulting from the analysis of several case studies that introduce the
idea of international style in architecture, comparing parametric architecture with modern architecture
and discussing how they have spread globally in two different periods as “international styles” based on
identifying the similarities and differences between the two trends. A discussion section also summarises
the results of this research to support the conclusion.

2. Parametric design, architecture, and style (Parametricism)

There are many terms associated with parametric design or parametric architecture, and these are briefly
discussed below in order to clarify their meanings and use in contemporary architecture.

2.1 “Parametric”: origin and history

Used since the 1650s in geometry, the word “parameter” was found in modern Latin [7]. The term
“Parametric” originated in mathematics to refer to the use of variables and parameters that can be
edited and manipulated to amend the end result of an equation or system. In computing, a parameter
represents a variable that must be given a value during the execution of a program or of a method
within a program [7].
In architecture, the word “Parametric” was first found in the writings of Luigi Morretti in the early
1940s; he wrote widely about “Parametric architecture” as the study of architectural systems based on
defining the relationships between various parameters and their dimensions. However, a paper
published by Maurice Ruiter in 1988 with the title “Parametric design”[8] may represent the first use
of that phrase in the field.
Parametric design has affected the development of digital architectural design since 1990 [9], and in
contemporary architectural practice, many parametric approaches exist. From one perspective, all
designs may be considered to be parametric, as they are based on defining different parameters such as
orientation, legal aspects, and solar radiation; however, the modern approach is to only consider
design to be parametric if a specific tool has been used during the design process to enhance the design
process by coordinating and connecting design components and parts simultaneously[10].

2.2 Parametric architecture

Parametric design is a concept that has been supported by the increasing availability of computer-
aided techniques and the development of manufacturing processes which facilitate the achievement of
complex forms. Parametric design as an approach relies on defining variables: whenever a parameter
changes, the results change as well. It has thus been used in recent decades as part of computational
design to support the design process and achieve unique design products.
Working parametrically has changed architectural practice in many ways, as it transforms all
programming decisions into design decisions and thus increases the need for architects to learn new
skills in order to master new techniques [11].It is also an approach that offers alternatives throughout
the design process, causing the design process to emerge as a continuous, rather than discrete, process.
Parametric design also aims to identify the design process limitations found in conventional design tools
by establishing relationships between different parts of designs based on the ability to edit and
manipulate these relationships by observing and selecting from the results of changing them [4] .Thus,
the approach requires new skills and encompasses new strategies to achieve its goals, thus changing
architecture theoretically as well as in practice.

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1067 (2021) 012019 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1067/1/012019

2.3 Parametricism and Patrik Schumacher

In 2008, Schumacher presented the concept of “Parametricism” for the first time in his paper
“Parametricism Manifesto”. He introduced both ways to follow this concept, entitled Dogmas, and
things to avoid, known as Taboos in both [13] and [12] and in his book published in 2011 [14].
Within his paper entitled “Parametricism as a style: parametricism manifesto”, the dogmas were
basically concerned with the principles used in creating forms (interarticulating, hyperdizing, and the
uses of splines and NURBS) and using scripts rather than models, while the taboos included the use of
platonic objects, straight lines, right angles and, other familiar topologies.
In 2009, he tried to make his principles clearer, concentrating on the concept of parametric design in
more depth, in “Parametricism: a new global style for architecture & urban design”, in which the
dogmas were further clarified such that all forms must be parametrically malleable, with forms
inflected or correlated systematically and differentiated gradually, while for the taboos, he introduced
new principles not previously mentioned (simple repetition and juxtaposition of unrelated
systems/elements) and included hermetic forms within the platonic forms noted in his previous paper.
Finally, in his book “Autopoiesis of architecture” he repeated the same dogmas and taboos, further
emphasising on the process of creating forms and related systems within the process, and using the
phrase “rigid geometric primitives” for taboos rather than platonic or hermetic forms.
This paper adopts the final dogmas and taboos as a theoretical framework to apply to the selected case
studies according to Table 2:

Table 2. The context of parametricism according to Schumacher principles

Dogmas
Design process Shapes Internationality
Script rather Generative Use All parts Interarticulate Hyperdize Morph Deform Deterritorialize
than model components NURBS are
& paramet
Splines rically

Taboos
Forms Repetition

Familiar topologies Platonic Straight lines / Juxtaposition of Simple repetition Do not add / subtract without elaborate
objects right angles the unrelated interarticulations
elements

2.4 Applying the theoretical framework of Schumacher’s Taboos and Dogmas to parametric
architecture: Case studies.
The case studies in this research were selected to reflect complex buildings, built recently, with the use
of parametric design tools throughout different design phases.

2.4.1 The Opus building, Dubai. Completed in 2019

This 20-story building is a hotel with office spaces,12 restaurants, and a rooftop bar. Seven further
floors lie belowground. The most distinguished feature in terms of the visual appearance of this
building is the “massive irregular void” in the middle of its façade, which offers a sense of a single
volume with a smooth transition between the two towers. This free-form structure could not have been

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built in the pre-digital era, as its unique geometries highlight that this building is a result of a
complicated parametric system, based on parametric design concepts.

Figure 1. a. Front façade, Opus complex building, Dubai; b. interior design. Pictures credit: Laurian
Ghinitoiu

The freeform shape in this project was obtained by applying manipulation to a simple object (box),
with an undetermined geometric juxtaposition on the simplicity of the overall shape[15].
According to Schumacher principles, this shape is deformed, hyperdized, and morphological, with
these principles following his dogmas.
Planar quadrilateral (PQ) meshes were used as an algorithmic input in the process to design the façade
parametrically, based on a sophisticated optimisation strategy. This technology permits the
representation of the shapes to control panel size to achieve architectural and production requirements
[16].

Figure 2. a. The Opus Project model (Zaha Hadid Architects, Dubai); b. PQ meshes of different
resolution [16]

2.4.2 Morpheus Hotel, Macau. Completed in 2018

This 40-storey hotel and casino was designed by Zaha Hadid Architects in Macau, China, as a
rectangular envelope of 160 m in height. The shape encompasses a series of curved voids that generate

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sculptural forms defining the hotel’s public spaces, being designed as two separate towers connected by
two footbridges.

Figure 3. a) Morpheus Hotel front elevation view. Picture credit: Ivan Dupont
On the left, working with the envelope in the parametric software (Rhino+ Grasshopper)
Upper left showing the complexity of the form[17].

An exoskeleton with approximately 2,500 steel members shapes and supports the façade[17]. Zaha
Hadid Architects developed a parametric model in Rhino, along with its plugin Grasshopper, to control
the lines of the exoskeleton and coordinate it onto the free- form façade. Significant collaboration
occurred between the structural engineer (Buro Happold) and the architects, and several iterations were
developed. Two models were then generated for the cladding of the façade: one was used for
representation purposes and the other for the structural engineers and the façade contractor[18].
The structural engineer employed parametric design in many ways, including in the generation,
documentation, and optimisation of the 2,500 connections of the exoskeleton of the steel structure[17].
Parametric systems were also used on many other levels of this project, from generating the design to
the digital fabrication, to automatically generating documentation and gathering the exoskeleton
connections and cladding. Textual and visual parametric tools were used throughout the project.
Applying Schumacher principles to the Morpheus hotel, the geometry is complex and differentiated
gradually, being deformed with scripting rather than modelling (dogmas). There is no simple repetition,
and no rigid geometric primitives exist after the deformation in the free shape process. As most
Schumacher principles are realised, this project lies within parametric architecture.

2.4.3 Lovuvre, Abu Dhabi (LAD), 2017

This project is an example of the use of parametric design in the main part of it. The Louvre museum
consists of many pavilions used for exhibitions and activities. with a huge circular dome of 180 meters
in diameter covering these pavilions. The dome consists of eight layers: four stainless steel clad layers
on the outside, while the others, clad with aluminium, are on the inside, separated by a five metres of
steel frame.

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Figure 4. Dome of the Louvre pavilions in Abu Dhabi, 2015 designed by Jean Nouvel [19]

Highly geometric design studies were used to achieve the dome’s complex pattern, and for all eight
layers, the pattern is repeated at various sizes and angles, as shown in Figure 4. The basic geometries
for the pattern originated from a single element, a filigree web tessellation.
A shared parametric model was used for design optimisation and fabrication using Digital Project
software and SVN, a web-based model repository. Collaboration between architects, structural
engineers, and consultants on the dome model took place using Gehry technologies, which allowed all
participants to work simultaneously on different problems within the same model [20].
The system used in the LAD project and other parametrically based design projects provides an
approach for easier distribution of models, studies, thoughts and information in a collaborative
environment by following a parametric workflow that enhances problem solving throughout the various
phases of the design.
Overall, the project featured complex geometry and followed a parametric design approach to
achieve the final results, with no simple repetition; all systems were also parametrically connected.

2.4.4 Aviva Stadium, Dublin 2010

The Aviva Stadium, shown in figure 5, was the first project to be designed using commercial parametric
modelling software throughout the process from the beginning of the project to the final product design.
A single model, produced in Benetly’s Generative Components (GC) was distributed and shared
between the architects and engineers to facilitate optimisation of design form, structure and facade based
on simplified dynamic design discussions and conversations, including exchanges of ideas between
multiple parties[21]. Scripting was employed, along with other input parameters, to achieve the envelope
of the building, with the façade system and cladding added later.
Examining the Aviva stadium design approach, the parametric design concept was used as a
communication tool, for decision-making, and as an approach to determining suitable structures and
relevant construction details.

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Figure 5. Aviva Stadium, Dublin 2010

Table 3. Applying the theoretical framework of Schumacher’s Taboos and Dogmas to parametric
architecture case studies

Dogmas

Design process Shapes Internationality

Script Generative Use All parts Interarticulate Hyperdize Morph Deform Deterritorialize
rather components NURBS are
than & parametric
model Splines ally
The opus ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
building ✓
Morpheu ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
s Hotel
Lovuvre ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Abu
Dhabi
Aviva ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Stadium

Taboos

Forms Repetition

Familiar Platonic Straight lines / Juxtaposition of Simple repetition Do not add / subtract without elaborate
topologies objects right angles the unrelated interarticulations
elements
The opus
building
Morpheus
Hotel
Lovuvre ✓
Abu Dhabi
Aviva ✓
Stadium

✓ Achieved

2.5 Analysis Conclusion

Analysis of the case studies shows that in all four cases, the use of parametric design was employed at
different levels, starting from the initial idea and continuing to the final design product, including the
construction phase, and the role of parametric technologies included supporting collaboration between
the designers and other engineering disciplines. There were no clear and common characteristics or
features, despite several similarities in general aspects, especially with regard to the concept of
rejection. In case studies 1 and 2 (The Opus building and Morpheus hotel), the designs were adapted

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from known shapes or forms, which were then manipulated and deformed into hyperdized or hybrid
forms by cutting part of the façade in a sudden unusual way to create voids. In these two cases, most
of the principles in the Dogmas were thus observed regarding the shape and the design process, with
deformation, the use of NURBS and splines, and incorporation of generative components in the design
of the panels and the façade elements. With regard to the Taboos, there were no straight lines, no
familiar topologies, and no simple repetition; indeed, some of the components were manufactured in
such a way that they were unique and thus impossible to replace or copy for use in another place
within the same project. In the LAD project, scripting was used rather than modelling for the pattern
of the dome, with all the dome layers formed of generative components. The concepts underlying such
patterns have spread widely within the last few decades, and this complex pattern is thus
deterritorialized. With regard to Taboos, the main project form, the dome, is a familiar topology;
however, in a break with the past, the complex pattern reshapes it, and there are clearly no straight
lines or right angles and no simple repetition, as the pattern is complex and reproduced at different
sizes and with rotated angles. Finally, for the Aviva stadium, the envelope of the building was based
on scripting rather than modelling, with clear use of splines and NURBS, as shown in Table 3. the
shape was not deformed, however; instead, parametric technology was used to control the façade and
panels rather than shaping a unique project, while in terms of taboos, simple repetition was not
avoided. Overall, parametric principles were realised in most of the selected case studies.

3. International style in architecture

The use of the word “style”, as with many phrases related to architecture, is controversial, and it has
accreted numerous meanings over time. The word can be traced to the early 14th century, with the
word “stile” referring to a manner or way of life, including behaviour and mood of expression, from
the old French estile, derived from the Latin stilus. From 1814, the word meaning tended to “mode of
dress” [22].
In architectural terms, style is defined in the Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture as the general
appearance of the architecture of a building, including its form, construction and ornamentation, which
refer to distinctive individual expression or be part of a wider cultural pattern [23]. Style is thus
basically related to the appearance of the building and has no connection to its function, being
concerned almost exclusively with the visual features of the buildings [24]. Based on this, this visual
approach to style is adopted in this paper.
Historically, three key features of International Style were recognized by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and
Philip Johnson in a book printed to accompany the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture,
held in 1932 at New York’s Museum of Modern Art: abstraction of applied elements; dynamic balance
rather than mandatory symmetry; and the statement of volume rather than mass [11]. International style
was thus fundamentally modernist, known by its pure lines and lack of ornament, being built from steel,
glass, and other materials of the machine age. Practically, the international style was not more suitable
for one climate over another, being implemented in Finland as readily as in Mexico or California.
Moreover, several European architects such as Mies, Gropius, and Breuer supported the spread of the
style through America, while other architects played similar roles in different parts of the world [25].
International style differs from the concept of style in its conventional domain; the most important
principle of international style in modern architecture was originality, which represents the main aspect
of modernity within scientific rationalism; Schulz confirmed that “the principle of modernity is that
architecture be innovative, as if there was nothing before it at all”. Similarly, Reyner Banham indicated
that forms and shapes from many different trends found a home within modernity, making it difficult to
obtain common properties; however, all of these had common general aspects which distinguished them
from architecture in the period before 1900 [26]. The international style thus represented the most
expressive trends of modern architecture in terms of the prevalence of concept and repetition of
characteristics.
The principles of the international style realised in modern architecture included:

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- A dependence on repeated functional determinants and standards, generating predetermined and

targeted models and solutions.
- A move away from moral content resulting from a disconnection with the past and the use of
abstraction, with objectivity as a basis.
- Achieving parity through repetition, building identical homes by relying on repeating the same
executive plans to generate equivalent homes.

4. Discussion
Parametric architecture as a style does not fit within the traditional understanding of styles, but rather
encompasses a concept that aligns it with the international style developed in modernity. Parametricism,
as the heir to post-modernism and deconstruction, was preceded by many trends and thoughts in
architecture, one of which was the rejection idea [27], Jencks, in “The architecture of the jumping
universe”, examined the need for new architecture to represent the cosmic meanings emerging in the
new worldview and the realities represented by sudden developments. This can be done by linking
architecture with the science of complexity and cognitive sciences. However, Zaha Hadid rejected the
concept of gravity when producing her floating architecture, and the rejection concept in parametric
architecture was expanded to reject architectural history and even the idea of international style,
rejecting that which preceded it. Based on this, a comparison between the two styles emerges:

1. The International style in modernism and parametric architecture did not emerge from any
architectural thought based on the idea of style; instead, each of them was preceded by
diverse architectural movements, with the concept of the style launched later. Modernism
can be seen developing in the writings of Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson,
while parametric architecture emerges most prominently in Schumacher’s publications,
which announce the emergence of the new style in architecture.
2. The main concept underling both styles is originality and innovation, as the design products
of both do not combine clear and distinctive characteristics within their models; instead,
what those models share is innovation and originality, being unique from that which
preceded them. In modern architecture, all historical styles were refused, while for
parametric architecture, all that preceded it is rejected, including modern architecture.
3. The general principle for the International style in modernity is the principle of rejection;
this includes rejecting symmetry, rejecting ornament and rejecting mass in favor of
volumes, while in parametric architecture, many principles were coined by Schumacher as
“Taboos” to be avoided and rejected, such as familiar topologies, platonic objects, straight
lines, right angles, simple repetition, and addition or subtraction without elaborate
interarticulation.
4. In International style within modern architecture, the forms and products shared common
features at the level of principles, the repetition of solutions, and duplicated forms,
materials, and visual characteristics that entitled it to the term “functional architecture”,
based on the products of the machine age, while parametric architecture within
Parametricism shares common principles among forms and products as a result to the use
of programming in design, a product of the digital age. Numerous software types have thus
developed in support of the design process, offering a wide range of solutions to inform
production or construction. Similarities in structural and construction solutions are thus
derived from the similarities and widespread use of design and implementation methods.
5. The concept of repetition is prevalent in both styles, based on the similar functional
solutions in modern architecture and the increasing number of parametrically generated
images with complex and fluid forms within recent architectural practice and even in
architectural education.

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No. General Common International style Parametric architecture

principles of features
Style between the two
styles
1 The The two styles Based in modernism, Parametric architecture as a
emergence of emerged from it emerged in various style emerged from different
the idea and its architectural architectural architectural trends, beginning at
development thought based in movements with their the end of the twentieth century,
into a “style” in renewal and different trend, being defined most clearly in
revolutionary mainly in the writings Schumacher publications, where
movements and of Henry-Russell he described it as the new style
not in Hitchcock and Philip in architecture
conventional Johnson
ideas of style.
2 Originality The design In modern All that preceded parametric
and innovation products in both architecture, all architecture is rejected,
styles do not historical styles are including modern architecture.
combine clear refused
and distinctive
characteristics
within their
models; instead,
models share
innovation and
originality, or
are unique in
terms of what
has preceded
them
3 The principle The general Rejecting symmetry, In parametric architecture, many
of rejection principle for rejecting ornament principles were identified by
both styles is and rejecting masses Schumacher as “Taboos” which
the principle of in preference to should be avoided and rejected,
rejection. volumes. such as familiar topologies,
platonic objects, straight lines,
right angles, simple repetition
and the addition or subtraction
without elaborate
interarticulation.

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4 The concept of Both share the Forms and products Forms and products
repetition principle of share common also share common
repetition, features within principles as a result to
emphasising modern architecture the use of programming
formulations of at the level of in design within the
the same principles through the digital age. Numerous
technical repetition of software programs have
solutions and functional solutions been developed in
scientific and duplicated forms, support of the design
standards in materials and visual process, offering a wide
relation to form characteristics to range of solutions to
production generate a “functional both form production
architecture” of the and construction,
machine age. utilising the repetition of
solutions as coined in
Schumacher’s principles
and implementing
methods in response to
the complexity of
contemporary
architecture .
5 Links with Both share The international Parametric architecture
contemporary principles with style was associated and its implementation
technologies their temporal with the emergence of have been linked to the
and sciences period modern construction technology era, the
techniques and information revolution,
methods that and the complex
appeared with the sciences based on the
industrial revolution avant-garde geometries
at the end of the that appeared parallel to
nineteenth century its spread
and spread at the
beginning of the
twentieth century,
including the
emergence of the
principles of
standardisation, mass
production, and
similar solutions that
deal with architecture
as an objective
industry, matching
the character of the
era

5. Conclusion
This investigation makes it possible to conclude that whenever architectural movements introduce
theories of rejection and elimination of the dominant architectural language, they by necessity reach a
stage in which they must seek new language; thus, contemporary architecture is still in the process of
trying to settle on a new language to use for the parametric architecture productions which have begun

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4th International Conference on Engineering Sciences (ICES 2020) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1067 (2021) 012019 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1067/1/012019

to present themselves within the new international style as part of the process of formation and presence
of global space with regard to capacity. Within this domain, parametric architecture can be defined as a
second international architectural style whose features are not yet completely formulated; nevertheless,
it has many convergences with and analogies to the mechanisms that supported the emergence of the
International style in modern architecture. This differed from the concepts of previous international
styles based on its historical context, which defined it as a set of elements, vocabulary and architectural
characteristics repeated in a specific time and place. The new International style was thus based on the
principle of rejection of and revolution against prevailing architectural norms or the formal
characteristics associated with them in pursuit of novelty and innovation and the creation of that which
was original and unprecedented; similarly, the products of parametric architecture examined in this
research share with each other greater avoidance and refusal of features (Taboos) than subscription to
requirements (Dogmas).
A comparison of parametric architecture with the International style thus shows the participation of
both styles in several general theoretical principles, the most important of which is the principle of
rejection and the search for the new; this refers particularly to the rejection by each of the formal or
formative characteristics prevalent in previous styles, represented by the rejection of symmetry and the
rejection of masses in the international style and the rejection of the Taboos in parametric architecture.
Although the principle of rejection does not necessitate participation in or affirmation of positive
characteristics, the new product inevitably acquires a kind of participation, whether in general theoretical
principles or formal characteristics, due to the technologies required to produce the form imposing on
the design and the implementation of repetition resulting in products with the same standards or which
meet the same demands. This is represented in the International style by repeating functional solutions,
repeating forms and standardisation, as well as by repeating the same models within standardised
buildings or prefabricated constructions, while in parametric architecture, it is represented in the process
of design and implementation of complexity.
Based on this, parametric architecture can be presented as an international style, which the language
of contemporary digital architecture can be seen to be dependent on, despite its complexities and
potential fragmentation in multiple directions.

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