484

Impact of HVDC Stations on Protection

of AC Systems

Working Group

JWG B5/B4.25

December 2011
 Impact of HVDC Stations on
Protection of AC Systems

Joint Working Group

B5/B4.25

Members

Xicai Zhao(CN) – Convenor,

Torsten Priebe(DE), Jean-Baptiste Curis(FR), Per Holmberg(SE), Dinesh Perera(AU),
Ryan Tumilty(UK), Ioni Fernando(CA), Jens Peter Kjærgaard(DK), Marco Valente (IT),
Klas Koppari (SE), Kees C.G.A. Koreman(NL), Nilo J. Macedo(BR), Gustavo Arruda(BR),
Takahiro Omori(JP), Ragnar Mangelrod(NO)

Copyright © 2011
“Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only infers right of use for
personal purposes. Are prohibited, except if explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total or partial reproduction of the
publication for use other than personal and transfer to a third party; hence circulation on any intranet or other
company network is forbidden”.

Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any
responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are
excluded to the maximum extent permitted by law”.

ISBN: 978-2-85873-176-3
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..........................................................................................................................................................ii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................................... v
ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... vi
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................................viii
1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Scope............................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Purpose.......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Structure of This Report................................................................................................................................ 1
References of Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 2
2. Different HVDC Technologies ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1. Main Circuit Topology.................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1. General ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2. Back to Back Converters............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.3. Mono-polar Long Distance Transmission ................................................................................................... 4
2.1.4. Bi-polar Long-Distance Transmission ........................................................................................................ 4
2.2. Converter Topologies.................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1. General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.2.2. Line Commutated Converters-LCC ............................................................................................................ 7
2.2.3. Capacitive Commutated Converters-CCC [2-2] ............................................................................................ 7
2.2.4. Self Commutated Converters (Voltage Source Converter)-VSC ................................................................ 8
2.3. Filters and Capacitor Banks ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.3.1. Filters on AC Side..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.2. Filters on DC Side..................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.3. Active Filters............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.4. Control & Protection System ...................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.1. Typical Control System Hierarchy............................................................................................................ 15
2.4.2. Control Characteristics of an HVDC System............................................................................................ 15
2.4.3. DC System Protection Aspects ................................................................................................................. 17
References of Chapter 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 19
3. Phenomena That Impact AC System Protection ................................................................................................. 20
3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 20
3.1.1. Steady State............................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2. Disturbances.............................................................................................................................................. 20
3.2. Steady State................................................................................................................................................. 23
3.2.1. Harmonic Distortion.................................................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2. Ground Loop Current................................................................................................................................ 23
3.2.3. Asymmetry................................................................................................................................................ 26
3.3. Dynamics and Transients ............................................................................................................................ 26
3.3.1. HVDC Normal Start / Stop ....................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.2. HVDC Power Flow Regulation................................................................................................................. 27
3.3.3. Mono-pole or Bi-pole Blocking and Recovery ......................................................................................... 27
3.3.4. Commutation Failure and Recovery.......................................................................................................... 27
3.3.5. Fault on HVDC Line and Recovery .......................................................................................................... 29
3.3.6. Loss of Triggering Pulse and Recovery .................................................................................................... 30
3.3.7. Short Circuit between HVAC & HVDC Lines ......................................................................................... 30
3.3.8. HVAC Sub-synchronous Oscillations (SSO)............................................................................................ 31
3.3.9. Islanded AC Network Connected by HVDC............................................................................................. 31
3.3.10. HVDC Power Limitation - Runback Limiter .......................................................................................... 33
3.3.11. Frequency Limiter / Frequency Control.................................................................................................. 34
References of Chapter 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 35
4. AC Protection Scheme ........................................................................................................................................ 36
4.1. General........................................................................................................................................................ 36
4.2. Performance of CT, VT & CVT on AC side............................................................................................... 36
4.2.1. Magnetic CT ............................................................................................................................................. 36
4.2.2. Magnetic VT ............................................................................................................................................. 38
4.2.3. Capacitive VT ........................................................................................................................................... 39
4.3. AC Protection Algorithms........................................................................................................................... 41
4.3.1. Acquisition Principle................................................................................................................................. 41

ii
 4.4. AC Protection Elements .............................................................................................................................. 42
4.4.1. Over/undercurrent Protection.................................................................................................................... 42
4.4.2. Over/undervoltage Protection ................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.3. Distance Protection ................................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.4. Differential Current Protection.................................................................................................................. 50
4.4.5. Algorithm Based on Super-imposing Philosophy ..................................................................................... 53
4.5. Method of Calculating Parameters .............................................................................................................. 53
4.6. Models for Protection Settings and Co-ordination...................................................................................... 55
References of Chapter 4 .......................................................................................................................................... 56
5. AC System Protection Practice ........................................................................................................................... 57
5.1. General........................................................................................................................................................ 57
5.2. Line Protection and Autoreclosure.............................................................................................................. 57
5.2.1. Communication-aided Directional Protection........................................................................................... 57
5.2.2. Line Current Differential Protection ......................................................................................................... 58
5.2.3. Distance Protection ................................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.4. Zero Sequence Overcurrent Protection ..................................................................................................... 59
5.2.5. Negative Sequence Overcurrent Protection............................................................................................... 59
5.2.6. Phase Selection ......................................................................................................................................... 59
5.2.7. Autoreclosure ............................................................................................................................................ 59
5.3. Transformer Protection ............................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.1. Adjacent Transformer ............................................................................................................................... 59
5.3.2. Converter Transformer.............................................................................................................................. 60
5.4. Busbar protection ........................................................................................................................................ 61
5.5. Breaker Failure Protection .......................................................................................................................... 63
5.6. Shunt Capacitor / Reactor Protection .......................................................................................................... 64
5.7. Generator Protection ................................................................................................................................... 64
5.8. Special Protection Scheme .......................................................................................................................... 65
5.9. AC Filter Bank Protection........................................................................................................................... 66
5.10. Coordination Issues................................................................................................................................. 66
5.10.1. Protection Scheme Preventing Overvoltage [5-7] ...................................................................................... 66
5.10.2. Control Scheme Preventing Commutation Failure [5-7] ........................................................................... 66
5.10.3. HVDC 2nd Harmonic Protection.............................................................................................................. 66
References of Chapter 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 69
6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 70
6.1. Phenomena that Impact AC System Protection........................................................................................... 70
6.2. Mitigations .................................................................................................................................................. 70
6.2.1. General ...................................................................................................................................................... 70
6.2.2. Line protection and autoreclosure ............................................................................................................. 70
6.2.3. Transformer protection.............................................................................................................................. 71
6.2.4. Busbar Protection and Breaker Failure Protection .................................................................................... 71
6.2.5. Shunt Capacitor / Reactor Protection ........................................................................................................ 71
6.2.6. Generator Protection ................................................................................................................................. 71
6.2.7. Special Protection Scheme ........................................................................................................................ 71
6.2.8. Coordination Issues................................................................................................................................... 71
6.3. Proposal for IEC 60909............................................................................................................................... 72
6.4. Further Studies ............................................................................................................................................ 72
References of Chapter 6 .......................................................................................................................................... 73

iii
List of Tables
Table 3.1-1 AC/DC Interactions and Disturbing Phenomena .................................................................... 21
Table 5.10-1 2nd Harmonic Protection Scheme ........................................................................................... 67

iv
List of Figures
Figure 2.1-1 Simplified Representation of the DC Circuit of an HVDC Pole ............................................. 3
Figure 2.1-2 Back to Back Mono-polar HVDC Converter with Ground Return ......................................... 3
Figure 2.1-3 Mono-polar Long Distance HVDC Transmission with Ground Return................................. 4
Figure 2.1-4 Mono-polar Long Distance HVDC Transmission with Implicit Return.................................. 4
Figure 2.1-5 Bi-polar Long-Distance Transmission with Ground Return Path .......................................... 5
Figure 2.1-6 With Ground Return Path for Mono-polar Operation .............................................................. 5
Figure 2.1-7 HVDC Cable/OHL as Return Path for Mono-polar Operation ............................................... 5
Figure 2.1-8 With Dedicated Metallic Return Path for Mono-polar Operation........................................... 6
Figure 2.1-9 Without Dedicated Return Path for Mono-polar Operation.................................................... 6
Figure 2.2-1 Graetz Bridge Topology .............................................................................................................. 7
Figure 2.2-2 Capacitive Commutated Converters-CCC ............................................................................... 8
Figure 2.2-3 Controlled Series Capacitor Converter (CSCC) ...................................................................... 8
Figure 2.2-4 Simplified Circuit Diagram for a 2-level VSC-HVDC............................................................... 9
Figure 2.3-1 Reactive Power Demand of an Exemplary 1800 MW Rectifier Station ............................. 12
Figure 2.3-2 Total Reactive Power of an Exemplary HVDC Station with Controlled Switching ........... 12
Figure 2.4-1 HVDC Control System .............................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2.4-2 Control Characteristics of an HVDC Point to Point System................................................. 16
Figure 2.4-3 Control Characteristics with the Use of Electronic Voltage Regulation ............................. 16
Figure 2.4-4 Modified Control Characteristics.............................................................................................. 17
Figure 3.2-1 Influence of Ground Electrode Current in HVDC on AC Power Network .......................... 24
Figure 3.2-2 Typical Exciting Current Waveform of a Power Transformer .............................................. 25
Figure 3.3-1 Commutation Process of a Twelve-pulse Bridge .................................................................. 28
Figure 3.3-2 Commutation Failure of a Twelve-pulse Bridge .................................................................... 29
Figure 4.2-1 Magnetic CT ............................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.2-2 Saturable Transformer without Hysteresis ............................................................................. 37
Figure 4.2-3 Saturable Transformer with an Offset Current....................................................................... 38
Figure 4.2-4 Waveform of Primary & Secondary Current........................................................................... 38
Figure 4.2-5 Capacitive VT ............................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 4.2-6 Equivalent Circuit of CVT.......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4.2-7 Performance of CVT: Example of a 225 kV CVT .................................................................. 41
Figure 4.3-1 Acquisition Principle .................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 4.4-1 distance protection equation .................................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.4-2 Phase-ground Loop ................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.4-3 Phase-phase Loop..................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.4-4 Apparent Impedance ................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 4.4-5 Reach of First and Second Zone............................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.4-6 An Example of Distance Protection Trip Characteristic ....................................................... 48
Figure 4.4-7 Delta Algorithm-Voltage Waveform......................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.4-8 Delta Algorithm-Current Waveform ......................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.4-9 Line Differential Protection ....................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.4-10 Tripping Characteristic with One Stabilization Ratio .......................................................... 51
Figure 4.4-11 Tripping Characteristic with Two Stabilization Ratios ........................................................ 51
Figure 4.5-1 Interconnection of HVDC & HVAC Systems.......................................................................... 53
Figure 4.5-2 Equivalent Circuit of HVDC System ........................................................................................ 54
Figure 5.2-1 Line Directional Pilot Protection............................................................................................... 57
Figure 5.2-2 Primary DC Discharge Currents and the Saturated Secondary Currents ......................... 58
Figure 5.3-1 Fault Component Network of Single Phase Electrical Power System ............................... 59
Figure 5.3-2 Converter Transformer Protection Scheme ........................................................................... 61
Figure 5.4-1 Double Busbar with Bus Coupler............................................................................................. 62
Figure 5.4-2 Busbar Protection Logic Scheme with VCE........................................................................... 63
Figure 5.5-1 Breaker Failure Protection Logic Scheme with VCE ............................................................ 64
Figure 5.8-1 Signal Exchange between HVDC and SPS ........................................................................... 65
Figure 5.10-1 Mechanism of 2nd Harmonic Component in DC Side during AC System Fault .............. 67

v
ABBREVIATIONS
AC : Alternating Current

ADC : Analog to Digital Converter

APF : Active Power Filter

CCC : Capacitive Commutated Converter

CEC : Current Error Compensation

CSCC : Controlled Series Capacitor Converter

CT : Current Transformer

DC : Direct Current

EPC : Emergency Power Control

ESCR : Effective Short Circuit Ratio

ESOF : Emergency Switch Off

HVAC : High Voltage Alternative Current

HVDC : High Voltage Direct Current

IEC : International Electrotechnical Commission

Inv : Inverter

IGBT : Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistor

LCC : Line Commutated Converters

LBP : Low power bi-polar

LVDC : Low Voltage DC

MMC : Modular Multilevel Converter

MP : mono-polar

OHL : Overhead Line

OFP : Over Frequency Protection

OPC : Over-speed Protection Control

POW : point-on-wave

PPT : Pole Power Transfer

PSS : Power System Stabilizer

vi
RAS : Remedial Action Scheme

Rect : Rectifier

RMS : Root Mean Square

SCC : Short Circuit Capacity

SCR : Short Circuit Ratio

SPS : Special Protection Scheme

System Protection Scheme

SSO : Sub Synchronous Oscillations

SVC : Static Var Compensator

PF : Power Factor

Power Filter

Power Frequency

THD : Total Harmonics Distortion

TOV : Transient Over Voltage

UFLS : Under Frequency Load Shedding

VBE : Valve Base Electronics

VCE : voltage Control Element

VDCL : Voltage Dependant Current Limitation

VDCOL : Voltage Dependent Current Order Limitation

VSC : Voltage Source Converter

VT : Voltage Transformer

vii
Executive Summary

Introduction
Compared with traditional HVAC transmission systems, HVDC transmission systems exhibit different
electrical characteristics, and HVDC systems affect adjacent HVAC systems. Operating experience of
combined AC/DC systems has shown that in most cases the impacts of the HVDC system on the
protection of adjacent HVAC system are negligible, while in some special cases the HVDC system may
bring about different fault characteristics to the adjacent HVAC system, influence the operation of the
HVAC protection or even cause unwanted operation and/or missing-operation in extreme cases. Such
events have happened in some places.
This report analyzes the steady state and the transient phenomena in HVAC systems brought about by
HVDC transmission systems and the resulting impacts on HVAC protection, and provides guidance on
designing a proper HVAC protection system in the presence of adjacent HVDC systems.

Different HVDC Technologies

The main types of HVDC converters are distinguished by their DC circuit arrangements: back-to-back
converters, mono-polar with ground return or metallic return, bi-polar with ground return or metallic return.
The most commonly used converter today is the Line Commutated Converters (LCC), which relies on the
AC line voltage for commutation. The switch on instant of the valves is controlled; the commutation to the
next conducting valve is forced by the zero crossing of the related valve voltage. The thyristor valves are
connected to the AC grid via a converter transformer. Whilst there is a lot of literature published about
Capacitive Commutated Converters (CCC) and Voltage Source Converter (VSC), their impacts on AC
protection will not be discussed in this report for the lack of literatures on this topic.

Phenomena that Impact AC System Protection

The DC power or current can be controlled by the HVDC control system in steady state. At the rectifier
end, the firing angle is typically regulated to keep the DC power or the direct current constant, while at the
inverter end, the firing angle is typically regulated to keep the DC voltage constant. But during DC system
disturbances, the ability of the control system is often limited to blocking the switching of the converter
valves.
In steady state, the DC system can be regarded as a constant power source or constant current source.
One issue is harmonic distortion when considering impacts on AC protection. Most of the harmonics
produced by HVDC system will be filtered by shunt filters. Nevertheless, under critical conditions, some of
those harmonics will enter the AC network. With the use of proper input hardware and software filtering
and a suitable signal processing method, modern protective relays can operate correctly. However, some
special issues have to be studied. Ground loop current is another issue, which could lead to half-wave
saturation of the iron core of the transformer, thus causing harmonics and current distortion and as a
result mal-restraint of transformer differential protection especially in situation of slight internal faults.
Any events that change the HVDC power transfer rapidly can be regarded as dynamics or transients.
These events include: normal start and stop, DC power regulation, mono-pole/bi-pole blocking and
recovery, commutation failure and recovery, fault on HVDC line and recovery, loss of triggering pulse and
recovery, short circuit between AC & DC lines, etc. The fault current in-feed to AC system by DC system
is limited by HVDC control system, while fast response of control & protection system and converter
makes the fault phenomena different from AC system and brings about challenges to AC protection.
Among these, commutation failure and recovery would be the most significant event, especially those
caused by AC system faults. Consequences of commutation failure and recovery, accompanying an AC
system fault make it complicated to analyze the impacts on AC protection, optimize the AC protection and
improve the performance of it.

AC System Protection Elements

viii
With AC currents and/or voltages as inputs, AC protections are built on steady-state measurements or
incremental quantities (change of measurements). The quantities may be single phase, three phase or
neutral/residual quantities; positive, negative or zero sequence quantities; fundamental or harmonic
quantities; RMS (Root Mean Square) value, instantaneous value or peak value.
Typical AC protection elements are: over/under current, under/over voltage, over/under power,
over/under frequency, directional, differential current, impedance/reactance/distance, volts per hertz, etc.

AC System Protection Practice

Line protection and autoreclosure

HVDC commutation failures and recoveries bring about a sudden change of AC voltage and current,
which look like instantaneous current reversals on parallel AC lines. Communication-aided directional line
protection logic should be re-designed such that the forward directional element and the reverse
directional element coordinate with each other in the way that the reverse directional element should be
set with higher sensitivity, longer extension time, and higher priority, comparing to forward directional
element.
DC discharge under AC fault conditions, especially from long distance DC submarine cables if present,
may significantly distort AC fault currents and saturate CTs, thus causing unacceptably delaying the
operation of distance protection for internal faults, or lead to unwanted operation for external faults. In this
case, current differential protection is the only workable substitute.
Incremental quantities (change of measurements) based phase selector may not work properly, so
sequence quantities based or impedance based phase selector is preferable.
When two or more AC lines connect to the same HVDC converter station, AC line autoreclosure can be
put into service in a normal way. Otherwise, AC line autoreclosure should be disabled in order to avoid
the second strike on HVDC system when a fault occurs on AC line.

Transformer protection
One special protection element implemented on converter transformer is DC saturation protection to deal
with DC bias magnetic. For other transformers adjacent to HVDC converter stations, if the earthing
electrodes are not properly located, differential protection with the second harmonic restraint may not
operate because of the high second harmonic caused by DC bias, when a slight internal fault occurs
together with severe DC bias under HVDC mono-pole ground operation mode. New schemes may be
applied, such as excitation impedance scheme.

Busbar Protection and Breaker Failure Protection

No malfunction of AC busbar protection and breaker failure protection initiated by HVDC systems has
been reported. Nevertheless, voltage control element (VCE), also known as voltage trip supervision
implemented in these protections, which may consist of phase under-voltage, negative sequence over-
voltage and zero sequence over-voltage with “OR” logic, could operate in case of HVDC asymmetry,
which will threaten the security of the protection.

Shunt Capacitor / Reactor Protection

Fundamental frequency overcurrent and/or overload protection may not effectively protect shunt capacitor
/ reactor bank where there are significant harmonics as may occur in association with HVDC systems. In
addition to fundamental frequency current and voltage protection, certain frequency harmonics, RMS
(include fundamental frequency and all harmonics), and THD (total harmonics distortion) protection are
added.

Generator Protection

ix
As CIGRE REF.119 (Interaction between HVDC convertors and nearby synchronous machines)
suggested, generators that have any risk of torsional interactions, with HVDC links or other devices,
should be equipped with protections (alarm and trip). It is possible to measure stresses directly from the
shaft or to measure the angular frequency deviation in shafts to evaluate stresses in the shaft structure. It
is also possible to measure the components of the generator current corresponding to the torsional
frequencies of the shaft. The same kind of current protection is also possible to use as an alarm or trip
signal to shut down the HVDC link when the measured AC current components in the HVDC terminal
exceed preset values.

Special Protection Scheme

To keep the system stable, some events in HVDC system need to trigger special protection scheme
(SPS). On the other hand, HVDC fast power regulation is one available approach for SPS to improve the
transient stability of AC systems.

Coordination Issues
Trip signals from AC protection may be delayed intentionally until the AC capacitor banks and filters in
converter station are isolated from the system, so as to limit the AC system overvoltage level. Otherwise,
the AC capacitor banks and filters, or even arresters may be threatened. SPS could also be applied in
this case.
For HVDC connected to an AC system with low short-circuit capacity, switching of circuit breakers in AC
system may cause commutation failures. A command may be transferred to the HVDC system to shift the
firing pulse angle forward to a safe margin before any such kind of circuit breaker switching.
The time delay of HVDC 2nd harmonic protection should ensure that it does not operate for AC faults with
back-up clearance time. In other words, the time delay of this protection should coordinate with the time
delay of circuit breaker failure protection, and the settings may be revised.

Conclusion
HVDC system brings about different fault characteristics to the adjacent HVAC systems, influences the
operation of the HVAC protection or even causes unwanted operation and/or missing-operation in
extreme cases. Proper design of protection scheme can prevent these, and alternative protection
principles need to be considered for some cases.
When a fault occurs in HVAC system, the short circuit current in-feed by the HVDC system is limited at or
close to the rated current of HVDC system by HVDC control system. It is not possible to provide an
analytical formula to calculate the transient state short circuit current in-feed by the HVDC system, due to
possible converter commutation failure, non-linearity of Var compensator and filters, and fast response of
HVDC control system. Settings of protection in HVAC system can be calculated in the same way as
before. Only some special concerns are to be considered.
HVDC based on Capacitive Commutated Converters (CCC) and Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
technology is still developing and there is not much published experience about the impacts on AC
protection from such systems up to now. Further studies for these technologies are thought necessary in
the future.

x
1. Introduction

1.1. Scope
The scope of this joint working group was defined as being:
1. Document the different HVDC technologies and their different AC side performance during steady
state, dynamics and transients.
2. Discuss user experience of Protection and Automation Systems in existing substations near HVDC
projects.
3. Determination of the impact on AC network protection resulting from the HVDC scheme’s influence
on short-circuit current, inertia, sub-synchronous oscillations, voltage and current parameters in the
AC network close to the HVDC converter station.
4. Discuss the potential impact and requirements on AC network protection when using Mono-polar
HVDC schemes operating with ground return.
5. Discuss the requirements on protection when AC and DC lines cross, resulting in a risk of
inadvertent risk of connection between the two.
6. Discuss the protection of systems which are, or can become, an islanded AC network fed by HVDC.
7. Establish the method of calculating parameters to be used for HVAC protections in the presence of
HVDC schemes.
8. Propose an amendment of IEC 60909, which at present does not take into account these aspects.
9. Provide models which can be useful for protection settings and co-ordination.

1.2. Purpose
The purposes of this report are:
- to provide general HVDC background knowledge to protection people, and general AC protection
background knowledge to HVDC people in order to achieve better understanding and
- to list the relevant phenomena on DC side that could affect AC protection and provide suggestions to
improve AC protection accordingly.

1.3. Structure of This Report

Chapter one gives the background of this report;
Chapter two documents the different HVDC technologies currently applied, including main circuit
topology, along with control systems.
Chapter three lists all phenomena on DC side that impact AC system protection, not only in steady
state but also during disturbances.
Chapter four provides general background knowledge of AC protection.
Chapter five provides suggestions on how to improve AC protections to deal with HVDC impacts.
Chapter six concludes the whole report; suggests further studies in this area, together with revision of
IEC 60909.

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References of Chapter 1
[1-1] TOR-JWG B5/B4-25. PROPOSAL FOR CREATION OF A NEW JOINT WORKING GROUP
(JWG), Approval by Technical Committee Chairman: Klaus Fröhlich, Dec 4, 2008.

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2. Different HVDC Technologies

2.1. Main Circuit Topology

2.1.1. General
The main types of HVDC converters are distinguished by their DC circuit arrangements. The following
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.1-1 is a simplified representation of the DC circuit of a single
HVDC pole based on Line Commutated Converters (LCC).

Figure 2.1-1 Simplified Representation of the DC Circuit of an HVDC Pole

The current, and thus the power flow, is controlled by means of the difference between the controlled
voltages. The current direction is fixed and the power direction is controlled by means of the voltage
polarity. Fast response of control system and converter makes the phenomena different from AC
system and brings about challenges to AC protection.
The converter is described in the following sections.

2.1.2. Back to Back Converters

The expression back-to-back indicates that the rectifier and inverter are located in the same station.
See Figure 2.1-2.
Back-to-back converters are mainly used for power transmission between adjacent AC grids where
synchronous operation is not possible, due to either differences of the system frequencies, or not
desirable for stability reasons. They can also be used within a meshed grid in order to achieve a
defined power flow.

Figure 2.1-2 Back to Back Mono-polar HVDC Converter with Ground Return

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2.1.3. Mono-polar Long Distance Transmission
For very long distances and in particular for very long sea cable transmissions, a return path with
ground/sea electrodes will be the most feasible solution. See Figure 2.1-3.

Figure 2.1-3 Mono-polar Long Distance HVDC Transmission with Ground Return

In many cases, existing infrastructure or environmental constraints prevent the use of electrodes. In
such cases, a metallic return path is used in spite of increased cost and losses. See Figure 2.1-4.

Figure 2.1-4 Mono-polar Long Distance HVDC Transmission with Implicit Return

2.1.4. Bi-polar Long-Distance Transmission

A bi-polar scheme is a combination of two poles in such a way that a common low voltage return path,
if available, will only carry a small unbalance current during normal operation.
This configuration is used if the required transmission capacity exceeds that of a single pole. It is also
used if there is a requirement for higher energy availability or lower load rejection power, which makes
it necessary to split the capacity between two poles.
During maintenance or outages of one pole, it is still possible to transmit part of the power. More than
50% of the transmission capacity can be utilized, limited by the actual overload capacity of the
remaining pole. The advantages of a bi-polar solution over a solution with two mono-poles are
reduced cost due to one common or no return path and lower losses. The main disadvantage is that
unavailability of the return path with adjacent components will affect both poles.

2.1.4.1. With Ground Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

This is a commonly used configuration for a bi-polar transmission system. The solution provides a high
degree of flexibility with respect to operation with reduced capacity during contingencies or
maintenance. A general scheme is shown in Figure 2.1-5.

-4-
 Figure 2.1-5 Bi-polar Long-Distance Transmission with Ground Return Path

Upon a single-pole fault, the current of the healthy pole will be taken over by the ground return path
and the faulty pole will be isolated as shown in Figure 2.1-6.

Figure 2.1-6 With Ground Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

Following a pole outage caused by the converter, the current can be commutated from the ground
return path into a metallic return path provided by the HVDC conductor of the faulty pole as shown in
Figure 2.1-7.

Figure 2.1-7 HVDC Cable/OHL as Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

-5-
2.1.4.2. With Dedicated Metallic Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

If there are restrictions even to temporary use of electrodes, or if the transmission distance is relatively
short, a dedicated LVDC metallic return conductor can be considered as an alternative to a ground
return path with electrodes. The scheme is shown in Figure 2.1-8.

Figure 2.1-8 With Dedicated Metallic Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

2.1.4.3. Without Dedicated Return Path

A scheme without electrodes or a dedicated metallic return path for Mono-polar operation will give the
lowest initial cost. The scheme is shown in Figure 2.1-9

Figure 2.1-9 Without Dedicated Return Path for Mono-polar Operation

Mono-polar operation is possible by means of bypass switches during a converter pole outage, but not
during an HVDC conductor outage. A short bi-polar outage will follow a converter pole outage before
the bypass operation can be established.

-6-
2.2. Converter Topologies

2.2.1. General
There are several converter topologies available today on the market, such as Line Commutated
Converters (LCC), Capacitive Commutated Converters (CCC) and Voltage Source Converter (VSC),
which will be described in this section. For the rest of this report, the commonly used Line
Commutated Converters (LCC) will be focused on as this has historically seen most applications.

2.2.2. Line Commutated Converters-LCC

Line Commutated Converters rely on the AC line voltage for commutation. The switch on instant of the
valves is controlled; the commutation to the next conducting valve is forced by the zero crossing of the
related valve voltage. In this topology (Graetz bridge), the thyristor valves are connected to the AC
grid via a converter transformer, as shown in Figure 2.2-1.
This HVDC converter technology is used in about 100 projects for an installed transmission capacity of
about 94GW (See Reference [2-1]), and this is a mature and proven technology.

Figure 2.2-1 Graetz Bridge Topology

2.2.3. Capacitive Commutated Converters-CCC [2-2]

There is a lot of literature published about CCC, but up to now there are only two projects in
commercial operation. Of these two, the Garabi Project is the biggest with a rating of 2200MW, of
which the first phase went into commercial operation in 1999 and the second phase in 2002. Another
project, Rapid City DC Tie with a rating of 200 MW, was commissioned in 2003. Nevertheless a short
abstract of this technology is given, as more projects may arise in future.
The conventional converter topology relies on the AC bus voltage for the commutation process. At the
inverter side this means, that the incoming valve must be triggered sufficiently in advance of the line-
line voltage zero crossing to provide sufficient commutation margin after the end of the overlap period.
This typically results in the converter consuming a large amount of reactive power at rated power
conditions. The reliance on line voltage for commutation also makes the converter susceptible to
commutation failure in the event of AC system voltage depressions.
One method of improving the commutation failure performance for HVDC systems is to use capacitors
connected between the converter and the AC bus to give an additional source of commutation voltage
in addition to the AC bus voltage. By using capacitors in series with the converter the load rejection
over voltages are reduced and the stability when connecting to weak AC networks is improved.
The capacitor commutated converter (CCC), shown in Figure 2.2-2 is one topology that has been
used. Another possible circuit configuration called Controlled Series Capacitor Converter (CSCC) has
the series capacitor inserted at the connection of the filter bus to the AC system (Figure 2.2-3).

-7-
 Figure 2.2-2 Capacitive Commutated Converters-CCC

Figure 2.2-3 Controlled Series Capacitor Converter (CSCC)

2.2.4. Self Commutated Converters (Voltage Source Converter)-VSC

2.2.4.1. Two-level VSC-HVDC

The VSC HVDC 2-level converter is based on a six-valve converter bridge, equipped with
semiconductor valves consisting of a number of series-connected IGBT (Insulated Gate Bi-polar
Transistor) units. See reference [2-3].
The converters are connected by two DC lines, one with positive polarity and the other with negative
polarity.
The converters control the active and reactive power independently as long as the current and voltage
rating limits of the converter are not reached, which is beneficial when connected to weak AC
networks. From the AC system point of view the converter can be seen as a generator with limited
short circuit current contribution.
The converter is self commutated which means that there are no commutation failures.
Figure 2.2-4 below shows a simplified circuit diagram for the VSC- 2-Level-HVDC.

-8-
 Figure 2.2-4 Simplified Circuit Diagram for a 2-level VSC-HVDC

2.2.4.2. Three-level VSC-HVDC

Figure 2.2-5 below shows a simplified circuit diagram for the VSC- 3-Level-HVDC.

Figure 2.2-5 Simplified Circuit Diagram for a 3-level Diode-Clamped VSC-HVDC

2.2.4.3. Multi-level VSC-HVDC

Another VSC topology available on the market is the Multi-Level VSC-HVDC (MMC-Modular Multilevel
Converter, see reference [2-4]). Here the DC capacitors are directly incorporated into the Multilevel-
Converter Modules. Each branch of the six valve converter bridge can consist of many of these
modules. Each module is controlled independently.
This topology allows for a low level of harmonics and has lower switching losses compared to a 2-level
or a 3-level VSC. AC filters normally are not necessary for this scheme. Figure 2.2-6 shows a
schematic overview.

-9-
 Figure 2.2-6 Simplified Circuit Diagram for a Multi-level VSC-HVDC
Note: each branch shows only one module, but in reality it consists of many modules.

2.2.4.4. Hybrid VSC-HVDC

A hybrid VSC is shown in Figure 2.2-7(see reference [2-5]), which is a combination of series
connected semiconductor switches called “Director” valves and multilevel converter cells, for HVDC
transmission.

Figure 2.2-7 Simplified Circuit Diagram for a Hybrid VSC-HVDC

2.3. Filters and Capacitor Banks

2.3.1. Filters on AC Side

2.3.1.1. Purpose of the AC Filters and Capacitor Banks

For Line Commutated Converters (LCC), the filters and capacitor banks on the AC side of an HVDC
converter station have essentially two functions:
1. Providing reactive power for compensation of the reactive power required by the converters. This
prevents the reactive power demand of the converter station from placing too large a load on the
connected AC network and causing unallowable fluctuations in voltage in the AC network. An example
of reactive power demand of HVDC converter station is shown in Figure 2.3-1.

- 10 -
2. Absorption of the harmonic currents caused by the HVDC converter. This prevents the harmonic
currents from flowing into the AC network causing undesired distortion of the system voltage.
Furthermore telephone interference caused by harmonic currents in AC overhead lines can be
avoided.

2.3.1.2. Sizing of AC Filters and Capacitor Banks with Respect to Reactive Power
The demand of the converter for fundamental frequency reactive power is the sum of control and
commutation reactive power. The reactive power demand is essentially determined by two parameters,
the control angle ( or ) and the transmission current (Id). These relationships must be considered
when sizing the reactive power sources - filters and capacitor banks (Q elements).
There are still no uniform criteria for the reactive power performance of an HVDC station. In many
older systems, the reactive power performance, in particular the relationship to operating conditions
was not specified.
With the power of HVDC systems becoming greater and the connection of HVDC stations at relatively
weak points in the network (short circuit ratio SCR =< 5), greater importance is being placed on the
behaviour of reactive power over the entire range of power transmission. Here, SCR is the ratio of AC
bus short circuit capacity of converter station to the rated power of HVDC.

2.3.1.3. Conditions to be Considered

Customarily, an operating range is specified for network data (and other parameters) within which the
design values have to be maintained. For the network voltage at the point of connection of the HVDC,
the operating range is usually ±5% (the exact range will be specified in grid codes). In addition, the
variations of factors within the converter, such as control angle and valve voltage, must also be
considered. Other conditions may be contained in the specifications such as the step change in AC
voltage permitted when a Q element is switched. Other system components can have limits such as
the breaking capacity of the AC circuit breakers.
The following considerations for the sizing of the Q elements and their control are derived from the
above principles:
• The reactive power output of the Q elements varies with the busbar voltage. Thus a 100 MVAr
element supplies between 90.25 and 110.25 MVAr if the voltage varies between 95% and 105% of the
nominal value.
• At a given transmission current, the reactive power of the converter varies with the control angle.
Ordinarily, the rectifier regulates the transmission current Id, and the control angle  is held in a
certain range, typically between 13° and 17°, by adjusting the transformer tap. Both limit values must
be considered in determining the reactive power demand.
• If the inverter operates with extinction angle control ( = const), there will be only one reactive power
demand curve in relation to Id. However, for the control method that the inverter regulates the terminal
DC voltage by firing angle control, the converter transformer tap changer control has to keep  in a
certain range, such as between 18° and 22°. In this case, however, there are two limiting reactive
power curves to be considered, as it is the case in the rectifier.
• The permissible step change in AC voltage during the switching of a Q element is often specified. In
relatively weak network connection points (SCR < 5), this can mean a limit in the nominal power of the
individual Q elements. In making the computation, the minimal network short-circuit power has to be
combined with the maximum busbar voltage. In addition, the change in the reactive power generated
by the Q-elements already connected to the busbar, due to the change in voltage, must be considered.

2.3.1.4. Connect and Disconnect Criteria

Connecting and disconnecting of Q elements must take place in such a manner that the resulting
fundamental frequency reactive power of the HVDC station through the entire power range remains
within the specified tolerance range. All system conditions in their range of variation must be
considered.
There are two possible processes:

- 11 -
• Reactive power open loop control, in which Q elements are connected or disconnected at fixed
partial loads. In this simple process, a fixed switching hysteresis is specified.
• Reactive power close loop control, in which a Q element is always connected or disconnected when
the measured total reactive power of the HVDC station reaches the upper or the lower limit of the
tolerance range. This procedure results in the minimum switching frequency and allows the use of the
largest Q elements. Reactive power close loop control also results in switching processes occurring at
various partial loads, depending on system conditions.

Q/Qdn
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
alpha=17
0.3
alpha=13
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
P/Pdn

Figure 2.3-1 Reactive Power Demand of an Exemplary 1800 MW Rectifier Station

Q [MVAr]
120

80

40
n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

-40

-80

-120
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
P/Pdn

Figure 2.3-2 Total Reactive Power of an Exemplary HVDC Station with Controlled Switching
In Figure 2.3-2, dashed line is for ramping up; solid line is for ramping down; QC is 144 MVar (size of
one reactive power element); n is the number of Q elements being connected; and Q is the reactive
power consumed by converter.

- 12 -
2.3.1.5. Controlled Switching of AC Filters and Shunt Capacitors
Transient dips in the AC voltage of the HVDC inverter terminal bear the risk of commutation failures of
the converter.
A possible cause for such transient dips is the uncontrolled switching in of AC filters or shunt
capacitors (e.g. in voltage maximum). To avoid this, mostly the circuit breakers for AC filters and shunt
capacitors of an HVDC system are equipped with Point on Wave switching devices [2-11]. These are
normally set to switch on at about voltage zero crossing. Thus the “inrush”-current is low, the voltage
dip is very small and therefore the risk of commutation failure is negligible.
For switching off, a point on wave control for these circuit breakers is not common.
In Figure 2.3-2 it can be seen that the switching on and off of Q elements occurs at different partial
loads. This, of course, necessitates the use of reactive power close loop control.
At this point it should be noted, that switching of electrically nearby shunt capacitors without Point on
Wave switching devices can have the same negative effect as for the switching of the capacitors
within the station. Therefore it should be considered to maybe also equip these capacitor banks with
such devices – especially if they are connected and disconnected very frequently.

2.3.2. Filters on DC Side

Potential effects from DC side harmonics of an HVDC converter station may affect the converter
station and/or other equipment and substation or the DC overhead transmission line if there are no
filters on DC side.
In principle the mechanism affecting other equipment is based on the harmonic currents/voltages in
the main circuit equipment of the converter station and the harmonic currents flowing in the DC line.
Filters on DC side deal with the harmonic voltages and currents, such as DC-filter reactors, smoothing
reactors and DC-filter capacitors.

2.3.3. Active Filters

2.3.3.1. General
Active power filters (APF) can provide compensating current with more flexibility, quicker response,
and extremely low interference levels. However an active power filter is costly compared with a
passive filter with the same capacity, so a hybrid filter consisting of passive filter and active filter would
be an ideal solution.

2.3.3.2. AC Side Active Filter

A simplified circuit of AC shunt active filter is shown in Figure 2.3-3.

- 13 -
 Figure 2.3-3 AC Side Shunt Active Filter

2.3.3.3. DC Side Active Filter

A simplified circuit of hybrid DC filter is shown in Figure 2.3-4.

Smooth Reactor
DC Line

Filter

Controller
HVDC
Converter

Active Filter

Figure 2.3-4 DC Side Active Filter

- 14 -
2.4. Control & Protection System

2.4.1. Typical Control System Hierarchy

HVDC Control Systems normally are structured hierarchically. An example controls hierarchy for a bi-
polar HVDC is shown in Figure 2.4-1.

Control System Hierarchy Dispatch Centers

Operator Control Level

Opposite Converter
Workstations for operation, control and data aquisistion

Station
Printer
Remote Control
Router Router
Interface

LAN1
LAN2
LAN3

Control and Protection Level

Station Common
Control/
RPC

Pole 1 Pole 2

Pole Control and Pole Control and

DC Protection DC Protection

Field Level

I I I I I I
OO OO OO

Figure 2.4-1 HVDC Control System

It can be seen from the picture, that the controls are split between the two poles of the Bi-polar, but
still have a higher level control in common (Station Control). This setup allows for:
- separation of pole functions (measuring, I/Os, controls…) and pole protections;
- minimization of bi-polar trips;
- common control that takes care of common functions (Bi-polar power control, reactive power control,
electrode current control);
- maintaining of Bi-polar power as far as possible during DC line fault recoveries and after outages of
one converter.

2.4.2. Control Characteristics of an HVDC System

Interactions of the converter substations in an HVDC point to point system can be presented most
simply by the control characteristics of the two substations plotted as a current-voltage diagram. In this
type of presentation, it has become customary to allocate the same sign to the same voltage polarity
for the rectifier and the inverter.
Figure 2.4-2 depicts the control characteristics of an HVDC point to point system which is operated
according to the so-called current margin method. The point of intersection A of the two characteristic
curves indicates the operating point of the system. It is determined by the current regulation of the
rectifier with the set point I*dR and the extinction angle regulation of the inverter with the set point min.

- 15 -
 Ud
α＝0
Rect
γ＝γmin
A’ A
Inv

△I

I*dI I*dR Id
Ud=DC voltage; Id=DC current
I*d=set point of the current regulation of rectifier (I*dR) and inverter (I*dI) respectively;
I=current margin
Figure 2.4-2 Control Characteristics of an HVDC Point to Point System
When the rectifier cannot achieve its current reference, I*dR, the inverter regulates current as shown by
the set point I*dI, which is smaller by the current margin I than the set point of the rectifier current
regulation I*dR.
The voltage characteristic curve of the rectifier is indicated by the maximum level ( = 0). If this curve
drops, e.g., because the AC busbar voltage has undergone a reduction, the result is an intersection at
A'. Here the inverter controls the direct current and the rectifier determines the DC voltage by its
lowered characteristic.
Figure 2.4-3 depicts the control characteristics of an HVDC point to point system in which both
substations are equipped with electronic voltage regulators. The set point of the voltage regulation of
the rectifier is greater than the set point of the voltage regulation of the inverter by the voltage margin
U.

Ud=DC voltage; Id=DC current;

U*d=set point of the voltage regulation rectifier (U*dR) and inverter (U*dI) respectively;
U=voltage margin; I=current margin

Figure 2.4-3 Control Characteristics with the Use of Electronic Voltage Regulation

- 16 -
If the sign of the voltage margin is changed, the rectifier will automatically take over voltage regulation
and the inverter will take overcurrent regulation.
An improvement of the transient behaviour can be obtained by introduction of the so-called "voltage
dependent current order limitation" VDCOL, see Figure 2.4-4. A drop in the system DC voltage Ud
caused by AC system problems automatically results in a transient limitation in the current order.

VDCOL = Voltage Dependent Current Order Limitation

CEC = Current Error Compensation
I = current margin

Figure 2.4-4 Modified Control Characteristics

In this way, an increase in reactive power demand and increased valve stresses are prevented in the
substation from being affected by the disturbance. In addition, fault clearing is made easier in the
substations affected by the fault.
Figure 2.4-4 also depicts an approximation, labelled CEC (current error compensation), of the current
control characteristics of the rectifier and inverter in the vicinity of the operating point. This prevents an
abrupt reduction of I in the transmission current when system voltage is gradually reduced.

2.4.3. DC System Protection Aspects

2.4.3.1. General
The protection for an HVDC system consists mainly of differential protections. For the purpose of this
report, only a few protection functions that could also operate for AC system disturbances are
mentioned, they are:
- fundamental frequency protection;
- 2nd harmonic protection;
- DC undervoltage protection.

2.4.3.2. Fundamental Frequency Protection

This HVDC protection function monitors the fundamental frequency component in the DC current. It is
provided to operate as a back-up protection in case successive commutation failures occur on one
valve. This function will shut down the converter.
A typical time delay for this function is in the range of 1s to 3s.

- 17 -
As fundamental frequency component in the DC current can also be caused by HVDC converter
transformer saturation, this function is normally coordinated to not operate when restarting with a
saturated transformer after an AC fault.

2.4.3.3. 2nd Harmonic Protection

This HVDC protection function monitors the second harmonic component on the DC current. Its task is
to protect the HVDC equipment from excessive stresses caused by long lasting 2nd harmonics. These
stresses can be mainly on:
- valve snubber circuit and arrestors due to intermittent current operation;
- smoothing reactor due to harmonic overload;
- AC filter equipment (especially resistors).
The 2nd harmonic in the DC circuit is mainly provoked by negative sequence in the AC system. This
includes any unbalanced fault in the AC system.
Normally the time delay is coordinated to not operate for AC faults with back-up clearance time. A
typical time delay is between 700ms and 2s. See section 5.10.3 for more details.

2.4.3.4. DC Undervoltage Protection

This protection function has two main protection tasks:
- back-up for high voltage converter faults to neutral or ground;
- blocks the rectifier when HVDC inter-station communication is not available and the inverter has a
bypass pair fired.
Besides the faults mentioned above, AC faults can also cause a DC system undervoltage.
The time delay of this function is coordinated to not operate for AC faults cleared by AC back-up
protection. A typical time delay is between 700ms and 2s.

- 18 -
References of Chapter 2
[2-1] HVDC PROJECTS LISTING. Prepared for the DC and Flexible AC Transmission Subcommittee
of the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee by the Working Group on HVDC and FACTS
Bibliography and Records. July, 2009.
http://www.ece.uidaho.edu/hvdcfacts/Projects/HVDCProjectsListingJuly2009-existing.pdf.
[2-2] CIGRE REF.352 Capacitor Commutated Converted (CCC) HVDC Interconnections Digital
modeling and Benchmark Circuit.
[2-3] Bjorn Jacobson, Patrik Karlsson, Gunnar Asplund, Lennart Harnefors, Tomas Jonsson. VSC-
HVDC Transmission with Cascaded Two-Level Converters. B4-110, CIGRE Session 2010, Paris,
August, 2010.
[2-4] T. WESTERWELLER, K. FRIEDRICH, U. ARMONIES, A. ORINI, D. PARQUET, S. WEHN. B4-
101 Trans bay cable – world's first HVDC system using multilevel voltage-sourced converter. CIGRE
Session 2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[2-5] D.R. TRAINER, C.C. DAVIDSON, C.D.M. OATES, N.M. MACLEOD, D.R.CRITCHLEY, R.W.
CROOKES. B4-111 A New Hybrid Voltage-Sourced Converter for HVDC Power Transmission. CIGRE
Session 2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[2-6] CIGRE REF.065 AC harmonic filters and reactive compensation for HVDC with particular
reference to non-characteristic harmonics.
[2-7] CIGRE REF.092 DC side harmonics and filtering in HVDC transmission systems.
[2-8] CIGRE REF.223 Active filters in HVDC applications.
[2-9] Cheuksun wong, Ned mohan, Selwyn E.Wright, Karl N. Mortensen. Feasibility study of AC- and
DC-side active filters for DC converter ferminals. Transactions on power delivery, vol.4, No.4, October
1989.
[2-10] ZHU Ge-lan, REN Zhen. A Study of Hybrid DC Filter for HVDC System. Electric Power
Automation Equipment, Vol.21, No.8, Aug. 2001.
[2-11] G. MORAW, W. RICHTER, H. HUTEGGER, J. WOGERBAUER. SC13-02 Point-on-wave
controlled switching of high voltage circuit-breakers. CIGRE Session 1988. Paris, August, 1988.

- 19 -
3. Phenomena That Impact AC System Protection

3.1. Introduction
The DC power or current can be controlled by the HVDC control system in steady state. At the rectifier
end, the firing angle is typically regulated to keep the DC power or the direct current constant, while at
the inverter end, the firing angle is typically regulated to keep DC voltage constant. But during DC
system disturbances, the ability of the control system is often limited to blocking the switching of the
converter valves.

3.1.1. Steady State

According to the control mode, from the AC system point of view, the DC system can be regarded as a
constant power or current source.

3.1.2. Disturbances
Table 3.1-1 is cited from CIGRE REF.000-A Summary of the Report on Survey of Controls and Control
Performance in HVDC Schemes (See reference [3-1]), which lists AC/DC Interactions and disturbing
phenomena, some of which could affect AC protection.

- 20 -
 Table 3.1-1 AC/DC Interactions and Disturbing Phenomena
(Ranked in order of increasing time duration/decreasing frequency)
Interaction/Disturbing Cause/Source/Effect of Time Duration/ Frequency Controls Influencing, Affecting or Controlling
phenomena Phenomena Domain Phenomena
1. Steep front Lightning, certain element Generally <1ms Controlled by equipment designs and arresters.
Surges/Overvoltages switching
2.Commutation failures (start Inverter side AC faults, AC Commutation-by-commutation Commutation margin angle (gamma) setting.
of) voltage phase shifts or distortions, Cycle-by-cycle Temporary gamma adjustments or “gamma kick”
element switching controls
3.Transient / switching surge Element switchings such as filter From few ms to few cycles Controlled by equipment designs, arresters or
overvoltage banks. operating switching restrictions.
4.Temporary overvoltage Load rejections, transformer From few cycles to usually <few DC fast firing angle control of reactive power.
(TOV’s) energizations, fault clearing. hundreds ms. TOV’s may be of SVC or synchronous compensation control / actions.
fundamental frequency but may Fast filter / capacitor bank switching.
also involve low order (2nd to 5th)
harmonic resonances or
interactions.
5. Recovery from AC faults. Usually from about 100ms to SVC or synchronous compensation control / actions.
500ms. May involve TOV’s, low DC voltage-dependent-current limits (VDCL)
order (2nd to 5th) harmonic applications.
distortion or interactions. DC power (volt. /current) ramp-up.
Fast filter / capacitor bank switching.
6. Recovery from DC fault Usually from about 200ms to Deionization set time (approx. 100ms minimum).
700ms VDCL applications.
DC power (voltage/current) ramp up.
7. Transient AC Remote AC faults (could be slow From few cycles to usually DC fast firing angle control of active / reactive power.
undervoltages. clearing), transformer <500ms. Involves fundamental SVC or synchronous compensation control / actions.
energizations, sudden load frequency on AC and may involve VDCL applications.
increases, tripping of power / voltage instability at zero DC current ‘holding’ / maximum DC current limiting.
compensation elements. frequency possibly leading to DC power reduction / amp-down.
system voltage collapse. This AC filters switching control.
instability may take seconds or Tap changers.
even minutes.

- 21 -
 Interaction/Disturbing Cause/Source/Effect of Time Duration/ Frequency Controls Influencing, Affecting or Controlling
phenomena Phenomena Domain Phenomena
8. Super-synchronous or May grow from small Frequency > fundamental Instabilities generally cured by DC control design
“harmonic “ instabilities perturbations and may involve (such as phase-locked oscillator), by choice of
control loops, transfer functions, control parameters, or by addition of special DC
harmonic resonances and controls. Addition of special filters (2nd, 3rd, 5th, etc.)
transfers, non-theoretical SVC controls (2nd harmonic)
harmonics, transformer saturation,
Ferro resonance.
9. Sub-synchronous Control instability at frequency not From about 5Hz to < fundamental Prevented by proper DC control strategies,
instabilities necessarily related to AC system frequency. parameters or by addition of special DC controls.
resonances; or may involve SVC controls.
system sub-synchronous
resonances and machine
tensional mechanical oscillations
10. Low-frequency May involve system steady state From about 0.1Hz to 3Hz. Supplementary DC damping power control /
(electromechanical) or small disturbance stability for modulation based on measured AC frequency,
instabilities. inter-machine or inter-area phase angle, voltage deviations, or power changes
oscillations; may involve system in parallel AC line.
transient stability for faults and Basic DC responses such as recovery from faults,
major disturbances. commutation failure, and compensation controls and
actions may affect overall stability.
Such things as machine damper windings (at higher
frequencies) and power system stabilizer signals on
machine voltage regulators (to damp oscillatory
modes) in the AC system may not be directly
influenced by the DC system or DC controls.
11. Steady state power May involve turbine governors, <0.3Hz. Turbine governor control.
frequency instability / load-supply unbalance, certain AC Absolute frequency control by some power /
excursions line trips, load rejections, machine frequency characteristic or droop control on DC.
tripping, islanding; may involve Discrete DC power changes for certain AC line or
steady state stability for governor machine trips.
oscillations ( example –isolated Coordination of DC power control with machine
generation feeding DC). control and characteristics.

- 22 -
3.2. Steady State

3.2.1. Harmonic Distortion

The process of converting AC voltage to DC voltage by line commutated HVDC converters generates
harmonics on both the AC and DC sides of the valve groups. If not filtered, these harmonics can
propagate over great distances within the network. Besides, voltage and current harmonic levels in the
network can be amplified by system series and parallel resonances. In order to avoid those possible
negative effects to power systems, it is necessary to install appropriate harmonic filters.
The AC filters associated with line commutated HVDC converters are also sinks of harmonics from the
network and this must be considered in harmonic interaction studies.
Harmonics in the AC current of an HVDC converter are classified as characteristic and non-
characteristic harmonics.

3.2.1.1. Characteristic Harmonics

The characteristic harmonics are the harmonics which are present under ideal conditions, with
balanced non-distorted AC voltages, equidistant firing pulses, matching converter transformer
impedances between phases and groups, and no harmonic interaction between the AC and DC sides.
The orders of the AC and DC harmonics are respectively 6n ± 1 and 6n for a 6-pulse converter; and
12n ± 1 and 12n for a 12-pulse converter.

3.2.1.2. Non-Characteristic Harmonics

Non-characteristic harmonics result from unbalances in AC waveforms including harmonic distortion,
variation from ideal firing angle instant among valves, differences in reactance among converter
transformer phases and wye and delta groups, and harmonic interaction between the AC and DC
sides. They can be problematic because typically individual harmonic filters are not provided for these
harmonics. Instead, filtering for non-characteristic harmonics is typically factored into the design of the
filter banks principally intended for major characteristic harmonics. Also, given the right conditions,
they can excite harmonic resonances, such as the second harmonic resonance phenomenon [3-18].
Equidistant firing of the converter valves is the key for minimization of non-characteristic harmonics.
The commonly used phase locked loop based firing systems has greatly reduced the problems
associated with most non-characteristic harmonics. Typical specifications require the valves to be fired
within 0.1° of their intended firing angle order. However, the amount of second harmonic on the DC
side and positive sequence third harmonic on the AC side is a direct function of the amount of
negative sequence at fundamental frequency in the converter AC bus voltage.
Problems related to non-characteristic harmonics and harmonic resonance can often be mitigated
through the firing controls by incorporating a modulation signal in the firing angle order. In some
conditions the addition of non-characteristic harmonic filters on the converter bus is required.
Considering non-characteristic harmonics, typically only the third harmonic is likely to be of sufficient
magnitude to be worth considering in the interaction studies. As a general rule, for negative sequence
voltage unbalance less than 1%, the third harmonic is not likely to be a problem.

3.2.1.3. Impacts on AC protection

Most of the harmonics produced by HVDC system will be filtered by shunt filters. Nevertheless, under
critical conditions, some of those harmonics will enter the AC network. With the use of proper input
hardware and software filtering and a suitable signal processing method, modern protective relays can
operate correctly (See reference [3-8]). However, some special issues shall be studied (See reference
[3-9]).

3.2.2. Ground Loop Current

Ground loop current will appear in case of mono-pole scheme or bi-pole scheme with unbalance when
ground-return is used, as shown in Figure 3.2-1.
Well, if the earthing electrode is properly located, the currents passing through HVAC networks are
limited.

- 23 -
 Figure 3.2-1 Influence of Ground Electrode Current in HVDC on AC Power Network

3.2.2.1. Effects on Converter Transformer

A converter transformer will experience a small DC bias current in the windings connected to the
thyristor bridges in normal state. The small DC current is governed by asymmetry in the firing of the
thyristor valves, which in turn depends upon:
- the accuracy of the firing control system;
- the impedance differences in the converter transformers;
- the potential difference between the ground electrode and station ground to which the AC neutral of
the converter transformers are connected for mono-pole ground-return operation;
- DC magnetization of a transformer core.

3.2.2.2. Effects on Adjacent Transformers

As described in paper [3-7], when the HVDC system operates in mono-pole ground return operation
mode, there will be large DC current flowing into ground which leads to the potential difference
between neutral point of adjacent transformers, like T1 and T2 in Figure 3.2-2. As a result, DC current
path may be formed between neutral points of two transformers and the transmission lines.

M N

Figure 3.2-2 Hybrid AC-DC Transmission Grid System

A typical exciting current waveform of the power transformer with/without DC magnetic bias is shown
in Figure 3.2-2. DC current through the windings of power transformer will cause half-wave saturation
of the iron core, louder audible noise, stronger vibration, larger power loss, and higher temperature
rise.

- 24 -
 
B

   A
( I m ,m )

O
t 2  0  t

  ih

im

2

t

Exciting current and magnetic flux without DC magnetic bias

Exciting current and magnetic flux with DC magnetic bias

Figure 3.2-2 Typical Exciting Current Waveform of a Power Transformer

Paper [3-7] gives the exciting current waveform under DC bias, see Figure 3.2-3 & Figure 3.2-4.

-3
x 10
3 0.05 1.2

0.04
1
2

0.8
E x c iting Current/k A
E x c itin g C u rre n t /k A

E x c iting Current/k A

1 0.03
0.6
0 0.02
0.4
-1 0.01
0.2

-2 0 0

-3 -0.01 -0.2
3.4 3.45 3.5 3.55 3.6 3.65 3.7 3.75 3.8 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
time (s) time (s) time (s)

a) Without DC bias b) With DC bias, 7A (c) With DC bias, 33A

Figure 3.2-3 Exciting Current Waveforms in Different Situation of DC Bias

nth harmonic ratio nth harmonic ratio
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
harmonic number harmonic number

(a) Without DC bias (b) With DC bias

Figure 3.2-4 Harmonics Distribution of Exciting Current with or without DC Bias

- 25 -
3.2.2.3. Restrictive Measures towards DC Bias
The location of HVDC ground electrode is the key point for DC bias issue. At planning phase, it is
important to ensure that the ground electrode is installed sufficiently distant from power transformers
that could be affected by the DC current.
Nevertheless, if it is inevitable, there are several measures dealing with DC bias:
- inject reverse DC current at neutral point;
- insert series resistor at neutral point;
- insert series capacitor at neutral point (with shunt resistor);
- insert series capacitor at terminal (one report from Canada);
- potential compensation at neutral point;

3.2.2.4. Impacts on AC Protection

Such a ground loop current could lead to half-wave saturation of the iron core of the transformer, thus
causing harmonics and current distortion.
Differential protection has been employed as the main protection of power transformers for many
years. To distinguish the inrush current from an internal fault current, the second harmonic restraint
method has been widely used in modern transformer differential protection. Several designs utilize
other harmonics in addition to the second harmonic to improve the restraint, such as third harmonic.
If the ground electrode is not located properly in a HVDC project, the harmonics caused by the ground
loop current may lead to mal-restraint of main protection of transformers especially in the situation of
slight internal faults.
Normally, shunt capacitor and reactor banks are protected by fundamental frequency overcurrent
protection. The harmonics caused by transformer saturation could be large enough to damage the
shunt capacitor bank despite being protected by fundamental frequency overcurrent protection.
If restrictive measures towards DC bias are applied, the sensitivity of zero sequence protection for the
transformer and transmission line will be reduced.

3.2.3. Asymmetry

3.2.3.1. Zero Sequence Quantities

The converter transformers adopt delta connection and ungrounded wye on the valve side. Thus, from
the AC system point of view, the zero sequence impedance of the HVDC system is infinite, and the
converters do not inject zero sequence quantities into the AC system.

3.2.3.2. Negative Sequence Quantities

The negative sequence voltage of AC system at the inverter end could increase in case of inverter
asymmetry.

3.3. Dynamics and Transients

From the AC system point of view, the HVDC system is a power source. Any events that change the
HVDC power transfer rapidly can be regarded as dynamics or transients.

3.3.1. HVDC Normal Start / Stop

During start and stop periods, the active power will change rapidly, generally between zero and 10%
of rating, and the reactive power will also change due to the switching of AC filters and shunt capacitor
banks. Such a change with a limited slope will not influence the AC protection.

- 26 -
3.3.2. HVDC Power Flow Regulation
Power flow on HVDC links can be modulated by controlling the converters to improve the dynamic and
transient stability of the AC system. The effect of DC modulation on the AC system is similar to the
effect of power system stabilizer (PSS) to generators, or the effect of generation rejection or load
shedding.
When the DC line is the major connection between two AC systems, the rapid modulation of the DC
link could be effective in attenuating transient disturbances. A problem with this control method is that
a disturbance on one system will affect the other system. The impact in the other system depends of
the size of the disturbance in respect to other system and can be adjusted by control actions.
Fortunately, such a change of HVDC power flow with a limited slope will not influence the AC
protection.

3.3.3. Mono-pole or Bi-pole Blocking and Recovery

When mono-pole or bi-pole blocking occurs, the HVDC power may be reduced to half of the rating
(loss of one pole in a bipolar scheme) or even to zero.
Bi-pole blocking is very unusual, since each pole is in most cases designed to operate as
independently from the other pole as possible. However, in many DC systems, common mode failures
could happen that take out both poles in the same way as in AC systems, a parallel AC lines might be
lost if a fault on one line causes a line trip and the parallel line also trips. Pole blocking normally occurs
a few times per year, but as far as possible the power is transferred to the healthy pole.
The AC system protection will experience an external interruption disturbance and thus its
performance will not be affected, unless there are unforeseen consequences to the operation of the
AC system. That is, the events are not statistically independent events.

3.3.4. Commutation Failure and Recovery

Normal operation of an HVDC converter involves sequential switching of thyristor valves during every
fundamental AC system cycle. See Figure 3.3-1. In the figure, the valves in red are those in on state;
the arrows indicate the currents; the valve switching sequences of the two groups (“Up” and “Dn”) are
shown at the bottom with the numbers in red indicate the valves being on.

- 27 -
 1 3 5 A 1 3 5 A 1 3 5 A
A A A
* * * * * *
B B B B B B
* * * * * *
C C C C C C
* * * * * *

4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2

1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5
a a a
* * * * * *
b b b
* * * * * *
c c c
* * * * * *

4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2

Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612

Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612

(a) (b) (c)

1 3 5 A 1 3 5 A 1 3 5 A
A A A
* * * * * *
B B B B B B
* * * * * *
C C C C C C
* * * * * *

4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2

1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5
a a a
* * * * * *
b b b
* * * * * *
c c c
* * * * * *

4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2

Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Up: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612

Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612 Dn: 12-123-23-234-34-345-45-456-56-561-61-612

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 3.3-1 Commutation Process of a Twelve-pulse Bridge

If one of the valves fails to switch off, two phases of the converter transformer will form a short circuit
through the valve group, causing no power being injected to the AC network from the affected bridge
at the inverter end. See Figure 3.3-2. In the figure, the valves in red are those in on state; the arrows
indicate the currents; the valve switching sequences of the two groups (“Up” and “Dn”) are shown at
the bottom with the numbers in red indicate the valves being on. From (b) to (c), one can find that in
the “Dn” group, valve 6 fails to switch off and valve 2 fails to switch on, which leads to short circuit at
last, as shown in (f).
Commutation failure in an HVDC transmission system is often a significant disturbance in the
operation of an AC system. Although the main cause for commutation failure is inverter AC voltage
reduction due to faults in the AC system, other events such as a sudden rise in the HVDC current,
phase shift of AC voltage and rarely, malfunction of control circuits would cause commutation failure
as well.
There are two different aspects associated with commutation failure; one is the susceptibility of the
HVDC converter to commutation failure and the second is the recovery time back to full power from
commutation failure.
If commutation failures occur in the HVDC converter due to AC power system faults at the inverter end,
the first fault in AC system, the inverter commutation failure, and the recovery of the converter, could
lead to several current reversals on the AC lines connected to the inverter station, thus the
effectiveness of current reversal logic in AC transmission line protection should be reviewed. The
commutation failure and recovery cycle may be repeated several times before complete recovery.
However, the avoidance of additional commutation failures during recovery after fault clearing is a
major design criterion for tuning of the controls. Thus, the probability of repeated commutation failures
is low.

- 28 -
Another point is DC discharge current. The DC current through the inverter limits the AC current that is
injected into the faulty AC power system during the commutation failure. A typical value of the inverter
DC current is 2.0 - 2.5 p.u of the rated current. However, if there is a long distance DC submarine
cable, the discharge current will be of considerable magnitude and will expose the AC protection
systems to extreme conditions(See Reference [3-6]]).
Commutation failures are a more severe problem in multiple in-feed systems with several HVDC
transmission systems connected to the same AC system especially in a small area. A fault in an AC
system may lead to simultaneous or subsequent commutation failures in other inverters of the multi
HVDC systems.
A disturbance in one AC system can be spread to other AC systems via HVDC links, but the effect will
in most of the time be limited to the loss of the power transmitted over the DC link.

Figure 3.3-2 Commutation Failure of a Twelve-pulse Bridge

3.3.5. Fault on HVDC Line and Recovery

For line commutated converter, when a fault occurs on HVDC line, with the help of control system, the
DC current will be reduced to zero rapidly. Then the whole system will be restarted. Such process may
be repeated several times before complete recovery or failure.
The typical sequence for restart is:
(1) first to attempt a restart to full DC voltage after certain time delay for deionization;
(2) and then if there is an additional DC fault restart with reduced DC voltage;
(3) if there is still a DC fault at reduced DC voltage then the faulty DC pole is tripped and as much as
possible of the power is transferred to the other healthy pole.

- 29 -
One criterion of the recovery scheme is that the restart sequence should not excite a critical power
system resonance or weakly damped mode.
The sequence and effects of this process is similar to that of commutation failure, with an additional
waiting time for DC line de-ionizing. During DC faults there are no high AC currents on the inverter
side. There is a temporary overcurrent on the rectifier side, but with a limited value and short duration.

3.3.6. Loss of Triggering Pulse and Recovery

Loss of triggering pulses caused by a fault in the control system will in most cases be recovered by a
switch over to the redundant control system and the transmission is resumed thereby with only a short
disturbance. Only in the rare cases where the redundant control system is unavailable the HVDC pole
will be blocked after several commutation failures (1-2 sec).

3.3.7. Short Circuit between HVAC & HVDC Lines

3.3.7.1. General
If cross connection is established between AC & DC lines, an AC component will enter DC
transmission system, which may cause overvoltage of converter and potential damage to converter
transformer, smoothing reactor, arrestor, DC filters etc. Considering that the smoothing reactor might
be relatively large, the injected current will be limited. If the AC voltage is significantly larger than the
DC rating, the arresters will hopefully work and probably fail causing a DC line short circuit, then the
protection systems will probably operate to clear the fault in the normal way for both lines. In addition,
if the AC line is terminated by a transformer with neutral point grounded, to the DC system the AC line
represents a short circuit to ground, thus the DC line protection system will also probably operate.
On AC system directly involved in the fault, more severe damage to the AC apparatus may occur,
especially for power transformer. The DC current which enter power transformer will bring about DC
magnetic flux and DC magnetic biasing, and result in transformer core saturation, higher exciting
current, and even damage to transformer if the fault is not cleared within a reasonable time.
For AC system connected to converter station, according to the relationship between DC side and AC
side of converter, the fundamental quantity in DC side will convert to DC and second harmonic
quantity in AC side, which might cause damage to apparatus on the AC side.

3.3.7.2. HVDC Protection against Short Circuit between HVAC & HVDC Lines
There is one protection function in some HVDC control systems to detect cross connection between
AC and DC line. When fundamental frequency voltage or current is larger than the threshold, the
corresponding pole outage command will be issued. Here are some examples:

 I1  I1set
 (3.3-1)
 I d  I d set
 I1  I1set
 (3.3-2)
U1  U1set
 U1  U1set
 (3.3-3)
U RMT 1  U1set

Where,

I1 - fundamental component in HVDC line current;

I d - RMS of HVDC line voltage;

- 30 -
 U1 - fundamental component in HVDC line voltage;

U RMT1 - fundamental component in HVDC line voltage at remote end;

I1set , Idset , U1set - thresholds.

The thresholds and time delay are determined by simulation results.

3.3.7.3. HVAC Protection against Short Circuit between HVAC & HVDC Lines
There are no dedicated AC protections against short circuit between HVAC & HVDC lines.

3.3.8. HVAC Sub-synchronous Oscillations (SSO)

The power transmitted by HVDC system with constant current and power control scheme is relatively
independent of frequency, however the HVDC system could cause sub-synchronous oscillation at the
rectifier end when:
- steam turbine generator unit is near the HVDC rectifier station;
- steam turbine generator unit has weak interconnection with large AC system;
- steam turbine generator unit has the rated capacity at the same order as the rated power of the
HVDC system.
If the negative damping associated with the HVDC tensional interaction is greater than the inherent
mechanical damping of the generator, then the sub-synchronous oscillations will grow and might lead
to shaft failure.
The gain of the constant current regulator will increase when the control angle α increases, so it is
prone to sub-synchronous oscillation at larger α, for example, when HVDC is running at lower voltage.
Large steam turbine generator units are prone to sub-synchronous oscillation, while hydro turbine
generator units are not.
For steam turbine generator units at the inverter end, they do not feed the HVDC system, and the
oscillatory modes are typically well damped by the load, so the AC/DC interactions will not cause sub-
synchronous oscillation.
For a 12-pulse converter, the following interharmonic current could appear at the rectifier side,
11*f1±12*f2, 13*f1±12*f2, 23*f1±24*f2, 25*f1±24*f2, 35*f1±36*f2, 37*f1±36*f2, etc. Where f1 is the
frequency of rectifier side and f2 is the frequency of inverter side. The higher harmonics can be filtered
easily while the lower harmonics could excite subsynchronous oscillation of generator which in turn
damage the shaft of generator. See reference [3-10].
Mitigation for SSO is to find a proper HVDC additional control to eliminate such an oscillation after
frequency domain simulation at planning stage. Please refer to [3-17].

3.3.9. Islanded AC Network Connected by HVDC

3.3.9.1. General
The total generator inertia in an islanded system is smaller than that in an interconnected AC system.
This will give larger frequency deviations due to temporary changes or interruptions in the transmitted
DC power. Also the short circuit ratio of the islanded system needs to be considered, since a weak
system will give higher temporary overvoltages. The performance during faults and recovery in the
islanded system will be similar to when operating in interconnected AC systems, unless the short
circuit ratio has become very low.

3.3.9.2. Islanded Sending End System

At the sending end, several generators may be connected to a HVDC converter bus directly without
local load or with a small portion of local load. This is an islanded sending end system.

- 31 -
When starting the HVDC power transmission system, a minimal startup power corresponding to
minimal DC current is needed to ensure normal commutation of HVDC system, see Figure 3.3-3.
While thermal power generation system is a slow response system and it needs a long time to reach
rated power; thus it is necessary to coordinate the de-blocking process of HVDC system under
islanded operation mode at the sending system with unit characteristics of power plants. At planning
stage, special attention has to be paid to the self-excitation of generators caused by excessive output
of reactive power compensation equipments (including AC filters) during the de-blocking process of
HVDC system.

Figure 3.3-3 DC Voltage and Current Waveform during De-blocking Process

When a fault occurs on the HVDC system or at the receiving end AC system, the power generated by
sending end system can not be fully transmitted by HVDC system and the frequency will increase
rapidly. The countermeasures can control the frequency:
- regulation of generator governor and -auxiliary frequency control of HVDC;
- inter-trip of generators;
- over-frequency generator rejection (OFP);
- over-speed protection control (OPC).
Inter-trip scheme can be designed to operate without time delay whenever predetermined events
happen. OFP with several stages is the backup of inter-trip and OPC is the backup of OFP. The
frequency and time delay settings of OFP shall be coordinated with inter-trip and OPC.

3.3.9.3. Islanded Receiving End System

A proper control scheme of a HVDC system feeding a weak receiving end would be constant current
control, together with additional frequency control and automatic power transfer to healthy pole from
faulty pole. Furthermore, fast VDCL (Voltage Dependant Current Limitation), extinction angle limit,
triggering pulse latching (quickly pulling into the inverter) could also be implemented.
Synchronous condensers are often installed in weak receiving end system to increase the effective
short circuit ratio (ESCR), thus reduce the overvoltage level, narrow frequency deviation, suppress low
frequency oscillation, shorten HVDC recovery duration and improve the system stability.
ESCR is defined as:

S ac  Q fc
ESCR  ……………………………………………………………………………………… (3.3-4)
Pdc
With S ac as the short circuit capacity at the commutation bus including the synchronous condenser,
Q fc as the rated capacity of filters and additional shunt compensation impedances, and Pdc as the
rated power of the converter station.

- 32 -
A bi-polar system can run in low power bi-polar (LBP) mode or mono-polar mode (MP). If HVDC
system is in LBP, whenever one pole is faulty, the power the faulty pole was transmitting can be
transferred to the healthy pole automatically thus causing no large disturbance in AC system. While if
HVDC system is in MP, when there is a fault on HVDC, UFLS (Under Frequency Load Shedding) in
AC system may be too late to react, then the load inter-trip triggered by HVDC protection would be
essential to save the AC system. Depending on the fault severity, a converter can be shut down
quickly by shifting firing angle or suddenly by latching triggering pulse and switching on by-pass pair
valves.
When switching on a converter transformer, the low order harmonic current in the inrush current may
stimulate harmonic oscillation between AC filter capacitance and AC system’s short circuit impedance,
and lead to saturated overvoltages. This should be avoided by proper AC filter design. As the
synchronous condenser may be fed by the DC offset and second and higher harmonic current, the
protection of it shall apply 2nd harmonic restraint to prevent any unwanted operation in this case. An
HVDC line may also be fed by fundamental frequency currents, which might cause unwanted
operation of HVDC fundamental frequency overcurrent protections. The threshold and time delay of
this protection shall be adjusted accordingly. Today, point-on-wave (POW) switching device can be
applied on converter transformer to minimize the inrush current.

3.3.10. HVDC Power Limitation - Runback Limiter

Short-circuit level on rectifier and inverter stations are critical for HVDC transmission systems.
Particularly with a low short-circuit level on the inverter side, disturbances or operations like AC filter
switching, on the AC system can cause problems to the DC system, such as high risk of commutation
failures, slow fault recovery or voltage collapse on the AC system.
The “runback limiter” is a function that can be implemented on the control system of the inverter
station in order to mitigate those effects. It basically changes the limit of the DC power according to
the three-phase short-circuit ratio (short-circuit level divided by total DC power) of the current AC
network configuration. The power limit is calculated based on the number of AC transmission lines
connected to the system, considering the status of the AC breakers and disconnect switches, trip
signals from AC protections and information from monitoring systems if available.
The basic idea of the runback limiter is to assure that the short-circuit ratio (SCR) is always equal to or
higher than a certain number considered as a safe value for a secure operation after multiple
disturbances on the AC system, allowing fast recovery of the system without successive commutation
failures or undamped voltage oscillations that could result in pole blocking. The defined minimum level
of SCR should consider a safety margin regarding the critical value, while the critical SCR is usually
obtained from reports of system disturbances or from studies using tools for digital simulations.
Figure 3.3-4 shows DC current order and DC current measured in the rectifier for a multiple
disturbance on the AC network that resulted in abrupt power reduction without the runback limiter. It
can be noted that the AC network without the faulty branches doesn’t support the original DC power
and current oscillations will happen. Figure 3.3-5 presents another simulation, however with the
runback limiter activated. The output of the runback limiter (“Idc_rb-lim”) is also shown. For this case,
the DC power is reduced after the disturbance due its action and system recovery is successful.

- 33 -
 1.5

1.2
Idc order
0.9

0.6
Idc m ret

0.3

0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 [s] 2.0

Figure 3.3-4 Three-phase AC Fault with Trip of Several Transmission Lines - without
Runback Limiter

1.5

Idc rb-lim
1.2

0.9
Idc order

0.6

Idc m ret
0.3

0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 [s] 2.0

Figure 3.3-5 Three-phase AC Fault with Trip of Several Transmission Lines - with Runback
Limiter

3.3.11. Frequency Limiter / Frequency Control

While transmitting DC power between two asynchronous AC systems the frequency of an AC system
with temporary unbalance between load and generation can be supported by using a frequency
control. The frequency in each AC system is measured and is sent via tele-communication to the
power controlling station.
The controller can be a normal droop control with a dead-band or it can be several Emergency Power
Control (EPC) units which each has settings for activation frequency, change of power, ramp rate for
change of power and power direction. A dead band means that the DC power is only changed if the
frequency deviation is larger than normal variations.

- 34 -
References of Chapter 3
[3-1] CIGRE REF.000. A Summary of the Report on Survey of Controls and Control Performance in
HVDC Schemes.
[3-2] CIGRE REF.065 AC harmonic filters and reactive compensation for HVDC with particular
reference to non-characteristic harmonics.
[3-3] CIGRE REF.143 Cross-modulation of harmonics in HVDC schemes.
[3-4] CIGRE REF.364 Systems with multiple DC Infeed.
[3-5] CIGRE REF.103 Commutation failures. Causes and consequences.
[3-6] Stig Holst, Ivo Brnčič David Shearer, Ragnar Mangelred, Kees Koreman. Problems and Solutions
for AC Transmission Line Protection under Extreme Conditions caused by Very Long HVDC Cables.
B5-316, CIGRE Study Committee B5 Colloquium, 2007 October 15-20, Madrid, SPAIN.
[3-7] ZHANG, J., SU, X., ZHANG J., JIAO, Z., SUONAN, J.. The Impact and Solution of Ground Loop
Current on Transformer Protection Under HVDC System. CIGRE Study Committee B5 Colloquium,
October 19-24, 2009, Jeju Island, Korea.
[3-8] M.M.SAHA, T.EINARSSON, S.LIDSTROM, L.MESSING. PERFORMANCE OF AC LINE
PROTECTION IN HVDC ENVIRONMENTS.
[3-9] I.S. BARAN, M.Z. TAAM, F.P. JUSTO. EFFECTS OF THE HVDC TRANSMISSION ON THE AC
LINE PROTECTIONS. Symposium 09.87, Boston 1987.
[3-10] JIN Wei-gang, LIU Hui-jin, LI Zhi-min. interharmonic exciting subsynchronous oscillation in
electric power systems-engineering examples, mechanism, types of interaction and counter-measures.
Power System Protection and Control. P31-36, Vol.38, No.9, May, 2010
[3-11] WANG Hua-wei, ZENG Nan-chao, JIANG Wei-ping, WU Ya-ni, ZHAO Liang, FAN Ji-chao,
WANG Ming-xin. Study on Minimal Startup Power of ±660 kV HVDC Power Transmission System
Under Islanded Operation at Sending System. Power System Technology, Vol. 34 No. 5 May 2010.
[3-12] ZHAO Liang ， QIN Qin ， GUO Qiang ， GUO Xiao-jiang ， WANG Hua-wei ， ZHANG Ke.
Frequency Control for Islanded System at Sending Terminal of HVDC Power Transmission from China
to Mongolia. Power System Technology, Vol. 32 No. 21, Nov. 2008.
[3-13] MA Yu-long ， SHI Yan ， YIN Wei-yang ， YANG Zhi-dong. Additional Control Strategy for
Islanded AC System at Sending Terminal of HVDC. Power System Technology, Vol. 30 No. 24, Dec.
2006.
[3-14] SHANG Jin-cheng; GOU Rui-feng; LI Bin-bin. SPECIAL TECHNICAL PROBLEMS IN
COMMISSIONING OF SHENGSI HVDC PROJECT AND THE IRSOLUTIONS. High Voltage
Apparatus, Vol. 39(01), Feb, 2003.
[3-15] Bai Jimin; Zhang Baolin; He Dayu; Zhang Chunjiang. The Performances of Weak Receiving
System of Zhoushan and Its Improving Measures. Proceedings of the Csee, Vol. 8 No.06, Nov. 1988.
[3-16] Jacobson, D.A.N., Swatek, D., and Mazur, R., "Mitigating Potential Transformer Ferroresonance
in a 230 kV Converter Station", Computer Analysis of Electric Power System Transients: Selected
Readings, IEEE Press: Piscataway, N.J., 1997, pp. 359-365.
[3-17] HVDC system control for damping of sub-synchronous oscillations. EPRI research project
RP1425-1, December 1981.
[3-18] Preliminary Evaluation of the System Compatibility of an HVDC Transmission Alternative for the
Beseck - East Devon Segment of the Middletown-Norwalk Transmission Project. Prepared for:
Northeast Utilities. July 2004, GE Energy, Schenectady, NY.
[3-19] MA Zhiqiang. Simulation of transformer DC magnetic biasing. GUANGDONG ELECTRIC
POWER. Apr 2004, Vol.17 No.2

- 35 -
4. AC Protection Scheme

4.1. General
The purpose of AC protection is to detect AC system faults and to disconnect elements of power
system in the event of faults. A protection scheme consists of instrument transformers, protective
relays, circuit breakers and batteries, etc. The steady state and transient performances of instrument
transformers and the fault detection algorithm of protective relays, which may be influenced by HVDC
systems, are very important to ensure the correct operation of the entire protection scheme.

4.2. Performance of CT, VT & CVT on AC side

4.2.1. Magnetic CT
Current transformers typically contain a magnetic iron core with primary (system) and secondary (for
measuring equipment) windings. The primary winding is a single conductor going through the core (n1
= 1). The secondary winding is made of n2 winding turns looped around the core.
The transformer can be considered as made of two parallel elements as shown in Figure 4.2-1:
- a perfect transformer with a n ratio (n = n1/n2), providing a secondary current i1/n;
- an impedance consuming a ie current, decomposed in If + Im.
If is the part of that current lost in the iron core (ferromagnetic losses due to hysteresis and Foucault
currents). Im is the magnetizing current which insures the power transfer from a winding to the other by
creation of a magnetic force which establishes the flux  .

Figure 4.2-1 Magnetic CT

Moreover, each winding creates a small voltage drop due to the resistance of the winding (R1 and R2)
and to the leakage inductances (L1 and L2). L2 can be neglected thanks to the regular, tight secondary
winding. The load or burden Z includes the impedance of the cables used to feed the actual devices to
which the CT is connected.

4.2.1.1. Hysteresis and saturation

The quality of the iron core can be characterized by the relation between the induction vector B and
the magnetic field vector H. At every instant, in every point, those two vectors are linked by the relative
permeability of the magnetic material  r as:

B   0 . r .H

- 36 -
A magnetic circuit is characterized by the magnetization curve, depending on the type of
ferromagnetic material.
A sinusoidal excitation generates different response curves depending on the material and the
amplitude of the excitation on the primary winding. B represents the voltage since

B n
S and E 2  n 2 . j..
H represents the exciting current because

n 2 .ie   H Tore .n.dl  L.H

4.2.1.2. Perfect Transformer

The permeability is supposed infinite

I1
I2 
H  0 so I e  0 and n
I2 is the true image of I1.

4.2.1.3. Linear Transformer

The permeability is constant: B = k x H therefore Ie and i2 are sinusoidal functions if the input current
is sinusoidal.

4.2.1.4. Saturable Transformer without Hysteresis

See Figure 4.2-2. The saturation occurs in the region where the permeability  r changes from a large
value to a small value. The flux density B then increases slowly and ie distorts with a spike.

Figure 4.2-2 Saturable Transformer without Hysteresis

4.2.1.5. Saturable Transformer with Hysteresis

The magnetization curve is doubled, showing the resistance of the magnetic circuit to induction
variations. The ie curve presents then a characteristic swing.

- 37 -
4.2.1.6. With an Offset Current
See Figure 4.2-3 and 4.2-4. If there is a continuous direct current component in the primary current,
the variations on the hysteresis curve will be offset and therefore reach the saturation zone on one
side of the hysteresis curve. The secondary current will be asymmetrical and distorted.

Figure 4.2-3 Saturable Transformer with an Offset Current

R
 t

For example, fault currents have an aperiodic component I (t )  I .e

L
. cos(t   ) . This aperiodic
current is quite high (up to 150% of the rms fault intensity) and lasts from 20 to 200 ms.

Figure 4.2-4 Waveform of Primary & Secondary Current

4.2.2. Magnetic VT
Voltage transformers are made of a magnetic iron core and windings. The secondary windings voltage
is proportional to the primary by the n2/n1 ratio. In normal utilisation, the secondary voltage is simply
the image of the primary voltage.

- 38 -
4.2.3. Capacitive VT
See Figure 4.2-5. For economical and technical reasons, capacitive voltage transformers are used in
many countries. They are cheaper, but their frequency response is less precise.

Figure 4.2-5 Capacitive VT

4.2.3.1. Principle of a Capacitive Voltage Transformer

See Figure 4.2-6. The capacitive transformer is composed of a capacitive voltage divider, combined
with an intermediate voltage transformer.
The intermediate transformer’s windings will be modelled with (R1, L1) and (R2, L2).
Rx and Lx are the equivalent resistance and inductance to the dipole Ra//(Rch + jLch)

Figure 4.2-6 Equivalent Circuit of CVT

The load is modelled with serial resistance and inductance.
C1 : primary capacitor
C2 : secondary capacitor
Lc : tuning self
R1 : resistance of the primary winding and of the tuning self.
L1 : leakage inductance of the primary winding
R2 : resistance of the secondary winding
L2 : leakage inductance of the secondary winding, seen from the primary
Ra : damping resistance

- 39 -
Rch : load resistance
Lch : load inductance.

Lc is tuned on the fundamental frequency (50 Hz/60 Hz) with the capacity C1+C2 :

 C1  C2 )   2  1
LC （
If the measurement load is weak, Rx + jLx　 <<Ra
Where:
R = R1+R2+Rx
L = Lc+L1+L2+Lx
C = C1+C2

 
 
j.C1.
U C 2 ( j )   .U ( j )
 1  1
 j.(C1  C 2)  
 R  j.L. 

 Ra 
U 2 ( j )   .U C 2 ( j )
 R  j.L. 
then :
Ra
j. .
C1 L
U 2 ( j )  .U 1 ( j )
C1  C 2 1 Ra
 j. .   ²
LC L
The capacitive transformer can be considered as a second order band-pass filter. Typically the CVT
band-pass frequencies are from 30 to 3000 Hz. See Figure 4.2-7.

- 40 -
 Figure 4.2-7 Performance of CVT: Example of a 225 kV CVT

4.3. AC Protection Algorithms

4.3.1. Acquisition Principle

All digital protections have an input module to make the interface between the CPU and the analog
and digital inputs. See Figure 4.3-1.

- 41 -
 Figure 4.3-1 Acquisition Principle

4.3.1.1. Transformers
The analog input module uses calibrated voltage transformers and current transformers, to convert the
voltages and currents from VT and CT to a proper level, in order to fit to the electronic circuits of the
protective devices, and also to provide a galvanic insulation between the CT and VT circuit and the
electronic circuits of the protective devices.

4.4. AC Protection Elements

4.4.1. Over/undercurrent Protection

The protection function is based on the comparison of a current to a threshold. The current can be a
phase current, positive, negative or zero sequence of the current.
There are two types of characteristics:
- Independent time characteristic (i.e. definite time delay)
- Dependent time characteristic (i.e. inverse time delay)
The time characteristic defines the operate time which is the duration between the instant when the
current crosses the setting value (GS) and the instant when the relay operates.

4.4.1.1. Independent Time Characteristic

Independent time characteristic is defined in terms of the setting value of the current threshold GS and
the operate time.

- 42 -
4.4.1.2. Dependent Time Characteristic

The protection characteristic inverse time curve is defined by the following rule:

 
 
 k 
t  A. 
 c
  I   1 
 Is 
   , where A, k, c, a, Is are defined constants, and I is the measured current.

Note that the ground current 3·I0 is either measured directly or calculated, depending on the design of
the protective relay.
Each phase current and earth current is compared with the corresponding setting value after filtering.
When the relevant delay times are expired, a tripping command is issued.

4.4.2. Over/undervoltage Protection

The protection function is based on the comparison of a voltage to a threshold. The voltage can be a
phase voltage, positive, negative or zero sequence of the voltage.
There are two types of characteristics:
- Independent time characteristic (i.e. definite time delay)
- Dependent time characteristic (i.e. inverse time delay)
The time characteristic defines the operate time which is the duration between the instant when the
voltage crosses the setting value (GS) and the instant when the relay operates.

4.4.3. Distance Protection

4.4.3.1. General
The distance protection measures the distance between the fault and the place where the protection is
located. The distance is calculated with the positive-sequence impedance of the line
(typically0,3ohm/km to 0,45ohm/km). The reactive part of the line impedance allows the relay to check
the distance from relay to the fault location without taking the fault resistance into account.
The impedance can be found using locally measured voltages and currents.
Modern numerical distance relays adopt different algorithms to calculate the distance to the fault.
Below, a particular kind of this algorithm is presented as an example. Other distance protection
models can adopt different techniques and solutions.

4.4.3.2. Measure of Distance and Resistance of the Fault

A full scheme protection has six loops of measurement: AN, BN, CN, AB, BC, CA, with A, B, C as the
phases, and N as the ground. Some older protections have only three loops, with a commutation
based on the presence of zero-sequence current.
The distance protection has to solve the equation shown in Figure 4.4-1:

- 43 -
 Figure 4.4-1 distance protection equation

VL = local voltage
r = line resistance (/km)
x = line reactance (/km)
IF = fault current = IL+IR
IL = current measured by the protection = fault current from the local end of the line
IR = fault current from the other side of the line
D = distance to the fault from the protection (=n)
R = resistance of the fault
RF = apparent resistance of the fault, from the protection. RF = R x (1+ IL / IR)

For phase-to-ground faults, AN for example,

IL = 3.IO = IA.
IL = IA + K0 x 3xI0, or IL = IA x (1 + K0) (depending on the protection)
Ko is the earth coefficient, defined as ko = (Z0-Zd)/3Zd
Zd is the positive-sequence impedance of the line.
Zo is the zero-sequence impedance of the line.

For phase-to-phase faults, AB for example,

IL = IAB

Phase-ground loop
See Figure 4.4-2. The model used is as below:
VαN = Zd x (Iα + k0 x 3 I0) + RF x IF
α = phase A, B or C

- 44 -
 Figure 4.4-2 Phase-ground Loop

Phase-phase loop
See Figure 4.4-3. The model used is as below:
Vαβ = Zd × Iαβ + RF /2 × IF
αβ = phase AB, BC or CA

Figure 4.4-3 Phase-phase Loop

Single-phase fault:

Two-phase fault:

Three-phase fault:

Without a fault, the distance protection just “sees” an apparent impedance of the network as shown in
Figure 4.4-4, depending on the load current on the line, but without any relation with the line
impedance.

- 45 -
 X
Impedance
of the line Max. load
impedance
Fault Zone

Normal exploitation zone

Figure 4.4-4 Apparent Impedance
The normal exploitation zone depends on the maximal load current on the line, considering the
possible short load variations due to the tripping of an adjacent line, for example. It has an influence
on the resistance the distance protection can detect.
Note that a distance protection works correctly when there is only one fault. With two faults in different
places, there is no longer a simple relationship between the measured impedance and the distance of
the fault.

4.4.3.3. Settings
In an interconnected network, the distance protection has to discriminate a fault on its own line from a
fault beyond the next substation, providing in this way the correct degree of selectivity. The
measurement precision is about 5-20 % of the length of the line. It is not enough to discriminate a fault
before or after the breaker of the other-end substation. Therefore two measures are necessary to clear
the line faults selectively. See Figure 4.4-5.

1st zone: detect only the faults on the line

The first zone is set to ~ 80 % of the length of the line, to be sure the faults seen in the first zone are
on the line. The trip can be instantaneous.

2nd zone : detect all faults on the line

In order to eliminate all faults on the line, a second zone has to be used. It is typically set to 120% of
the length of the line. As this zone can see faults beyond the next substation, the protection has to
wait for the breaker near the fault location to clear the fault first. That’s why a delay is added
(approximately 200-250 ms).

Other larger zones and backward zones exist. They are mainly used for slow backup protective
functions.
For parallel lines on the same towers, a zero-sequence mutual effect increases the measurement error.
This will not be elaborated on further here..

- 46 -
 Figure 4.4-5 Reach of First and Second Zone

The 2nd zone can be very wide if the line is quite long, especially if there are 2 circuits or more on the
same tower. There can be also precision problems if the line is very short (CT saturation for a fault in
the other substation). For those reasons, and also to increase the safety of the system, remote
protection schemes are used to speed up the clearance of the fault, involving communication between
the two ends of the line:- acceleration scheme;- permissive scheme;- blocking scheme.

4.4.3.4. Conventional or Classical Algorithms

These algorithms use the measured values during the fault.

4.4.3.5. Convergence Analysis

The distance and resistance measurement are made on each mono-phased (AN) and bi-phased (AB)
loop. They allow determining the convergence of each loop inside the parallelogram tripping
characteristic. An example is shown in Figure 4.4-6.

- 47 -
 Figure 4.4-6 An Example of Distance Protection Trip Characteristic
The trip is initiated if one or more of the six loops converge quickly in the characteristic. If the speed of
the impedance point is too slow in it’s way to the characteristic (a case of power swing), the protection
may block the trip.

4.4.3.6. Classical Phase Selection

If the fault currents are large enough, compared to the normal load current, a current-based phase
selection can be used. If not, an impedance-based phase selection is used.
Comparing the current to thresholds and to each other makes the current-based phase selection.
Comparing the convergence of the loops inside the tripping characteristic makes the impedance-
based phase selection.

4.4.3.7. Directional Determination

It is based on calculating the phase between the memorised sound voltage and the derivative of the
fault current. The current and the voltage used are the ones of the measuring loop chosen by the
phase selection.
For bi-phased loops: calculation of the phase between the phase-phase memorised voltage and the
derivative of the phase-phase fault current.
For mono-phased loops: calculation of the phase between the phase-ground memorised voltage and
the current (I'x + k0 x 3 x I'0), with:
I'x = derivative of the current of the faulty mono-phased loop, X = A, B or C
3 x I’0= derivative of the residual current.
Ko = earth coefficient. Ko = (Z0-Zd)/3Zd

The directional line is generally fixed between -30° and +150°.

For example, a 70° angle is “forwards”, a –100° angle is “backwards”.
Note that the directional criterion can be used in a communicating protection scheme, without the
determination of zones: it is a line directional protection.

- 48 -
Quick Algorithms
All digital protection has quick algorithms to speed up the detection and the tripping on faults. Those
algorithms can be based, for example, on detection of the sudden change in the voltages and currents,
and on comparing the change between the fault current and the previous load current. See Figure 4.4-
7 and 4.4-8. It speeds up the determination of the direction of the fault and the phase selection.

Figure 4.4-7 Delta Algorithm-Voltage Waveform

Figure 4.4-8 Delta Algorithm-Current Waveform

- 49 -
4.4.4. Differential Current Protection

4.4.4.1. General
Differential protection is based on the first Kirchhoff law: the vector sum of all incoming currents in a
defined zone is null. For a line, the current flows in on one side of the protected zone and leaves on
the other side. A difference in the measured current is a clear indication of a fault within the protected
line section, as shown in Figure 4.4-9. If the current transformer ratio is the same, the secondary
windings of the current transformers at the line ends can be connected to form a closed electric circuit
with a secondary current. A measuring element M which is connected to the cross connection remains
at zero current in healthy operation.
When a fault occurs in the zone limited by the transformers, a current which is proportional to the fault
currents flowing in from both sides is fed to the measuring element.

Figure 4.4-9 Line Differential Protection

As a result, the simple circuit shown ensures a reliable tripping of the protection if the fault current
flowing through the protected zone during a short-circuit is high enough for the measuring element M
to respond.
For lines with three or more ends and for busbar protections, the principle of differential protection is
extended in that the sum total of all currents flowing into the protected object is zero in healthy
operation, whereas in case of a short-circuit the sum total is equal to the fault current
However differential currents can also be generated by a CT saturation in case of external fault. To
insure the stability of the protection on external faults, the tripping threshold increases proportionally
with the through-running current (called stabilization, holding current or restrain current), to avoid an
untimely trip of the relay. See Figure 4.4-10 and 4.4-11.

- 50 -
 Figure 4.4-10 Tripping Characteristic with One Stabilization Ratio

Figure 4.4-11 Tripping Characteristic with Two Stabilization Ratios

- 51 -
The differential current is calculated as the vector sum of the incoming currents.
The holding current can be calculated as
- the scalar sum of the incoming currents
- the mean of the currents at both ends of the line

In numerical relays, the calculation is made for each phase. Some older static relays calculate the sum
of the three phases. The trip orders are sent to the local circuit breaker and to all distant ends relays of
the line.
In case of a transformer differential protection, the magnetization current (4 to 6 times the nominal
current) causes a CT saturation, which generates a 2nd harmonic. This harmonic can slow the working
of the relay if a holding ratio is used. Therefore, some relays have a high current threshold, without
holding ratio to speed up the protection.

4.4.4.2. Synchronization
If the entire protected object is located in one place, as is the case with generators, transformers,
busbars, the measured quantities can be processed immediately. This is different for lines where the
protected zone spans a certain distance from one station to the next. To be able to process the
measured quantities of all line ends at each line end, these have to be transmitted in a suitable form.
In this way, the tripping condition at each line end can be checked and the respective local circuit
breaker can be operated if necessary. In case of more than two ends, a communication chain is built
by which each device is informed about the sum total of the currents flowing into the protected object.
The devices generally measure the local currents asynchronously. This means that each device
measures, digitizes and pre-processes the associated currents of the current transformers with its own,
random processor pulse. If the currents of two or more line ends are to be compared, it is necessary,
however, to process all currents with the same time base. To calculate the differential current between
the ends of the line or the zone, the current samples have to be synchronized. However, differential
current algorithms based on positive/negative sequence current with pretty longer time delay can work
without synchronization.
To avoid a clock drift, all devices which belong together must exchange their time cyclically, or be
externally synchronized, for example by GPS signals. The transmission delay between the relays must
be real-time calculated by measuring the delay for a time-stamped message to make a round trip
between the two ends.

4.4.4.3. Capacitive Current

The precondition for the basic principle of differential protection is that the sum total of all currents
flowing into the protected object is zero in healthy operation. This precondition is only valid for the
primary system only if cross currents produced by line capacitances or magnetizing currents of
transformers and reactors can be neglected.
The secondary currents that are offered to the devices via the current transformers, are subject to
measuring errors caused by the response characteristic of the current transformers and the input
circuits of the devices. Transmission errors can also cause deviations of the measured quantities. As a
result of all these influences, the sum total of all currents processed in the devices in healthy operation
is not zero. The differential protection is stabilized against these influences.
The capacitive current of a line or a cable will be considered as a differential current. If that current is
large enough, as for cables or long overhead lines, the relay can order an untimely trip.
The transient capacitive charging currents of the line creates harmonics which can be filtered by the
algorithms.
The permanent capacitive current (50 Hz or 60 Hz) mustn’t lead to a trip.
- For simple relays, the capacitive current has to be calculated first, and then the tripping
threshold is set over that value.
- Some advanced relays can calculate the real capacitive current with the measured voltage
and the capacitance of the line. The protection then subtracts the capacitive current from the
measured current to calculate the differential protection quantities.
e-g. for a M-N line :

- 52 -
 Id = IM + IN - jωC.VM/2) - jωC.VN/2, or
Id ={IM - (jωC.VM/2)} + {IN - (jVC.VN/2)}

4.4.4.4. Transformers Differential Current

The inrush current of transformers will be seen as a differential current by the relay. To reduce the
costs, the weight and the size of the transformer, they are used near the limit of saturation of the
magnetic circuit, with the normal magnetization level up to 1.7-1.8 Tesla. Therefore, a small increase
of flux in the magnetic circuit can create a large magnetizing current.
In normal conditions, the inrush current is low (about 1% p.u). But if the winding of a transformer is
switched in at the zero-crossing of the voltage, the flux will saturate the iron core and lead to a high,
non-sinusoidal magnetizing current. This inrush current can last several periods. The amplitude and
the time of that current depends on many factors like the construction of the transformers, its
dimensions, the short-circuit level of the network (in particular the resistance of the zero sequence
network), the instant of on-tripping in the period, the sign of the possible remanent flux, the number of
transformers, etc.
The inrush current has a high proportion of 2nd harmonic. Some relays can filter that harmonic to use it
as an additional holding current. The total holding current will then be the sum of the mean flowing
current and a multiple of the 2nd harmonic component of the current.

4.4.5. Algorithm Based on Super-imposing Philosophy

During the short period of an AC system fault, the AC system can be regarded as a linear system,
such that a superimposing philosophy can be applied. According to superimposing philosophy, the
fault current/voltage can be regarded as the summation of pre-fault load current/voltage and fault
superimposed current/voltage. See Figure 4.4-7 & 4.4-8.
A series of those algorithms were developed based on detection of the sudden change in the currents
and voltages.
These algorithms cover the starter (fault detector), phase selector, directional protection, distance
protection, and differential protection.
One thing to be noticed is that for the HVAC system adjacent to a converter station, such assumptions
may not be valid, taking into account the fast response of converters, possible converter commutation
failure, and non-linearity of Var compensators and filters. Please refer to [4-7].

4.5. Method of Calculating Parameters

A typical interconnection of HVDC to HVAC system is shown in Figure 4.5-1.
In normal operation condition, the power transmitted by HVDC is kept constant by it’s control system
and all three phases are symmetrical thus no negative sequence current is fed by HVDC system. The
converter transformers use delta connection and ungrounded wye on the valve side so no zero
sequence current is fed by HVDC system into the AC system.

M N

Y Yn

D Yn

Converter
HVDC HVAC
Transformer
Figure 4.5-1 Interconnection of HVDC & HVAC Systems

- 53 -
When calculating the steady state short circuit current from HVDC system point of view, HVDC system
can be regarded as a constant current source or a constant power source. See Figure 4.5-2.

Figure 4.5-2 Equivalent Circuit of HVDC System

Where, short circuit current contributed by HVDC system is

Es
I
Zs
And system capacity is

Es 2
S
Zs
.

S Can be obtained by the rating power of HVDC system, and E S is the AC voltage level where the
HVDC system is connected, thus the positive and negative sequence source impedance ZS can be
calculated.
When single fault happens on the AC line M-N in Figure 4.5-1, the entire equivalent sequence network
is shown in Figure 4.5-3.

- 54 -
 HVDC HVAC
M N EN
EM
Z1SM Z1LM Z1LN Z1SN

Z2SM Z2LM Z2LN Z2SN

Z0SM Z0LM Z0LN Z0SN

EM, EN: Equivalent system emf of M, N side

Z1SM, Z1SN: Equivalent positive sequence source impedance of M, N side

Z2SM, Z2SN: Equivalent negative sequence source impedance of M, N side
Z0SM, Z0SN:Equivalent zero sequence source impedance of M, N side

Z1LM, Z1LN: Equivalent positive sequence line impedance of M, N side

Z2LM, Z2LN: Equivalent negative sequence line impedance of M, N side
Z0LM, Z0LN:Equivalent zero sequence line impedance of M, N side

Figure 4.5-3 Equivalent Sequence Network for Single Phase Fault

However, it is not possible to provide an analytical formula to calculate the transient state short circuit
current, due to possible converter commutation failure, non-linearity of var compensator and filters,
and fast response of HVDC control system. The positive source impedance and negative source
impedance of equivalent circuit of HVDC system are variable and may not be equal to each other
anymore.

4.6. Models for Protection Settings and Co-ordination

When a fault occurs in HVAC system, the short circuit current in-feed by the HVDC system is limited at
or close to the rated current of HVDC system by HVDC control system. Settings of protection in HVAC
system can be calculated in the same way as before. Some special concerns are described in Chapter
5.

- 55 -
References of Chapter 4
[4-1] Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n° 164, Michel Orlhac, Publication date :01/12/1992.
[4-2] Performances des transformateurs capacitifs de tension pour la mesure des harmoniques HR-
22/94/59.A, EDF, J. Martinon, 25/10/1994.
[4-3] SIPROTEC Protection Différentielle 7SD52 V4.2 Siemens.
[4-4] MiCOM P541, P542,P543, P544, P545, P546 Protections Différentielles de Courant- Guide
Technique, Areva.
[4-5] Guide Régional d’Application Contrôle Electrique, J-Y. Arzul, RTE, 08/2002.
[4-6] SIPROTEC Protection de distance 7SA522 V4.3.
[4-7] ZHAO Cheng-yong, ZHAO Qiang. Analysis on applicability of fundamental frequency fault
component element of protective relaying near to HVDC transmission line. Power System Technology.
2010, Vol.34, No.3, P188-192.

- 56 -
5. AC System Protection Practice

5.1. General
This chapter provides user experience of AC protection in substations adjacent to HVDC converter
stations.

5.2. Line Protection and Autoreclosure

5.2.1. Communication-aided Directional Protection

When an HVDC commutation failure occurs after an AC system fault at the inverter end, during this
period and subsequent restoration, current reversal on the AC transmission line may occur within
20ms. So, the various high speed directional elements, such as the incremental quantities (change of
measurements) directional element, negative sequence directional element could mal-operate in some
extreme cases.
To prevent such unwanted operation, it is good practice to have the same type of CTs and the same
type of relays at both end of the AC line, to achieve good sensitivity coordination.
Within one relay, the forward directional element and the reverse directional element should also
coordinate with each other; the reverse directional element should be of higher sensitivity, longer
extension time, and higher priority, comparing to forward directional element.
Communication facilities are also important for line pilot protection, a communication channel with
short time delay and short extension time is good to line protection. Nowadays, if applicable, a
dedicated fibre optic channel is preferred instead of PLC, or multiplex fibre optic.
Figure 5.2-1 gives an example of the logic scheme of line directional pilot protection. A “current
reversal logic” is used to prevent unwanted operation of relays on the healthy line of the double circuit
lines, when fault happens on another line and sequential trip of three pole circuit breakers could
happen on the faulty line. If the relay can not operate within 40ms after start-up, further 25ms delay is
added to ride through the transient time period.

Fault detector
(Startor) & 40ms 25ms

& Trip
Received permissive
signal (RX) & 8ms 0

Fwd. Element-DF+ Sending

& permissive signal
&
(TX)
Rev. Element-DF- 0ms 75ms

(a) Permissive scheme

Fault detector
(Startor) & 40ms 25ms

& Trip
Received blocking
8ms 0 & 8ms 0
signal (RX) ≥1 &

Sending
& & blocking signal
Fwd. Element-DF+
(TX)

Rev. Element-DF- 0ms 75ms

(b) Blocking scheme

Figure 5.2-1 Line Directional Pilot Protection

- 57 -
5.2.2. Line Current Differential Protection
Theorecally, current differential protection schemes are not affected by HVDC at all.

5.2.3. Distance Protection

For protection based on distance element, such as distance pilot protection, distance backup
protection, the operation of distance protection elements are determined by their local measurement of
electrical quantities from which the equivalent distance to the fault is evaluated by comparing with
zone settings.

5.2.3.1. Load Encroachment

Since the fluctuation of DC power flow may change the measured load impedance, special attention is
needed to avoid load encroachment. But it is not a big issue, because there are lots of
countermeasures available to deal with it.

5.2.3.2. DC Cable Discharge

As reported in paper [5-1], if commutation failures occur in the HVDC converter due to AC power
system faults, the energy stored in the long DC submarine cable capacitance will be discharged. A DC
cable discharge current of considerable magnitude will in some instances be injected into the faulty
AC power system through the valve bridge and the converter transformers. The DC discharge current
will be superposed on the AC fault current. The resulting shape and magnitude can vary greatly
depending on many different factors but the DC discharge pulses will often cause total fault currents
without any zero crossings during approximately 50 ms.
Fault currents with DC discharge currents will expose the protection systems to extreme conditions.
The main problem for the protection systems is saturation of the CTs. Figure 5.2-2 below shows two
examples of primary DC discharge currents and the saturated secondary currents, where Iprim, Isec
stands for primary and secondary currents respectively.

Figure 5.2-2 Primary DC Discharge Currents and the Saturated Secondary Currents
There is a real risk that the protection will operate with unacceptable additional time delays for faults
within the protected zone or even worse that it will give unwanted operations for faults outside the

- 58 -
protected zone. Tests show that there is a considerable risk of unwanted operations for some distance
relays in case of commutation failures in the HVDC link. In this case, distance protection relays are not
suitable to use for some of the transmission lines and should be replaced by protection based on
another principle.
For the similar projects, case study may be needed to verify the applicability of AC protection scheme.

5.2.4. Zero Sequence Overcurrent Protection

For zero sequence overcurrent protection, the impacts of DC system can be neglected except slight
impacts on amplitude of zero sequence current under fault conditions, with positive and negative
impedance networks being affected.

5.2.5. Negative Sequence Overcurrent Protection

Normally, the three phase current from an inverter station are symmetrical, thus no negative sequence
current is injected to the AC system. However during disturbances, such as a commutation failure, or
successive commutation failure, such injection could happen. Even though, this injection lasts for only
a short period.
Negative sequence overcurrent is seldom used for transmission system, while the negative sequence
directional protection is used in some places. In this case, the logic scheme described in 5.2.1 is also
effective. To make things better, negative sequence directional protection is applied along with other
philosophies.

5.2.6. Phase Selection

Incremental quantities (change of measurements) based phase selector may not work properly, so
sequence quantities based or impedance based phase selector is preferable.

5.2.7. Autoreclosure
When two or more AC lines connect to the same HVDC converter station, AC line autoreclosure can
be put into service in a normal way. Otherwise, AC line autoreclosure should be disabled in order to
avoid the second strike on HVDC system when a fault occurs on AC line.

5.3. Transformer Protection

5.3.1. Adjacent Transformer

If the ground electrode is not properly located, when a slight internal fault occurs in the adjacent
transformer together with severe DC bias under HVDC mono-pole ground operation mode, the
transformer differential protection with the second harmonic restraint may not operate because of the
high second harmonic caused by DC bias.

5.3.1.1. Excitation Impedance Scheme

One solution is using excitation impedance scheme instead of differential protection, which has been
proved by simulations (see reference [5-6]). The excitation impedance of transformer can be
calculated by fault components of terminal voltages and currents as shown in Figure 5.3-1.

Z1s Z1 Z2 Z2s

I1 Z M I2 U 2

U1

Figure 5.3-1 Fault Component Network of Single Phase Electrical Power System

- 59 -
 Z 1s and Z 2 s are the equivalent source impedances on both sides of transformer respectively. Z and
1
Z 2 are the primary and secondary side leakage impedances of transformer. Z M is the excitation
impedance. U , U , I and I are the fault components of terminal voltages and currents
1 2 1 2
respectively.
The fault components comprehensive impedance can be defined as:

U 1  U 2
Z cd  (5.3-1)
I1  I2

For external fault, its amplitude is large and its angle is about +90º. For internal fault, the excitation
impedance calculated by fault components is the impedances of the transmission lines and equivalent
sources of system to which the transformer is connected. In this situation, its amplitude is smaller than
that calculated when external fault occurs, and its angle is opposite (about -90º).

Based on the characteristics of fault component excitation impedance, two protection criteria are
created. One is based on the amplitude of excitation impedance. The other is based on the angle of
excitation impedance.

Internal fault protection criteria1:

Z cd  Z set
(5.3-2)

Internal fault protection criteria 2:

 180   arg Z cd  0  (5.3-3)

Whether the criterion 1 or a criterion 2 is satisfied, it will make the relay trip.

5.3.2. Converter Transformer

There are some structural differences between converter transformers and normal AC transformers
because of the characteristics of HVDC, which, coupled with the fault controlling and adjusting
capacity of the HVDC control system, lead to the differences between their protective systems.
Compared with ordinary AC transformers, the converter transformer has the following characteristics:
- larger short circuit current impedance;
- severer DC bias magnetic;
- larger harmonic currents;
- more frequently adjusted tap changer;
- point on wave switching device is usually applied on converter transformer to reduce the inrush
current for better performance.

The following protection functions are applied to converter transformer as shown in Figure 5.3-2:

- 60 -
 BUS I BUS II
*1 *2 2* 1*
T T
A A
1 2
51V T
59
V 24
1

51V T *
51N 2
A 87
*1
3
AC
51N side
1 2
T 87N
* *
A
6

T T
51 22 51
A * * A
5 1 1* 4
*

59N 59N
T T 24 : Volt per Hertz
V V 51V : Voltage Controlled Overcurrent
3 2 51N : Zero Overcurrent
51 : Zero Sequence Overcurrent
59 : Overvoltage
59N : Zero Sequence Overvoltage
87 : Current Differential
87N : Zero Sequence Current Differential
Valve

Figure 5.3-2 Converter Transformer Protection Scheme

DC saturation protection is a special protection element to deal with DC magnetic bias. Core
saturation caused by DC bias can result in zero sequence third harmonic current in primary windings.
Peak value of third harmonic component in zero sequence current of primary windings can be
obtained to deduce the DC current passing through converter transformer. An inverse time
characteristic is implemented for this protection.

5.4. Busbar protection

No malfunction of AC busbar protection initiated by an HVDC scheme has been reported.
In some applications, so-called a composite voltage control element (VCE), also known as voltage trip
supervision, responds to under-voltage or voltage unbalance conditions, and is used to secure
current-based bus protection schemes from problems associated with permanent or temporary
abnormal current readings, while keeping the sensitivity of current differential protection.
Phase under-voltage, negative sequence over-voltage, or zero sequence over-voltage conditions are
good indications of faults in the power system. These supervisory functions can be set very sensitive
so that they do not impair dependability or speed of operation of the bus protection scheme.
One example is given here. The composite VCE consists of three criteria: phase under-voltage,
negative sequence over-voltage, and zero sequence over-voltage, if any one meet the inequality, the
VCE will operate.
Uφ ≤Uφth

- 61 -
or
3U0≥U0th
or
U2≥U2th
Where Uφ is phase voltage, 3U0 is zero sequence voltage, and U2 is negative sequence voltage. U
φth, U0th and U2th are thresholds for each criterion respectively. Typical settings for solidly grounded
networks are around 70-90% of nominal for phase or positive-sequence under-voltage; 10% of
nominal for negative-sequence overvoltage and 20% of nominal for neutral (3U0) over-voltage.
So, the composite VCE could operate in case of HVDC asymmetry, which will threaten the security of
this protection.
Take double busbar arrangement as an example, as shown in Figure 5.4-1 and 5.4-2:

Bus zone A

Bus zone B check zone

Figure 5.4-1 Double Busbar with Bus Coupler

- 62 -
 Zone A Differential Pickup

& Trip Zone A

VCE A Pickup

Zone B Differential Pickup

& Trip Zone B

VCE B Pickup

≥1

Common Check Zone Pickup & Trip Bus Coupler

≥1

Figure 5.4-2 Busbar Protection Logic Scheme with VCE

5.5. Breaker Failure Protection

No malfunction of break failure protection initiated by an HVDC scheme has been reported.
In some applications, so-called a composite voltage control element (VCE) is used to increase the
sensitivity of break failure protection while keeping the security.
The settings for VCE of breaker failure protection scheme are similar to that of busbar protection. So,
the composite voltage control element could operate in case of HVDC asymmetry, which will threaten
the security of this protection.
Take double busbar arrangement as an example, Figure 5.5-1 shows breaker failure protection logic
scheme with VCE.

- 63 -
 Breaker Failure Protection Time
Re-trip Feeder n
Of Feeder n Delay 1

Time
Feeder n Connected to Zone A & Delay 2
Trip Bus Coupler

Time
VCE A Pickup Trip Zone A
Delay 3

Time
Re-trip Feeder n
Delay 1

Time
Feeder n Connected to Zone B & Delay 2
Trip Bus Coupler

Time
VCE B Pickup Trip Zone B
Delay 3

Figure 5.5-1 Breaker Failure Protection Logic Scheme with VCE

5.6. Shunt Capacitor / Reactor Protection

Fundamental frequency overcurrent and/or overload protection may not effectively protect shunt
capacitor / reactor banks where there are significant harmonics.
The harmonics will occur if voltage and current wave distortion happens, which can be caused by
transformer core saturation when DC current passes through the windings. Harmonic currents through
shunt capacitor banks can also arise if the harmonic filters are detuned. In this case, capacitor banks
may resonate with system impedance, which may lead to resonant overvoltage that could damage the
capacitor banks. Large resonant currents will also arise when the AC system recovers from a fault and
the filters are re-energized.
Traditional overcurrent based on fundamental frequency quantity can not protect capacitor banks
properly under this condition. The damage of capacitor banks has been experienced just several
minutes after HVDC system switched from bi-pole mode to mono-pole ground return mode. By
investigation, it is known that even the fundamental current is not high, certain harmonics may be
higher.
New protection scheme for those capacitor banks that are subject to harmonics has been designed. In
addition to fundamental frequency current and voltage protection, certain frequency harmonics, RMS
(include fundamental frequency and all harmonics), and THD (total harmonics distortion) protection is
added.
Fuses are effective to protect capacitor banks in this case but coordination with capacitor harmonics
overload capacity should be reviewed.

5.7. Generator Protection

As CIGRE REF.119 (Interaction between HVDC convertors and nearby synchronous machines)
suggested, generators that have any risk of torsional interactions, with HVDC links or other devices,
should be equipped with protections (alarm and trip). For protection action, it is possible to measure
stresses directly from the shaft or to measure the angular frequency deviation in shafts to evaluate
stresses in the shaft structure. It is also possible to measure the components of the generator current
corresponding to the torsional frequencies of the shaft. The same kind of current protection is also
possible to use as an alarm or trip signal to shut down the HVDC link when the measured AC current
components in the HVDC terminal exceed preset values.

- 64 -
5.8. Special Protection Scheme
A System Protection Scheme (SPS) or Remedial Action Scheme (RAS) is designed to detect
abnormal system conditions and take predetermined, corrective action (other than the isolation of
faulted elements) to preserve system integrity and provide acceptable system performance. SPS
actions, include among others, changes in load (e.g. load shedding), generation, or system
configuration to maintain system stability, acceptable voltages or power flows. Some SPS are local
equipments co-ordinated by overall system studies, others rely on communication.
Some events in HVDC system may trigger SPS. On the other hand, HVDC fast power regulation is
one of the actions that SPS can take to improve the inter-area damping and thus the transient stability
of the AC system.
There are signal exchange between HVDC and SPS, Figure 5.8-1 gives an example.

Binary signals
Run back
Run up
Power limit
AC Interconnection status

Pole blocked
Pole deblocked
Protection block/ESOF
Pole 1
DC Line Fault
Recovery sequence active C&P
PPT enabled
Telecommunication failure
Power limitation In progress
SPS Pole 2
Analog signals C&P
Power modulation
Pole capability
Pole dc power

Pole dc current
Pole dc voltage

Converter
AC side winding current
AC side winding voltage Transformer

ESOF: Emergency Switch Off

PPT: Pole Power Transfer

Figure 5.8-1 Signal Exchange between HVDC and SPS

- 65 -
5.9. AC Filter Bank Protection
As described in CIGRE REF.139 (Guide to the specification and design evaluation of AC filters for
HVDC systems), the following protections are applied on AC filter bank:
- short circuit protection;
- overcurrent protection;
- thermal overload protection;
- differential protection;
- earth fault protection;
- overvoltage and undervoltage protection;
- special protection functions and harmonic measurements.

5.10. Coordination Issues

5.10.1. Protection Scheme Preventing Overvoltage [5-7]

An HVDC system operating in the inverter mode could cause overvoltage at the AC side if the inverter
side is isolated from the power system. If an HVDC system stops the operation due to the drop of
voltage caused by a power system fault, large capacitor banks and filters for compensation for
reactive power consumed by the converter, would cause overvoltage after the clearance of the fault.
Moreover, inrush current into transformers caused by the voltage recovery could further increase
excessive overvoltage due to a mutual interaction between the harmonics current and the power
system impedance.
In order to solve these issues, two measures are adopted: the first is to delay fault clearing time
deliberately by holding off the tripping signal from a line/busbar protection; the second is to install SPS
which shut down the converter including the capacitor banks and filters by sending high-speed transfer
tripping signal. These protection schemes contribute to shield an AC transmission system from
excessive overvoltage more quickly than an overvoltage protection detected at an HVDC station.

5.10.2. Control Scheme Preventing Commutation Failure [5-7]

If the AC system has small short-circuit capacity, the commutation failure could occur even in the case
of closing a circuit breaker for a transformer or a capacitor located outside of the HVDC station
because of the distorted voltage wave.
In order to prevent this, closing signal of the circuit breaker is delayed deliberately at the neighbouring
substation and in advance, transferred a command to HVDC to shift the firing pulse angle forward to
the safe margin.

5.10.3. HVDC 2nd Harmonic Protection

As described in chapter 2, this HVDC protection function monitors the second harmonic component in
the DC current. Its task is to protect the HVDC equipment from excessive stresses caused by long
lasting 2nd harmonics.
When asymmetrical fault happens in the AC system, valves are misfired or fails to be fired (some of
these failures are caused by failure of valve base electronics (VBE)), there would be 2nd harmonics
current on DC line.
The 2nd harmonic in the DC circuit is mainly provoked by negative sequence in the AC system (See
reference [5-10]). This includes any asymmetrical fault in the AC system. See Figure 5.10-1.

- 66 -
 Positive Positive
sequence rd sequence
3 harmonic
3rd harmonic 3rd harmonic
impedance
voltage current
in AC side in AC side

Negative
sequence
Asymmetrical 2nd harmonic 2nd harmonic
fundamental
fault Converter voltage DC impedance current
frequency
in AC side in DC side in DC side
voltage
in AC side

Negative
sequence
fundamental
Negative sequence fundamental frequency impedance
frequency
current
in AC side

Figure 5.10-1 Mechanism of 2nd Harmonic Component in DC Side during AC System Fault
If 2nd harmonics current is caused by failure of VBE, it can be eliminated by switching the pole control
system; otherwise the first stage of 2nd harmonic protection shall operate to reduce the DC power so
as to recover the system; if 2nd harmonics current insists on after that, the second stage of 2nd
harmonic protection shall operate to block the DC system.
If 2nd harmonics current is caused by asymmetrical fault in AC system, in case that the main protection
or circuit breaker fails to clear the fault, the 2nd harmonic protection of HVDC protection system may
operate and lead to the HVDC power reduction or even HVDC system blocking. If HVDC power is very
large comparing with the total demand, instability would occur, and even special protection scheme
can not save the system. But if HVDC power is kept at normal level in this case, and circuit breaker
failure protection could operate to clear the fault thereafter, then the instability can be avoided. So the
time delay of 2nd harmonic protection should be set such that to ensure that it does not operate for AC
faults with back-up clearance time. In other words, the time delay should coordinate with the time
delay of circuit breaker failure protection, and the settings may be revised.
Paper [5-8] gives an example shown in the following table:
Table 5.10-1 2nd Harmonic Protection Scheme
2nd harmonic protection
Protection 2nd harmonic protection Stage I
Stage II
Original time delay 200ms 1s
Original action Reduce DC current down to 0.3 p.u. Blocking
Optimized time delay 10s 3s
Optimized action No action Blocking

One concern of this scheme is the protection for valve misfiring or missing-pulse. If valve is misfired or
fails to be fired, the bridge current differential protection, short circuit current protection, or travelling
wave protection will operate, fundamental frequency protection and 2nd harmonic protection are only
backup protection for this kind of fault. Moreover, fundamental frequency protection has higher

- 67 -
sensitivity for this kind of fault than 2nd harmonic protection. So 2nd harmonic protection is not
indispensible for valve fault.
Another concern is the stress of 2nd harmonics. The HVDC equipments that may bear stresses of 2nd
harmonics are [5-9]: valves and their smoothing circuits, converter transformer, smoothing reactor, DC
filters, AC filters, and arrestors of neutral bus. Among them, the resistors of AC filters, and valves are
of high concern. Some resistors, such as those in 3rd harmonic filters, have to be replaced by those
with higher thermal capacity. While the rest equipments can stand 2nd harmonic even lasting for 3
seconds by design. In addition, the resistors can be protected from overload by dedicated overload
protection. According to analysis in paper [5-9], Valves and their smoothing circuits can also survive
with 2nd harmonic caused by AC asymmetrical fault lasting for 3 seconds.

- 68 -
References of Chapter 5
[5-1] Stig Holst, Ivo Brnčič David Shearer, Ragnar Mangelred, Kees Koreman. Problems and Solutions
for AC Transmission Line Protection under Extreme Conditions caused by Very Long HVDC Cables.
B5-316, CIGRE Study Committee B5 Colloquium, 2007 October 15-20, Madrid, SPAIN.
[5-2] QIAO Xiao-min,WANG Zeng-ping, WEN Jun. Influence of converter transformer differential
protection by harmonic in HVDC transmission system. Power system Protection and Control, 2009,
Vol. 37 No.10 P111-114.
[5-3] ZHU Taoxi, WANG Chao. Problems Existing in Protective System of Converter Transformer
Used in Tian-Guang HVDC Project. GUANGDONG ELECTRIC POWER, Vol.121 No.11, Jan.1 2008.
[5-4] CIGRE REF.119 Interaction between HVDC convertors and nearby synchronous machines
[5-5] CIGRE REF.139 Guide to the specification and design evaluation of AC filters for HVDC systems.
[5-6] Suonan Jiale, Jiao Zaibin, Song Guobing, A Fault Component Comprehensive Impedance Based
Transformer Protection Principle [J], Proceedings of the CSEE, 2008, 28(34), 94-100.
[5-7] K.YODA, M.KAMINAGA, K.SEKIGUCHI, T.OOMORI, H.ITO. Protection & Control System
Coordinated with HVDC System in Japan. B5-210, CIGRE Study Committee B5 Colloquium, October
19-24, 2009. Jeju Island, Korea.
[5-8] ZHU Tao-xi, JI Guang, MAO Hai-peng. Operation Analysis of DC protection system in
Guangzhou converter station. Power System Protection and Control, Vol.37 No.21, Nov.1 2009.
[5-9] ZHOU Hong-yang, YU Jiang, HUANG Jia-yin, ZHAO Man-yong. Relative Issues of 100 Hz
Protection for HVDC Systems. SOUTHERN POWER SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 2 No. 4, Aug.
2008, pp. 83-107.
[5-10] ZHOU Hong-yang, YU Jiang, HUANG Jia-yin, ZHAO Man-yong, YANG Jin-bai. Improvement
measures of 100Hz protection in China Southern Power Grid. Electric Power Automation Equipment,
Vol. 27 No. 12, Dec. 2007, pp. 96-100.
[5-11] ZHAO, X., ZHAO, Q., LIU, D., ZHANG, Z., HU, M. Impacts of HVDC Commutation Failure
on HVAC Line Protection. CIGRE Study Committee B5 Colloquium, October 19-24, 2009, Jeju Island,
Korea.

- 69 -
6. Conclusion

6.1. Phenomena that Impact AC System Protection

Compared with traditional HVAC transmission systems, HVDC transmission systems exhibit different
electrical characteristics, and HVDC systems affect adjacent HVAC systems.
In steady state, the DC system can be regarded as a constant power source or constant current
source. One issue is harmonic distortion when considering impacts on AC protection. Most of the
harmonics produced by HVDC system will be filtered by shunt filters. Nevertheless, under critical
conditions, some of those harmonics will enter the AC network. With the use of proper input hardware
and software filtering and a suitable signal processing method, modern protective relays can operate
correctly. However, some special issues have to be studied. Ground loop current is another issue,
which could lead to half-wave saturation of the iron core of the transformer, thus causing harmonics
and current distortion and as a result mal-restraint of transformer differential protection especially in
situation of slight internal faults.
Any events that change the HVDC power transfer rapidly can be regarded as dynamics or transients.
These events include: normal start and stop, DC power regulation, mono-pole/bi-pole blocking and
recovery, commutation failure and recovery, faults on HVDC lines and recovery, loss of triggering
pulse and recovery, short circuits between AC & DC lines, etc. The fault current in-feed to the AC
system by the DC system is limited by the HVDC control system, while fast response of control &
protection system and converter makes the fault phenomena different from the AC system and brings
about challenges to AC protection. Among these, commutation failure and recovery would be the most
significant event, especially those caused by AC system faults. Consequences of commutation failure
and recovery, accompanying AC system faults make it complicated to analyze the impacts on AC
protection, optimize the AC protection and improve the performance of it.

6.2. Mitigations

6.2.1. General
In some cases, HVDC system may bring about different fault characteristics in the HVAC systems,
influence the operation of HVAC protection or even cause maloperation. Such events have happened
in some places, either as an unwanted operation and/or a missing-operations of AC side protection.
When an HVDC scheme is installed, it is recommended that a careful review of protection
philosophies and settings in the nearby connected AC networks be made to determine possible
adverse affects/risks of maloperation due to the influence of the DC scheme during steady state and
transient conditions.
However, proper design of protection scheme can prevent maloperation of AC protection. Alternative
protection principles need to be considered for some cases.

6.2.2. Line protection and autoreclosure

HVDC commutation failures and recoveries bring about a sudden change of AC voltage and current,
which look like instantaneous current reversals on parallel AC lines. Communication-aided directional
line protection logic should be re-designed such that the forward directional element and the reverse
directional element coordinate with each other in the way that the reverse directional element should
set with higher sensitivity, longer extension time, and higher priority, comparing to forward directional
element.
DC discharge under AC faults, especially from long distance DC submarine cables if present, may
significantly distort AC fault currents and saturate CTs, thus unacceptably delaying the operation of
distance protection for internal faults, or lead to unwanted operation for external faults. In this case,
current differential protection is the only workable substitute.
Incremental quantities (change of measurements) based phase selector may not work properly, so
sequence quantities based or impedance based phase selector is preferable.

- 70 -
When two or more AC lines connect to the same HVDC converter station, AC line autoreclosure can
be put into service in a normal way. Otherwise, AC line autoreclosure should be disabled in order to
avoid the second strike on HVDC system when a fault occurs on AC line.

6.2.3. Transformer protection

One special protection element implemented on converter transformer is DC saturation protection to
deal with DC bias magnetic. For other transformers adjacent to HVDC converter stations, if the ground
electrode is not properly located, differential protection with the second harmonic restraint may not
operate because of the high second harmonic caused by a DC bias, when a slight internal fault occurs
together with severe DC bias under HVDC mono-pole ground operation mode. New schemes may be
applied, such as excitation impedance scheme.

6.2.4. Busbar Protection and Breaker Failure Protection

No malfunction of AC busbar protections and breaker failure protection initiated by HVDC systems has
been reported. Nevertheless, voltage control element (VCE), also known as voltage trip supervision
implemented in these protections, which may consist of phase under-voltage, negative sequence
over-voltage and zero sequence over-voltage with “OR” logic, could operate in case of HVDC
asymmetry, which will threaten the security of the protection.

6.2.5. Shunt Capacitor / Reactor Protection

Fundamental frequency overcurrent and/or overload protection may not effectively protect shunt
capacitor / reactor banks where there are significant harmonics as may occur in association with
HVDC systems. In addition to fundamental frequency current and voltage protection, certain frequency
harmonics, RMS (include fundamental frequency and all harmonics), and THD (total harmonics
distortion) protection are added.

6.2.6. Generator Protection

Generators that have any risk of torsional interactions, with HVDC links or other devices, should be
equipped with protections (alarm and trip). It is possible to measure stresses directly from the shaft or
to measure the angular frequency deviation in shafts to evaluate stresses in the shaft structure. It is
also possible to measure the components of the generator current corresponding to the torsional
frequencies of the shaft. The same kind of current protection is also possible to use as an alarm or trip
signal to shut down the HVDC link when the measured AC current components in the HVDC terminal
exceed preset values.

6.2.7. Special Protection Scheme

To keep the system stable, some events in HVDC system need to trigger special protection scheme
(SPS). On the other hand, HVDC fast power regulation is one available approach for SPS to improve
the transient stability of the AC system.

6.2.8. Coordination Issues

Trip signal from AC protection may be delayed intentionally until the AC capacitor banks and filters in
converter station are isolated from the system, so as to limit the AC system overvoltage level.
Otherwise, the AC capacitor banks and filters, or even arresters may be threatened. SPS could also
be applied in this case.
For HVDC connected to an AC system with low short-circuit capacity, switching of circuit breakers in
the AC system may cause commutation failures. A command may be transferred to the HVDC system
to shift the firing pulse angle forward to a safe margin before any such kind of circuit breaker switching.
The time delay of HVDC 2nd harmonic protection should ensure that it does not operate for AC faults
with back-up clearance time. In other words, the time delay of this protection should coordinate with
the time delay of circuit breaker failure protection, and the settings may be revised.

- 71 -
6.3. Proposal for IEC 60909
When faults occur in HVAC systems, the short circuit current in-feed by the HVDC system is limited at
or close to the rated current of HVDC system by HVDC control system. In other words, there is no
significant contribution from the HVDC system to the short circuit current in the AC system. Settings of
protection in the HVAC systems can be calculated in the same way as before. Only some special
concerns are to be considered.
It is not possible to provide an analytical formula to calculate the transient state short circuit currents
fed from the HVDC system into the AC system, due to possible converter commutation failure, non-
linearity of Var compensators and filters, and fast response of HVDC control system.

6.4. Further Studies

HVDC based on Capacitive Commutated Converters (CCC) and Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
technology is still developing and there is not much published experience about the impacts of such
systems on AC protection up to now. Further studies for these technologies are thought necessary in
the future.

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References of Chapter 6
[6-1] T. WESTERWELLER, K. FRIEDRICH, U. ARMONIES, A. ORINI, D. PARQUET, S. WHEN.
Trans bay cable – world's first HVDC system using multilevel voltage-sourced converter. CIGRE
Session 2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[6-2] M. PEREIRA, A. ZENKNER, M. CLAUS. Characteristics and benefits of modular multilevel
converters for FACTS. CIGRE Session 2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[6-3] B. JACOBSON, P. KARLSSON, G. ASPLUND, L. HARNEFORS, T. JONSSON. VSC - HVDC
transmission with cascaded two-level converters. CIGRE Session 2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[6-4] C.C. DAVIDSON, D.R. TRAINER, C.D.M. OATES, R.W. CROOKES, N.M. MACLEOD, D.R.
CRITCHLEY. A new hybrid voltage-sourced converter for HVDC power transmission. CIGRE Session
2010, Paris, August, 2010.
[6-5] IEC 60909-0:2001 Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems - Part 0: Calculation of
currents.
[6-6] IEC/TR 60909-1:2002 Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems - Part 1: Factors for the
calculation of short-circuit currents according to IEC 60909-0.
[6-7] IEC/TR 60909-2:2008 Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems - Part 2: Data of
electrical equipment for short-circuit current calculations.
[6-8] IEC 60909-3:2009 Short-circuit currents in three-phase AC systems - Part 3: Currents during two
separate simultaneous line-to-earth short circuits and partial short-circuit currents flowing through
earth.
[6-9] IEC/TR 60909-4:2000 Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems - Part 4: Examples for
the calculation of short-circuit currents.

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