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Brief Introduction to the Theory of Relativity

Experiment Findings · May 2022

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 BRIEF INTRODUCTION
TO TH
THEORY OF RELATIVIT

YOUSAF NABHA
E

 THEORY OF RELATIVITY

INTRODUCTION
Everything is relative. There is no possible way by which one can say that
there exists a state of absolute rest or motion. In relativity, the measure of
speed is done relative to the speed of light. This is why relativity makes
itself
noticeable .The entire idea of relativity was given by Albert
Einstein .Einstein proposed that in high speed, time slow down ,everything
around become stationary and matter gets squashed.

PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY
The Principle of Relativity states that the laws of nature are the same
whether the observer is standing still or moving in a straight line with
constant velocity. This implies that all experiments will produce the same
results irrespective of the experimenter’s state of rest or uniform motion
with respect to a stationary reference frame. However, this principle i s not
applicable if the object is accelerating.
The Principle also implies that since no measurement will be affected by
uniform motion, there is no measurement you can make that will tell you
whether you are stationary or moving without acceleration. This is in fact
implied even by Newtonian concepts of relative motion.
The theory of relativity contains Einstein’s two inter-related theories:
i)Special Relativity, and
ii)General Relativity.



 SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Newton’s classical mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetism theory are
in compatible but with change in coordinates ,their law transform
differently. Einstein found a uni cation of mechanics and
electromagnetism, now known under the term “special relativity theory”.

CLASICAL KINEMATICS
Absolute Space
In Sir Isaac Newton’s world space exists independently of all the objects
contained in it. In his own words:
“Absolute space, in its own nature, without regard to anything external,
remains always similar and immovable”.
The geometry of space is assumed to be Euclidean .
Absolute Time
Newton’s ideas about time are similar to those about space:
“Absolute, true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature
ows equably without regard to anything external”.

ELECTRODYNAMICS
In ancient physics, aether is a theoretical medium which is considered to
be a medium in which light and electromagnetic waves travels.
According to Maxwell, Maxwell's equations only hold in the frame in
which the aether is at rest which means light should be constant while light
should travel at speed c relative to the aether.
fl
fi



RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS
Special relativity explains the relationship between space and time
depending upon two postulates
A)The laws of physics are invariant in all non-accelerating frames of
reference.
B)The speed light in vacuum is constant and same for all observers. It will
not change with respect to motion of source or observer. Aether theory
abolishes.

Space-Time
Einstein merges space and time to the 4- dimensional spacetime. The
elements of spacetime are called events.

spacetime is any mathematical model which fuses the three dimensions of

space and the one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional
manifold. Spacetime diagrams can be used to visualise relativistic effects,
such as why different observers perceive where and when events occur
differently.

LIMITATION OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

Special relativity only applies to inertial reference frames when motion is
in a straight line at constant speed. Therefore it could not be applied to
situations involving forces such as electromagnetic forces involving
charges and currents or the force of Gravity.

GENERAL RELATIVITY
Einstein introduced gravity into theory of relativity which is now known as
General Relativity. It generalises Special Relativity and re nes Newton’s
Universal law of Gravitation.

CLASSICAL THEORY OF GRAVITATION

Newton states that every particle attracts every other particle in the
universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres. F=Gm1m2/r2

Here G = 6. 673 ╳ 10⌃−11 m⌃3 kg⌃−1 s⌃−2 is the gravitational

constant. m1 and m2 are masses of two objects separated by distance r.

MODERN THEORY OF GRAVITATION

General Relativity provides a uni ed description of gravity as a property
of Space-Time. General Relativity is structured with the help of
differential geometry especially Riemannian Geometry .

Einstein’s Field Equation

In the general relativity the Einstein eld equations relate the geometry of
spacetime to the distribution of matter within it.

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fi

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The Einstein eld equations (EFE) may be written in the form:

where, Gµν is the Einstein Tensor,

gµν is the metric tensor,
Tµν is the stress energy tensor,
Λ is the cosmological constant, and
κ is the Einstein gravitational constant

The Einstein Tensor is de ned as,

where, Rµν is the Ricci curvature tensor, and

R is the scalar curvature.
NOTE: Scalar Curvature is a symmetric second-degree tensor that depends
on only the metric tensor and its rst and second derivatives

The Einstein gravitational constant is de ned as,

where G is the Newtonian constant of gravitation, and

c is the speed of light in vacuum

The EFE can thus also be written as,

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fi

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LIMITATIONS OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

A)General Relativity Does Not Respect Local Energy-Momentum.

B)General Relativity Predicts Space-Time Singularities.
C)General Relativity Failed to Be Quantised.

 PHENOMENONS SUPPORTING THEORY OF

RELATIVITY

TIME DILATION
Time dilation is a phenomenon described by the theory of relativity which
causes observers moving with different velocities to experience different
time. Imagine a man in a train, which is travelling at the speed of light.
When he turn around and look towards the back of the train.
Unfortunately, he can’t see it. One can only see an object when light
re ected from the object enters one’s eyes but the man is travelling at the
speed of light. Therefore, the light rays from the back of the train can
never reach him
This appears to be a foolproof test which contradicts the Principle of
Relativity, which is a very basic law. If principle is right then the carriage’s
back must look normal to the man
This further implies that the light from the back of the carriage still reaches
man’s eyes as it normally would. This can only happen if light ignores the
motion of the train entirely and travels at an apparent absolute speed. i.e.
The speed of light is same for everyone, if they are not accelerating.

Light Clock Experiment

Imagine two horizontal mirrors facing each other such that one mirror is
spaced
above the other by the distance d. Also imagine that there is a pulse of light
that bounces vertically between the two mirrors as shown in the left part of
the drawing below
fl
.

Suppose our "light clock" was traveling sideways at a very high

(constant)speed. Now the pulse would follow the path shown on the right
side of the drawing. The light must travel a greater distance now to make a
round trip . Since its speed is the same as before, it will take longer to
make a round trip.
So our "light clock" takes longer to count out its intervals. Another way of
saying this is that the clock "ticks" more slowly. In other words, time itself
slows down in a moving object. But time will appear to be normal to a
person who’s travelling with the light clock.
Albert Einstein derived an equation for the result, which is

t = amount of time that passes for you, according to a clock you carr
T= amount of time that passes on the moving objec
v = velocity of moving objec
c = speed of light



t

 LENGTH CONTRACTION
Length contraction is the physical phenomenon of a decrease in length
detected by an observer in objects that travel at any non-zero velocity
relative to that observer.
Let’s say that four friends A, B, C and D decide to measure the length of a
train. We’ll assume that they’re armed with little ray-guns which emit
beams of light.
A)When train is at rest

A res the gun which hits B after 40 nanoseconds.

So according to them, the length of the train i
l = (3*108) * (4*10-8) = 12m

B)When train is moving,

fi
,

Suppose the readings are taken by C and D who are standing outside the
train. C notes the time at which A res the gun while D notes the time
when B gets hit. According to D, by the time the ray hits B, the train has
moved forward and therefore he notes the time to be lesser than 40
nanoseconds. Let’s say 30 nanoseconds.
So,
l = (3*108) * (3*10-8) = 9
This implies that moving objects shrink relative to the reference frame.
Hendrik Lorentz derived an equation for calculating length contraction,
which is

L’ = proper length
L = length observed by an observer in relative motion with respect to the
object
v = velocity of moving object
c = speed of light
m

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MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
Relativity explains that the energy provided to the body increases its
momentum but not its velocity, i.e. the mass of the body appears to
increase and is known as relativistic mass.
Albert Einstein derived an equation for calculating relativistic mass, which
is

m’ = relativistic mass
m = mass when object is at rest with respect to the observer v = velocity of
moving object
c = speed of light

The relativistic mass arrises in the mass of the body is due to the energy
supplied to that body which is given by a world famous equation

This implies that even miniature objects actually have a lot of locked-up
energy.





,

CONCLUSION
Albert Einstein’s Theory of relativity has wide varying applications. It
helps to accurately determine the position of moving aircrafts which is
vital to the safety associated with air travel. E=mc2 also helps to determine
the amount of energy stored in a substance which pave way to invention of
new source of electricity known as “nuclear energy”. It gives insight into
some marvellous phenomenons which are unknown to the world such as
mercury’s movement around sun and blackholes.
It also introduces new concepts like time travelling which will empowers
modern era of speed.
More certainly, it abolishes the classical physics which depends on
euclidian world and opens door to modern physics.
Relativity has changed our life; and the way we look at things; and has
shown that sometimes common sense just doesn’t work.






 BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Basic Ideas of Relativity” written by Mrinal Mohit, MR Ganesh, Palash
and Utkarsh Sharma.
“Unvealing the Special Theory of Relativity” presentation by Sunil Mukhi,
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai.
“The Special Theory of Relativity “ article by Vasant Natarajan and
Diptiman Sen.
“Theory of Relativity” lecture notes by Christian Bar.
teacher.pas.rochester.edu
aether.lbl.gov
www.quora.com
astronomy.com
www.discovermagazine.com
www.britannica.com
www.wikipedia.com

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