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CONSERVATION TECHNICAL HANDBOOK
A GUIDE FOR BEST PRACTICES

Volume 4 | Structure
Conservation Technical Handbook
Volume 4 | Structure

Published in July 2019 by

URBAN
REDEVELOPMENT
AUTHORITY

Project Team
ICOMOS SINGAPORE GUEST URA
Ho Weng Hin CONTRIBUTORS Chou Mei
Tan Kar Lin Ian Tan Yuk Hong Teh Lai Yip
Wong Chung Wan Yeo Sok Yee Tan Huey Jiun
Yeo Kang Shua Kelvin Ang
Meranda Tang Ying Zi Lee Yan Chang
Ryanne Tang Hui Shan
Foo Chin Peng
Margherita Pedroni
Jaclyn Chua Xin Hua
Nimmy Namrata
Rachel Lim Wan Shuen

Book Design Book Template

Achates360 Meranda Tang Ying Zi

COPYRIGHT © URA 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in
any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval
systems – without written permission of the publishers.

Cover photography by Jeremy San Tzer Ning, courtesy of Singapore Heritage Society:
Ticketing foyer below reinforced concrete raked seating structural frame, National Stadium (1973–2010)
CONTENTS

Preface 5
About This Series 6
About This Volume 7

1 INTRODUCTION
Overview 9
Principles for Conservation and Intervention 11
General Notes on Investigation and Diagnostics 13
General Notes on Maintenance 16
General Notes on Conservation and Intervention 17
Load Paths and Material Compatibility 17
Heritage Impact of Intervention 17
Structural Restoration and Repair 17
Structural Strengthening and Addition 18
Foundation Strengthening 19
Protection, Temporary Support and Monitoring 20
Heritage Presentation 20

2 MASONRY STRUCTURES
Overview 22
Brick Masonry 23
Stone Masonry 26
Structural Issues and Diagnostics 29
Main Causes of Structural Issues 29
Visual and Tactile Survey 30
Non-Destructive Tests 31
Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 32
Structural Repair and Rehabilitation 33
Localized Repair and Replacement 33
Strengthening and Addition 35

CONSERVATION TECHNICAL HANDBOOK | Volume 4 | Structure

3 TIMBER STRUCTURES
Overview: Structural Timber 39
Structural Issues and Diagnostics 43
Visual and Tactile Survey 44
Non-Destructive and Semi-Destructive Techniques 45
Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 46
Structural Repair and Rehabilitation 47
Localized Repair and Replacement 48
Strengthening and Addition 50
Luojiadaxiu 52

4 METAL STRUCTURES
Overview: Structural Iron 55
Structural Issues and Diagnostics 59
Visual and Tactile Survey 60
Non-Destructive and Semi-Destructive Techniques 61
Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 61
Structural Repair and Rehabilitation 62
Localized Repair 63
Strenghtening and Addition 63

5 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Overview: Reinforced Concrete 66
Structural Issues and Diagnostics 70
Visual and Tactile Survey 71
Non-Destructive and Semi-Destructive Techniques 72
Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 72
Structural Repair and Rehabilitation 73
Localized Repair and Preventive Measures 74
Strenghtening and Addition 75

6 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Overview: Composite Structures 78
General Notes on Structural Issues and Diagnostics 81
Conservation Considerations 83

REFERENCES AND CREDITS

References and Further Reading 86
Acknowledgements and Image Credits 88

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5

Preface
Urban Redevelopment Authority, as the national land use planning and
conservation authority, is pleased to present this series of conservation
handbook. Through judicious planning, Singapore has conserved more
than 7,000 buildings and structures since 1989. They cover different
building types, architectural styles, scales and genres. They are our
precious legacy that must be protected for current and future
generations of Singaporeans.

This series is a culmination of URA’s collaboration with ICOMOS

Singapore, our local chapter of the International Council on Monuments
and Sites. This worldwide non-government organization is the official
Advisory Body to UNESCO, advising the latter on heritage, conservation
and preservation matters and issues. It taps on the technical expertise
and experience of ICOMOS Singapore members to take the protection
of our heritage gems to a higher level.

The eight volumes in the series are designed as step-by-step guides to

carry out best practices in conservation. They will aid those undertaking
works on heritage buildings. They contain a wealth of insights gleaned
from projects in and around Singapore, taking into account climatic
conditions, materials available in the market, new techniques brought by
technological advances, and the types of skills offered by the industry.

I hope building owners, developers, professionals in the industry,

builders and others who are interested in this field will find this series
rewarding. I believe we can foster a strong partnership to protect our
heritage. Together, we can make Singapore not just a distinctive liveable
city, but also a home that holds meaning for us all.

Chou Mei (Ms)

Group Director (Conservation & Urban Design)
Urban Redevelopment Authority

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6

About This Series

Since the 1970s, when historic monuments were first granted legal
protection and the first shophouses were rehabilitated, architectural
conservation has evolved and taken root in Singapore. Heritage
buildings form a significant part of our urban landscape today, as
brick-and-mortar repositories of memories straddling generations
and as treasured focal points for diverse communities.

In the early days, the main challenge was overcoming the prevailing
perception of these historic buildings as crumbling, unsanitary and
inefficient structures worthy only of demolition (though in need of
rehabilitation, they are embodiments of artisanship, history and urban
character). Another uphill battle was the polarized view that conservation
is a zero-sum game in terms of economic growth and urban development
(it is an indispensable component in all creative, dynamic, well-loved,
liveable and competitive cities).

With growing appreciation and awareness of heritage, many have since

come around to the idea that conservation is not about fighting change
but about how it is managed. Across the city, historic neighbourhoods
have found a new lease of life as places to live, work and play, and
a growing number of national monuments have been carefully restored
in recent years.

While much progress has been made and lessons learned in the past four
decades, there is still much room for improvement in skills and knowledge
of best conservation practices. This guide is intended to help bridge this
gap by laying out the ways to identify and appreciate heritage attributes,
understand historic materials and assess their condition, as well as the
methods and principles of restoration and long-term maintenance.

Built heritage can be seen as a public good, and every stakeholder –

including the owner, developer, authority, building professional, builder
and user – serves as a custodian of these precious assets. There is shared
responsibility to safeguard each historic structure and ensure its safe
passage onwards to the next generation. This series is conceived to
provide guidance along the way.

Dr Kevin Y.L. Tan

President
ICOMOS Singapore

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7

About This Volume

Volume 4: Structure is the fourth book in a series of eight Conservation
Look out for margin notes Technical Handbooks. It provides an introductory overview of the key historic
such as this one, which will structure types found in Singapore’s historic buildings, highlighting key challenges,
give you further advice or principles and approaches for their protection, repair and rehabilitation.
link you to other parts of
the book.
Chapter 1 Introduction presents important principles, issues, approaches and
What do the icons mean? concepts to take into account in the structural rehabilitation of historic buildings,
including protection works and instrumentation.
General tips and
advice
Chapters 2 to 6 are organized according to the broad types of structural
systems by material for easy reference: Masonry (bricks and stones), Timber,
Concepts covered
in other chapters or Metal, Reinforced Concrete and Composite Structures. Except for the last
volumes in the series chapter, which covers more general concepts and notes, the contents of each
chapter are organised under three key headings:
Worksheets are
available Overview: This section provides a historical background of the particular
structural system, its local production, and particular uses in Singapore’s past
External references building practice.

Further reading and

Issues and Diagnostics: This section highlights common local structural
topical notes deterioration issues and possible causes, and introduces the range of possible
methods for inspection and diagnosis. Visual and tactile methods of diagnosis,
as well as methods that require equipment and laboratory analysis, are
provided.

Repair and Rehabilitation: This section outlines steps that are commonly taken
to address causes of deterioration, as well as to restore and protect dilapidated
historic materials.

While specialist consultants or builders are required for many of the technical
investigations and works mentioned, having a basic understanding and overall
idea of what constitutes a good conservation/maintenance regime would inform
better management and works planning of the historic property.

Do look out also for box stories and helpful tips in the margins for more in-depth
discussion of the material or element at hand.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 9

Overview
Structures refer to the load-bearing elements of a building, such as
Refer to Volume columns, beams, floor slabs, load-bearing walls, roof trusses and
1 Introduction for foundations. Secondary structural elements may include corbels, struts,
more information on lintels, etc. In combination, these elements form a structural system to
historic building types carry the weight of the building itself or ‘dead load’, and ‘live load’ –
and construction, the users, fixtures, furniture and so on occupying the building – as well
planning for as environmental stresses such as wind load. Structures are generally
conservation works, designed according to the specific building types, catering for the
and maintenance care. maximum load associated with the particular building use – such as
residence, office, warehouse, car park and so on.
Also refer to Volume
2 Roofs for more
specific information
on the various
common roof systems.

Left: Timber roof structure on massive masonry columns at former Tanglin Barracks
(late 19th century). Right: Reinforced concrete structural frame as an integral part of
architectural expression, Kampong Arang Housing Development Board flats (1960s).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 10

A change in building use or building regulations may change the

Current-day fire loading capacity required for a conserved building. General decay
safety regulations and usage wear of historic structures affecting their performance
may also require fire may also need to be addressed in a conservation project. A detailed
protection treatments heritage survey and structural investigation by qualified specialists
to be done for historic should be carried out to assess the existing condition and capacity.
timber and steel A professional engineer (PE) with conservation design expertise
structural elements.
and knowledge of historic structural systems should be engaged
This may impact
on the building’s
to oversee the structural investigation and undertake the design
heritage character, of any interventions.
especially if these
elements were also Structural systems deployed in historic buildings provide material
exposed architectural evidence of construction practices, applied building material and
features. Volume 8 technology, and even product trade and supply network, for the
Building Environment particular period and context. Although a major contributor of heritage
will cover the value in terms of material authenticity and scientific significance,
possible mitigation structures are usually not the most visible aspect in a historic building
strategies for heritage
and often overlooked in conservation considerations.
features impacted
by regulatory
compliance. This volume provides an overview of the main structural systems
found in local historic buildings, common issues encountered, and key
considerations for repair and intervention works.

Assessment of
and designing for
historic structures
is a specialized field
that conventional
engineers working
only with current-day
construction may not
be familiar with, nor
able to design for.
For more information
on the topic, refer to
ICOMOS International
Scientific Committee
on the Analysis
and Restoration
of Structures of
Architectural Heritage
Flared mushroom columns and cantilevered flat slab roof in reinforced
(ISCARSAH). concrete, former Yan Kit Swimming Complex (1952).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 11

Principles for Conservation

and Intervention
The degrees of intervention on historic buildings range from simple
maintenance to deep rehabilitation, with two broad categories of work:
• Repair – to simply restore the load-bearing capacity of the building
elements that have been compromised by cracks, loss of section and
material degradation
• Strengthening – to increase the load-bearing capacity as a counter
to general decay or due to change in building use

Structural systems form the basis of scale and spatial character of historic buildings.
These qualities should be taken into consideration when devising conservation
interventions. The five-foot ways along prewar shophouses with masonry and early
reinforced concrete (RC) structure have a more intimate sense of scale to the colonnade
(left), as compared to the openness of space along a postwar building with slender and
long-spanning RC members (right).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 12

A structural intervention approach that does not take into consideration

non-structural heritage features may end up in severe loss of historic fabric
and material authenticity. For example, fibre-wrap structural strengthening
calls for plaster removal, which may severely damage historic stuccowork.
As such, structural interventions of historic buildings should be closely
tailored solutions designed by qualified engineers with conservation
experience and sensibility.
It is pertinent to note that due to multiple considerations such as heritage
value, potential collateral damage from intervention approach (e.g., in situ
or off-site), or site constraints, the optimal solution may not be the most
structurally efficient. Instead, the objective is to achieve the necessary
structural performance while optimizing retention of historic material and
minimizing heritage impact. Five key principles should be respected when
considering structural interventions on historic buildings:

1. Conserve as found
Each intervention should as far as possible respect the concept,
techniques and heritage value of the existing historic structural
design, and be marked or designed as evidently new for future
reference. Deteriorated structures should be repaired rather than
replaced, whenever possible.
2. Minimum intervention
The removal or alteration of any historic material of distinctive
architectural features should be avoided whenever possible.
3. Like-for-like repairs
The characteristics of materials used in conservation repairs should
fully match and be compatible with existing historic materials.
4. Repairs should be reversible
Where possible, any measures should be reversible so that they
can be removed and replaced with more suitable measures when
new knowledge is acquired. Where they are not reversible, the
interventions should not limit future interventions.
5. Repairs should be sympathetic
The choice between traditional and innovative techniques should be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis, and preference should be given
to those that are least invasive and most compatible with the historic.
Checks and monitoring during and after the interventions should be
carried out to ascertain the efficacy of the results.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 13

General Notes on Investigation

and Diagnostics
A necessary groundwork preceding any intervention design, the
assessment of historic structures for safety and performance is a
complex task, especially if there is scarce documentation of the
original design provision, materials, and alterations undertaken.
Conventional structural investigation caters mainly to current building
practices using standardized industrial materials and methods, and
should not be simplistically applied to historic construction that may
vary widely in structural attributes and behaviour. The investigation of
historic structures requires an interdisciplinary approach involving
the skills and expertise of structural engineers, architects, conservation
specialists, material scientists, geologists and structural testing
specialists.

1927 archival photo of Church of St. Teresa being built

sheds light on early reinforced concrete construction.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 14

Beyond technical investigations, historical research often yields critical

findings that inform building structural behaviour, such as construction
phasing, historic material palette and building systems. A thorough
understanding of the heritage structure’s attributes and history will
facilitate the impact assessment and sensitive design of any proposed
works. The investigation process should cover the following aspects:-

• Archival Research to retrieve historical drawings, images, publications

and documents that may contain the following information:
o Architect, engineer, builder and client
o Original intended design
o Construction system and techniques
o Material palette
o Past building phases and transformations such as extensions,
additions and alterations, structural modifications, restoration
and reconstructions, and changes of use
o Past environmental factors or events such as flooding, or
accidental impact, that may have caused dilapidation, damage
and failures

1930 archival building plan

of Tanjong Pagar Railway
Station shows structural
details and name of the
builder-engineer firm,
Brossard Mopin.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 15

• Dilapidation and Heritage Survey to be carried out by a team of

qualified conservation specialists to assess the structure’s current
state and material intactness:
Identify and document the material palette, construction,
structural system and any observable alterations
Identify the type and extent of dilapidation, mapping their
pattern and distribution
Mapping cracks and other Determine the progression of dilapidation – whether it is
dilapidation systematically worsening or has stabilized
will provide a more
holistic understanding of Establish the current risks and whether there is a need for urgent
the building’s structural measures
problems.
Identify any environmental factors impacting the building

• Specialist Tests, Sampling and Laboratory Analysis to be

carried out by qualified specialists experienced in and capable of
conducting these tests and evaluating the results according to the
specific parameters of historic material and structures. In addition, for
structural investigation, the test methods and final evaluation must
be endorsed by a professional engineer. These investigations are
required to determine the following attributes:
Specialist equipment, such
as the Drill Resistance Mechanical (strength, elastic modulus, etc.), physical (e.g.,
Measurement System for porosity, density and dimensional stability) and chemical
brick masonry, is deployed (composition, salt content, etc.) characteristics of the historic
to evaluate the strength materials
and condition of existing
structures to establish the Stress and deformation of the structure
conservation rehabilitation
workscope. Extent and nature of deterioration, such as corrosion, sectional or
volume loss etc.
Presence of any discontinuity such as cavity, void, honeycomb,
delamination within the structure

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 16

General Notes on Maintenance

In general, the maintenance guidelines and programme of historic
structures should take into account the following:
• Decay and deterioration tendencies of particular historic materials
• Past and impending interventions, changes to the use and/or
environment of the historic building that may subject it to stresses
• Past and impending alterations to the historic structural scheme that
may modify the load paths
• Changes in climate and microclimate such as urbanization, pollution,
etc.

The maintenance programme should include:

• Periodic inspection of the building for signs of decay and
deterioration such as cracks, distortion, corrosion, wet rot, termite
infestation, choked drainage
• Regular appropriate maintenance treatments, such as repainting with
suitable paint, cleaning, removal of plant growths, etc.
• Preventing water ingress and condensation
• Proper ventilation when the building or part of the building is left
unoccupied for a prolonged period

Where signs of distress or damage cannot be addressed immediately,

these should be closely monitored either visually or with the help of
common monitoring devices. Any sign of progressive deterioration
Monitoring devices -
should be noted and brought to the attention of structural engineers
Top: A crack gauge
monitors the changes in and conservation specialists.
width of a crack over time.
Widening cracks are a cause
for concern and should be
addressed with the help
of structural and building
conservation specialists.
Above: High-precision
instrumentation using laser
technology to monitor
building settlement.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 17

General Notes on Conservation

and Intervention
LOAD PATHS AND MATERIAL COMPATIBILIT Y
It is a common First and foremost, any structural intervention should consider the
misconception that original and current load paths. These should not be altered in any
using a stronger way that causes undesired stress concentration. For instance, the
material than the continuity of the wood grains or fibres in the same direction must
existing is better for be ensured in any replacement or partial replacement of timber
structural repair – for members. Only mortar of similar composition and strength of
example, the use the existing – and weaker than the bricks – should be used in the
of industrial bricks
repointing of load-bearing masonry. Patching mortar for concrete
to repair a historic
masonry wall of
should be of compatible modulus and strength as the parent
underfired hand- historic concrete.
formed bricks. In
fact, this will result
in uneven stress
HERITAGE IMPACT OF INTERVENTION
concentration at The impact of the proposed structural repairs or strengthening on
the stronger new significant historical elements and finishes should also be considered.
bricks, instead of the Care should be taken to ensure that these are not damaged or
load being evenly adversely affected by the structural intervention works. Where
distributed across damage or removal of significant architectural or historical features to
the wall, creating facilitate the structural intervention is unavoidable, provision should
potential weak points be made for detailed prior documentation to allow such features to
at the interface be restored or reinstated using the traditional and original methods
between old and new
and materials. In the restoration of traditional Chinese timber
bricks.
structures, the luojiadaxiu approach, involving complete dismantling
of the roof structural frame, should only be adopted in cases of
severe and extensive damage, as it would result in the collateral loss
of significant historic features on the roof ridge such as the ceramic
shardwork, stuccowork and murals.
Refer to
Chapter 3 Timber
Structures, box story STRUCTUR AL RESTOR ATION AND REPAIR
on luojiadaxiu for Generally, the repair of degraded building material is achieved through
more details on this restoring the geometry of structural elements. When the loss of a
traditional method section is not very significant, it will be sufficient to adopt protective
of repairing timber measures of the existing materials without having to restore the
structures. geometry.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 18

When restoring the geometry, materials identical to the original ones

should be used. Should new materials be used, their compatibility
with the original material in terms of strength, modulus, dimensional
stability and vapour permeability should be looked into to avoid
incompatibility issues. Repair of masonry, for example, may be obtained
through repointing, injection of appropriate grout, and sometimes
reconstruction or replacement of deteriorated masonry units. For timber,
it may include splicing repair of degraded or lost segments, the use of
inserted or external fasteners, aside from prosthetic repair, injection and
consolidation with synthetic resin. Where there is a significant reduction
in their sections, structures could be augmented with added members,
with replacement only considered as a last resort.

Timber members that are otherwise intact but displaced due to impact
or movement may be dismantled and reassembled to restore structural
connectivity and load paths.

STRUCTUR AL STRENGTHENING AND ADDITION

In the case of structural damage such as from ground settlement, or
increased loading from change of building use, the additive approach
is to repair the historic structure and introduce new structural elements
Right: Structural to partially or entirely bear the required new load. For example, new
Restoration – Restoring steel I-beams could be inserted between original joists to increase the
the geometry and structural
structural capacity of the historic timber floor.
integrity of a timber column
through whole-section
‘timber-to-timber’ partial
replacement of the decayed
lower portion. Far Right:
Structural Addition –
Historic steel roof trusses
were restored with new
I-section portal frames
sensitively inserted in
between to meet increased
roof loading needs, in
the adaptive reuse of a
former oil mill into a hotel.
New structures could
be easily distinguished
from the old by a discreet
difference in design without
detracting from the heritage
presentation.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 19

Where there is a need to restore or increase the strength of the historic

structural element itself, it usually requires the introduction of new
components:

• Masonry walls – Cracks and damage can be addressed by the

installation of anchorages, bed reinforcement such as helix bars,
and grout injection. To counter the effects of lateral loads the wall
can be strengthened with metallic reinforcement or composites
like carbon fibres and glass fibres with epoxy, i.e., fibre-reinforced
polymer (FRP). Mesh reinforcement may be applied over a
damaged masonry wall followed by suitable plaster – this method
should, however, be carefully designed to retain the breathability of
the wall.

• Timber columns and beams – Solutions include injection with

consolidant, augmenting with steel or fibre reinforcement,
and external reinforcement with FRP or steel plates. However,
these techniques should be sparingly used, with the design and
installation customized to the particular situation of each building.

FOUNDATION STRENGTHENING
Upgrading of foundations can be carried out by underpinning with
micropiles or through improvement of the soil through jet grouting
or with hydro-active grout. However, these types of measures should
be extended to the entire building to avoid differential deformation
of the building. An alternative solution to upgrade the foundation is
the widening or enlargement of the footing, usually with additional
reinforced concrete, or converting the isolated footing to strip footing.

Right: Foundation
Strengthening –
Underpinning works
to strengthen masonry
building foundation. Far
right: Temporary Support
– Protective bracing of
façade structural masonry
wall while foundation
underpinning was carried
out at the Cathedral of the
Good Shepherd.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 20

PROTECTION, TEMPOR ARY SUPPORT AND MONITORING

Pre-construction investigations and surveys of historic buildings
should identify both structural and non-structural heritage elements
that may be adversely impacted by intervention works. For example,
damage could be caused by settlement and vibrations resulting from
underpinning works, or accidental impact from proximity to heavy
machinery access paths. An adequate protection, temporary support
and instrument monitoring system should be catered for and put in
place prior, to ensure the building’s structural stability and prevent
damage to the heritage elements throughout the construction stage.

HERITAGE PRESENTATION
Structures are often not highly ornamental or even visible parts of
a historic building. Yet their material composition and construction
present a rich depository of knowledge encompassing craftsmanship,
local geology and resources, past trading activities, building traditions,
and historic technologies. In the adaptive reuse and fitting out of a
historic building, box-ups, false ceilings and partitions are often used
to conceal new services, covering up originally exposed structures
such as walls, columns, trusses, ceiling beams and joists. These new
elements should instead be carefully planned and sensitively designed
such that the historic features are not obstructed, or at least strategic
parts of the original structures are left visible.

Heritage Presentation
– Even originally hidden
parts of the building
structure may be showcased
as part of the heritage
presentation, to showcase a
richer narrative. Right: The
brick vault foundation of the
former Tainan Prefecture
Hall (1916) as seen through
a glass floor panel.
Far right: The panel of
exposed structural masonry
wall of Cathedral of the
Good Shepherd shows how
the two building phases
(1845 and 1888) used bricks
of different manufacturing
processes.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 22

Overview
Masonry structures refer to load-bearing building components
Refer to Volume constructed of individual units laid and bound together by mortar.
3 Facades, Chapter Masonry structures are high in compressive strength but have low tensile
3 Masonry, for more strength. To counter flexing and provide lateral stability, this is usually
information on compensated for by creating massive construction, introducing stiffeners
fairfaced masonry (such as vertical ‘ribs’ along walls), or embedding reinforcements in the
facades (that may masonry.
or may not be load-
bearing structures) as The most common historic masonry material used locally is brick, with
well as mortar joints, rare examples in building stone such as granite. The typical shophouse/
pointing and repairs.
townhouse party wall is one of the most common major structural
masonry elements found in Singapore’s historic buildings, usually in
combination with timber floor and roof systems. As stipulated by early
colonial planning regulations following fire incidents, party walls extended
all the way from the front to the back facades and above the roofs to act
as firebreaks separating the terraced units.

Structural Elements of Shophouse –

Load-bearing Brick Masonry

Timber
roof system
Timber
floor system

Load-bearing
masonry party wall
Five-foot way

Strip foundation

Unreinforced
concrete slab
Masonry column
Pad foundation

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 23

BRICK MASONRY
Refer to Volume In essence, brickmaking refers to iron-rich clay being moulded, pressed
3 Facades Chapter and then baked at a certain temperature to create robust fireproof
3 Masonry for more masonry units. Archaeological findings at Fort Canning included brick
information on the buildings – and, by implication, brickmaking – dating back centuries to
history of brickmaking precolonial times.
in Singapore as well as
a discussion of mortar
Small-scale Chinese-operated brick kilns produced affordable hand-
joints.
made bricks from the early colonial period, found in most prewar
privately developed shophouses or townhouses where they were used
to construct party walls. Being irregular in size and underfired/unevenly
fired (thus lower in strength and unevenly coloured), most pre-industrial
hand-formed bricks were usually not meant to be exposed but
concealed and protected under plaster and paint (or limewash). These
private kilns later on competed against government-run brickfields from
the mid-19th century onwards that supplied public works with their
better quality-controlled products.

Local geology
presented clay that
was wellsuited for
brickmaking, such
as along Serangoon
Road, where a large-
scale government
brickfield was started
in 1858, and at Pasir Left: 1904 postcard showing a privately operated Chinese brick kiln.
Panjang, where the Right: Workers stacking bricks for firing at Alexandra Brickworks, 1953.
industrial production
first took place at
Alexandra Brickworks
in 1899.

Left: Pre-industrial hand-formed brick masonry found at Raffles Hotel (1887).

Right: Larger standardized industrial bricks from Alexandra Brickworks, seen
at the former Traffic Police Headquarters (1929).

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 24

The labour-intensive early kilns were eventually phased out with the arrival
of industrial brickmaking at the turn of the century, where machinery and
high-powered kilns produced high-strength standardized bricks.

Historically, load-bearing brick walls were constructed by lime-based

mortar binding irregular hand-formed bricks, the masonry held
together largely by friction and gravity. The arrangement technique
later developed into interlocking patterns that would tie the mass of
the wall together and distribute the load evenly. Known as brick bond
patterns, most are variations of the basic Stretcher, English and Flemish
bonds, which enhance the structural performance as well as the visual
appearance if the brickwork is exposed or fairfaced.

Other than shophouses, common uses of load-bearing brick masonry

include first storey columns and walls of black-and-white bungalows
supporting the timber-frame upper storey, brick piers of raised Anglo-
Malay bungalows, and so on. More expressive forms of brick structures
include arches and vaults that allow for spanning across openings or
spaces, as well as buttresses. Brick masonry superstructures would
usually extend below ground as strip or pad foundations.
Brick Bond Patterns

Brick Bond Patterns

American Common Dogtooth

English Flemish Stacked

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 25

Top row and left:

Fairfaced load-
bearing brick walls
in English bond,
and brick arches at
St. George’s Church
(1913). Right:
Buttressed brick
wall at Tanjong
Pagar Railway Yard
staff quarters.

Far left: The

shophouse/
townhouse
landscape,
characterized by
the series of party
walls rising above
the clay tile roofs as
firestops between
units. Left: Historic
brick foundation
of Victoria Concert
Hall (flanked by
new micropiles for
strengthening).

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 26

STONE MASONRY
Refer to Volume Load-bearing stone masonry is one of the oldest building construction
3 Facades Chapter techniques known and used by man. The earliest form of stone masonry
3 Masonry for more construction was random rubble dry masonry, using various sizes of
information on the stones randomly stacked on top of each other to build a wall without
history of stone using any mortar. This construction was further developed into the use
masonry in Singapore. of chiselled uniform stone pieces stacked in horizontal beds with mortar,
also known as ashlar masonry, of which local examples can be found.

The Pulau Ubin quarries supplied their light blue-grey granite to colonial
Singapore’s early developmental works, including the Horsburgh (1851)
and Raffles (1855) Lighthouses. The early government-run quarries on the
island as well as Bukit Timah deployed Indian convict labour. Sketches
by engineer and surveyor J.T. Thomson documented skilled Chinese
stonecutters at Pulau Ubin working granite blocks for the construction of
Horsburgh Lighthouse, which he designed.

Drawings by J.T. Thomson - Left: Sketches of Hakka (‘Kay Tribe’) Chinese stonecutters at work on Pulau Ubin,
mid-19th century. Middle and top right: 1851 painting of the Horsburgh Lighthouse a year after its completion,
showing its stone masonry construction. Bottom right: View of an active Pulau Ubin granite quarry in the 1990s.
The light blue-grey stone was still being quarried till recent decades for construction use.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 27

Given the costly and resource-intensive process of quarrying, working

and building with the material in Singapore, entire stone buildings were
uncommon. Instead, structural stonework was often used in combination
with other types of structures such as brick masonry, timber and iron,
usually taking the form of sparingly applied carved stone structural
features. These include high key elements such as grand granite
columns at the Victoria Concert Hall foyers, or strategic reinforcements
where exceptional compression strength and durability are called for,
such as corbels, column bases and capitals, lintels, plinths, etc. Stone
may also be incorporated as part of the foundation system – for example,
in the historic steel frame structural scheme of Stamford House (1904),
rolled steel joist stanchions were bolted onto massive granite pads to
form the substructure.

Right: Archival drawing

of Stamford House (1904)
showing steel stanchion
on granite pad footing
foundation. Far right:
Granite columns at the
grand staircase of Victoria
Concert Hall (1909).

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 28

Left: Granite elements commonly appear in shophouses/townhouses as corbels supporting timber structures (top), and
more rarely, as ornamental column bases (above). Right: As seen on the innerleaf facade of the former Jinriksha Building,
granite keystone and impost are positioned where the compressive load is concentrated along an arch.

Examples of fairfaced
masonry columns
designed with an
interplay of stones and
bricks that showcase
artisanal construction
and fine workmanship
at (right) House No.
1 on Pulau Ubin, and
(far right) postwar
government housing
bungalows at Stevens
Road (c.1948).

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 29

Structural Issues and Diagnostics

MAIN CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL ISSUES
Refer to Chapter In the local context, key root causes of structural damage to historic
1, General Notes masonry structures can be classified broadly into three categories:
on Investigation
and Diagnostics for Ground movement and settlement can arise from changes to the
important concepts groundwater and soil condition, often brought about by neighbouring
and issues to be aware construction activities like excavation, tunnelling works, roadworks and so
of at the outset of on. Pre-World War II historic buildings are often constructed on shallow
planning for structural
footings. Those with rigid structures such as masonry, with little tolerance
rehabilitation.
for displacement, are especially vulnerable to ground movements.
Surrounding vegetation, especially trees, can cause ground settlement or
heaving, for example by the growth of roots. Such changes in the ground
will cause the building to experience uneven physical stresses, resulting
in cracks and structural instability.

Overloading can occur when the loading capacity limits and load paths
that the building is designed for are altered. This can happen if there are
ill-conceived changes to the structural scheme, for instance the ad hoc
addition of a floor, removal of a load-bearing member, or unauthorized
installation of services. Damage to a load-bearing element such as cracks
and deteriorated bricks of a wall can result in a reduction of its loading
capacity, leading to overloading stresses.

Right: Brick masonry

columns damaged by
ground settlement caused
by tunnelling works.
Temporary bracing was
put in place until structural
repairs could be carried
out. Far right: Excessive
chasing of services into the
wall results in a loss of mass
and compromised strength
of the load-bearing brick
structure.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 30

Restraint to dimensional changes refers to stresses and strains at

Refer to the component level resulting from swelling or shrinkage of individual
Volume 3 Facades, structural components. These can occur, for example, due to hygroscopic
Chapter 3 Masonry swelling of the clay bricks, and salt attack of the brickworks from rising
for information damp. Where the masonry is reinforced, dimensional changes could arise
on conservation from the corrosion of embedded steel, wet rot or termite damage of
treatment of rising encased timber members, and so on.
damp and salt attack.

Rising damp caused by

incompatible latter-day paint
resulted in salt attack that
eroded the brick substrate
at the base of the columns
and load-bearing walls.
Plaster along the base has
to be removed as part of
conservation treatment.

VISUAL AND TACTILE SURVEY

Visible signs of dilapidation and the general structural scheme should
be carefully identified, mapped and documented by a visual and tactile
survey as the first step in assessing structural condition and issues.

Visual dilapidation mapping

field sketch of a historic
townhouse brick masonry
party wall.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 31

Visible symptoms suggesting possible masonry structural distress include

the following:
• Crack - pattern, displacement, widths and their variation over length,
changes to crack over time
• Deformation and tilt
• Misalignment of masonry units
• Deterioration or disconnection of joint between masonry element
and other structural members
• Surface disintegration of masonry units or mortar joints
• Plant growth
Visible sign of structural • Dampness and water ingress
defect – crack through arch
structure. • Efflorescence indicating possible salt attack
• Delaminated or hollow-sounding plaster (for plastered walls,
indicating possible issues with masonry substrate)

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Any detected The visual survey can be supplemented by on-site non-destructive
movement of the tests that may reveal construction details and conditions concealed by
building during the plaster finish or embedded within the masonry. These include the
the survey should following:
be monitored with
• Ground-/surface-penetrating radar uses radar pulses to image
instrumentation to
determine the rate, the subsurface, revealing hidden construction details and elements,
severity, and risks of voids or cavities, thickness of walls, presence of moisture and salt,
any structural damage. and so on.
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement is used for assessing the
For more details, soundness of the masonry units and wall.
refer to Chapter 1, • Infrared thermography detects the temperature distribution along
General Notes on
a surface. Different temperature readings may indicate building
Maintenance.
defects, especially trapped moisture (cold spot) or the presence of
different hidden elements (with varying degrees of heat retention).
• Borescope or videoprobe allows the visual inspection of hidden
construction details at unreachable spots such as cavities and the
insides of walls.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 32

SAMPLING AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS

In situ investigation methods that are more invasive include breakouts to
reveal subsurface details such as masonry substrate, and Drill Resistance
Measurement mainly for the evaluation of a brick masonry structure for
its strength, extent of deterioration due to weathering, hydrolysis and salt
attack that can reduce the load capacity. These methods may include the
extraction of samples for laboratory analysis.

For an assessment of the soundness and strength of the masonry

members, it is common to extract samples of the bricks and mortar joints
for laboratory tests. These include the following:
• Compressive Strength test of the bricks or brick-mortar composite
• Modulus Elasticity test of brick-mortar composite
• Mix Composition test of mortar joint
• Splitting Tensile Strength test on brick core and brick-mortar joint
composite core

Given the limitations of sample extraction and laboratory testing, other

in situ techniques for strength assessment may be used, such as the
following:
• Single Flat Jack test to measure the in-situ strain or stress within a wall
• Double Flat Jack test to determine the load capacity and modulus of
elasticity of the wall
• Brick-Mortar Shear Bond Strength test to assess the adhesion bond
of the brick to the mortar

Right: A breakout revealing

the structural brick masonry
substrate under the plaster.
Far right: Drill resistance
measurement being carried
out on a load-bearing brick
masonry wall, with real-
time results represented
in graphical form on a
laptop connected to the
equipment.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 33

Structural Repair and Rehabilitation

Restoring integrity and strength to masonry structures may be broadly
Refer to Chapter grouped as repair of localized defects – such as addressing mortar
1, Principles and bedding and pointing, or individual masonry units – and reinforcement
General Notes on and addition to the structural scheme. Less invasive repair options should
Conservation and always be considered and exhausted before looking into scaling up the
Intervention for intervention. Care should be taken for repairs to fairfaced masonry.
important issues Some common methods for structural repair are briefly described
to consider when below, listed according to increasing degree of intervention.
planning for structural
rehabilitation.
LOCALIZED REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT
Repointing – The outermost 10–15mm of the mortar is known as
Refer to ‘pointing mortar’, which is generally designed to be weaker than the wall
Volume 3 Facades substrate. Once this becomes loose or eroded by weathering, the loss
for conservation of material may affect the structural integrity, especially for members
treatment of with a large surface-to-mass ratio such as columns. Replacement with
surface defects and compatible mortars – known as ‘repointing’ – will be required. Friable or
restoration incompatible mortar joints should be removed and replaced with new
of finishes found on compatible mortar.
facade structural
masonry; in particular Grouting and anchoring – Grouting is used to repair several defects in
Chapter 3 Masonry
stone and brick masonry, most extensively to treat cracks along mortar
for more details on
conserving stone joints. Typically, a compatible grout mix is inserted into the cracks and
and brick masonry, allowed to set until it binds the masonry together.
including repointing,
rising damp and salt
treatment.

Repointing trial for fairfaced

brick masonry wall.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 34

This procedure is generally carried out by gravity grouting, pressure

pumping or vacuum grouting. In the case of historic masonry, the grout
mix is usually based in hydraulic or non-hydraulic lime.

Alternatively, a hollow stainless steel anchor is inserted through brickwork

and a grout mix is injected through the anchor under low pressure, which
sets to bind the masonry units together.

Tying and stitching – Structural cracks in masonry are also commonly

repaired by tying the masonry together through stitching with steel.
Reinforced stitching is done in walls with wider mortar joints. The crack
is filled with repair mortar and masonry, incorporating proprietary
stainless steel bed joint reinforcement. In areas of finishes or lining, the
cracks are stitched through a helical stainless steel reinforcement bar
embedded in a proprietary polymer modified grout injected into slots
cut into mortar joints.

Wall ties can also be installed across the thickness of a masonry wall, with
anchor plates on both ends. This is to counter compressive bulging or
buckling, especially for thick load-bearing masonry walls.

Localized reconstruction (‘cuci-scuci’) – Structural integrity can also be

restored by highly localized replacement and relaying of masonry units
and mortar using original and compatible materials. While there is some
loss in historic materiality, the method nonetheless allows for retention of
most of the unaffected masonry structure, instead of rebuilding entirely.

Left: Grouting – Brick masonry crack repair by injecting compatible grout. Middle: Tie and stitch – Helical spiral bar
reinforcement provides stitching repair for masonry walls that have large cracks through several bricks. Pointing mortar
underneath the affected areas of masonry is chiselled and raked out. Stitching is then done by embedding stainless steel
anchors into the mortar directly underneath the brick units before sealing with an appropriate mortar. Right: ‘Cuci-scuci’ –
Localized brick replacement.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 35

STRENGTHENING AND ADDITION

Structural strengthening and addition involves design enhancement to the
existing structural scheme to upgrade its loading capacities, for example,
to cater to adaptive-reuse new functions with higher loading requirements.
Similarly, strengthening design should be premised on minimal
intervention to reduce impact on the historic building, incrementally
stepping up to more invasive alternatives only when needed, and only
as much as necessary. For the strengthening of foundations, the current
geotechnical characteristics of the subsoil should be thoroughly assessed
through investigation. Following are some of the key strengthening and
addition methods for masonry structures.

Underpinning and micropiling – Underpinning refers to the

strengthening of foundations of existing buildings, typically in pad or
strip form. The objective is to spread the load or transfer it to deeper
soil or bedrock with higher bearing capacity. In particular, the micropiling
method, which uses small-diameter piles (usually reinforced concrete)
driven by compact-size piling rigs, is wellsuited for historic buildings
where access and headroom may be restricted. To minimise impact on
existing historic floor slab and floor finish, micropiles could be installed
on the exterior and the load transfered via cantilevered needle beams.
Where this is not feasible, affected historic elements such as floor tiles
may be carefully dismantled and reinstalled after strengthening. The
historic foundation should be properly documented prior.

Existing wall and

foundation

Needle beam
transfers load Rebar connects
to piles beam to piles

Existing
pad/strip foundation

Micropiles

Left: Compact piling rig that could be accommodated beneath the porch of the Cathedral of the Good Shepherd.
Middle: Micropiles are installed next to existing column bases to strengthen the masonry strip foundation and address
severe structural damage caused by ground settlement. Right: Diagram of brick foundation strengthening by micropiles.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 36

Right: Steel tie rods

anchored on the outer sides
of facing walls to ensure
the structural integrity
of the load-bearing wall
configuration in case of
ground movement.
Far right: Steel plate
jacketing of interior load-
bearing brick masonry wall
as part of temporary seismic
strengthening measure prior
to long-term rehabilitation
works. This will, however,
result in loss of historic
ornamental plasterwork.

Addition of structural members – New structural members may be

added to the existing structural scheme as reinforcement or to address
structural distress, usually transferring load to the new foundation piles.
Buttressing or addition of piers to the loadbearing wall may be deployed
to negate the outward thrust caused by compressive load bearing down
on the wall. New structural arches or frames may be installed to offload
the stress on existing loadbearing masonry, or as independent structural
systems for building additions such as new floors or stairs. These new
structures may or may not be in masonry; reinforced concrete and steel
usually offer a more compact footprint relative to masonry, minimizing
visual and spatial obstruction to the historic building. The dimensions
and locations of structural additions should be sensitively coordinated to
complement the existing structural datum, heritage elements, elevations
and spaces. Steel tie rods may also be installed in line with cross walls
on facing walls to ensure they remain in position to counter anticipated
ground movement such as earthquakes or tunnelling vibrations.

Jacketing – This method involves the enlargement of the structural

element by encasing it in a layer of new material, usually reinforced
concrete or steel plates. While the historic member is retained, its
original profile, proportion, finishes, and any ornamentation such as
column capitals or wall cornices will be adversely affected. This may
contravene heritage presentation and conservation requirements.
Jacketing may be selectively applied at less sensitive areas, and for
elements of less heritage significance.

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CHAPTER 2: MASONRY STRUCTURES 37

Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) strips – Based on principles of

structural containment, in this method the structural member is
‘wrapped’ or applied with layers of FRP strips and epoxy grout to restore
structural integrity or for added strength. The key concern is with the
incompatibility of the unbreathable FRP and epoxy material, especially
with soft clay historic brickwork and friable stonework, which may result
in masonry damage in the long run. This method should be considered
a last resort, and only applied to the historic fabric following thorough
material investigations to verify its long-term performance, and with
closely tailored design to minimize adverse effects. In addition, while
this method does not add as much bulk as jacketing, it needs to be
applied directly onto the masonry substrate, affecting any existing
finishes. As such, this method should not be applied on elements with
significant ornamental features or fairfaced finishes.

Deployed as a last resort,

here the severely compromised
brick masonry column is
strengthened with carbon
fibre-reinforced polymer
strips. Gaps are designed
to allow for some degree of
breathability for the historic
brick substrate.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 39

Overview: Structural Timber

Tropical hardwood is one of the most prized natural resources in
Refer also to Southeast Asia, with timber processing historically being one of the
Volume 2 Roofs, region’s major industries.
Chapter 2 Roof
Structures, for more The earliest industrial timber supplies for Singapore came from
information on roof Johore Saw Mills, founded in 1859 by Scottish entrepreneur James
structural timber Meldrum. The sawmill supplied timber to many key projects in early
elements. colonial Singapore, its nearest market, including the Government House,
as well as for ‘Railway, House, Shipbuilding and general purposes’, as
advertised in the 1890s.

The first With the growing timber industry, local sawmills were established to
significant modern process logs typically imported from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.
development in Johor,
Until the 1960s, local conventional practice still had logs stored for long
the Johore Saw Mills
was strategically periods in the lumber yard as part of the wood drying process. Industrial
sited on the banks wood-drying kilns that speed up the process do not seem to have been
of Sungei Segget, so adopted until more recent decades. There are three basic methods of
that logs harvested in sawing logs, i.e., plain sawn, quarter sawn and rift sawn. Plain sawn
the jungles upstream yields the most lumber and is therefore the most cost-effective.
could be floated down
to the steam sawmill.
Small ships could also
berth and transport
the processed timber,
to be exported
worldwide. Similarly,
sawmills built in
Singapore later on
were located near
waterways such as
Kallang River. In
the late 1960s, the
foreshore of Kranji
was reclaimed for the
purpose of relocating
these sawmills.

Left: 1890 news advertisement of Johore Saw Mills. Right: A black-and-white

bungalow (1900s) with profiled timber joist ends exposed as a design feature and
an articulated second-storey timber frame verandah.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 40

A historic kampong house

at Pulau Ubin featuring
timber post-and-beam main
structure with timber siding
infill and lattice balustrades.

Timber species are generally graded for different building uses as follows:
1. Structural timbers, further classified as
• Heavy construction, such as bridges and beams
• Medium construction, such as trusses and joists
• Light construction, such as fenestration frames
2. Panelling timber
3. Flooring timber
4. Furniture timber (for fine joinery works)

Structural Timber Panelling Flooring

Timber Timber
Heavy Medium Light
Balau Chengal Bintangor Kempas Bintangor
Belian Kapur Kapur Merbau Chengal
Chengal Kempas Keruing Nyatoh Merbau
Kempas Keruing Nyatoh Ramin Red/White
& Yellow
Meranti
Keranji Merbau Red/White Red/White Teak
& Yellow & Yellow
Meranti Meranti
Red Nyatoh Teak Teak
Balau
Tempinis Teak

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 41

For the building of Chinese traditional structures, master carpenters

and artisans from China had to adapt to working on tropical hardwood
from the region, which was more challenging to work with relative to
the timber used in China. Even for carved timber, tropical camphor, a
softer hardwood, and occasionally teak would be used, likely for better
resistance to the warm and humid local climate.

Commonly seen historic timber structures in Singapore include

traditional Chinese constructions (temples, courtyard houses),
vernacular kampong structures, as well as the roof and floor
systems of colonial period buildings including bungalows,
shophouses/townhouses and churches.

These present varying timber building traditions and construction

techniques. In general, Chinese traditional timber structures are
connected using hidden dowel and mortise-and-tenon joints, while
colonial-introduced practices tend to include the use of external
and embedded metallic connections, such as nuts and bolts, metal
plates and tension rods, working alongside timber joinery to achieve
structural performance.

Traditional Chinese timber

construction with elaborate
carved and painted
structural members at Thian
Hock Keng temple.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 42

Structural Elements of Shophouse –

Timber Floor and Roof Systems

Timber floor boards V-shaped clay tile

roof covering
Timber joists

Timber ridge beam

Timber purlins
Timber battens

Timber floor beam

Unreinforced
concrete slab
Load-bearing
masonry structure

Timber structural features that contribute to the interior spatial quality of historic shophouses/townhouses should be
retained and exposed. Left: The upper-storey timber floor system comprises beams and joists that span the party walls,
reinforced with stone or timber corbels. Timber floorboards are laid across the joists, with tongue-in-groove joints.
Middle: The timber main beam spanning over the five-foot way becomes a key facade feature. Right: Given the narrow
span, the roof system could do without trusses or rafters, featuring timber purlins directly spanning across party walls, with
battens laid closely along the slope of the pitched roof to receive unglazed V-shape clay tiles.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 43

Structural Issues and Diagnostics

Timber structures and components can be durable if they are properly
Refer to Chapter designed, constructed and maintained. Conversely, poorly seasoned
1, General Notes timber members or those that are unprotected from vastly changing
on Investigation environmental conditions (e.g., fluctuating between wet and dry) tend to
and Diagnostics for be more susceptible to biological decay and stress-induced defects.
information on the
prior investigation Each member of the historic timber structure should be carefully
and documentation studied and examined by skilled and experienced timber experts
to establish a sound such as a master carpenter or timber specialist prior to developing the
diagnostic basis, as
conservation approach. Construction details and the condition of the
well as important
concepts and existing timber members should be systematically documented. Timber
issues to be aware members are then classified according to damage level, and whether
of at the outset of they are repairable. Non-destructive and semi-destructive techniques
planning for structural can be deployed to clarify cases that cannot be determined by visual and
rehabilitation. tactile examination alone.

Study of timber roof truss construction details, including joinery and fastening types.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 44

VISUAL AND TACTILE SURVEY

The visual condition survey to be carried out by skilled, experienced
inspectors should cover the following aspects for all timber members:
• Naturally occurring features (e.g., knots and seasoning checks)
• Construction and design features (e.g., joinery type, fasteners,
carved ornamentation)
• Biotic deterioration (e.g., damage from infestation of insects such as
termite or carpenter bee, bacterial or fungal decay)
• Weathering- and stress-induced degradation and structural
deformation (e.g., transverse cracks across grains, severe
embedment, shrinkage, creep or misalignment, deterioration of joints
like ends splitting, corrosion of metal connectors)
• Any protective coating or preservative treatment
• Exposure condition of the timber members, classified as follows:
Timber is under cover and fully protected from the weather
Timber is under cover and fully protected from the direct effects
of the weather, but high humidity can lead to occasional but not
persistent wetting

From top: Dilapidation – Timber is not covered and not in contact with the ground. It is
displaced timber truss joint; either continuously exposed to the weather or is protected from
termite trails along timber the weather but exposed to frequent wetting
beam and wall around
beam end; rafter damaged Timber is in contact with the ground or water and thus is
by carpenter bee permanently exposed to wetting
infestation.
In the case of traditional Chinese timber-framed buildings, qualified
master carpenters should be engaged for thorough inspections. Being
familiar with the types of wood species used and traditional carpentry,
they will be able to provide further insights on the historic construction
techniques and other observations.

Tactile surveys are commonly done by master carpenters and trained

Master carpenter specialists during visual inspection as they provide economical and quick
conducting visual and
‘frontline’ identification of non-visible serious or potential deterioration
tactile survey on the
traditional timber structures within timber members. This method involves tapping the entire surface
at Shuang Lin Monastery. of each timber member gently with a hammer – the specific variation in
sound thus generated enables trained ears to rapidly screen and make
inferences on the condition of the members.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 45

NON-DESTRUCTIVE AND
Historically, SEMI-DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
most structural timber Although the tactile survey method may detect potential
would have been deterioration ‘hotspots’, it cannot quantify the extent of the
finished with some issue. Results may also vary between inspectors with differing skills.
form of preservative Equipment-based non-destructive techniques (NDT) may then be
or protective coating,
deployed as a supplementary frontline procedure to affirm, quantify
ranging from a bitumen
(tar) coat to oil-based
or derive more information on the condition of timber members. At times,
paints. In such cases, semi-destructive methods may also be used as they provide
pigment composition more direct and accurate information on the internal condition of
analysis and other timber members. These techniques also allow for subsurface studies
investigation of the of hidden construction details.
coatings, and detailed
documentation if As non-destructive and semi-destructive techniques usually require
needed, should be more expert knowledge in conducting on-site testing and subsequent
carried out prior to any analysis, the overall cost tends to be higher than for visual and tactile
interventions.
surveys. Common methods include the following.

Refer to Volume 7 • Stress wave technique involves the transmittal of sonic or

Paints and Coatings for ultrasonic sound wave through the target member, with the resulting
more information on variation in corresponding velocity used to detect interior voids or
this topic. deteriorations, providing a global, or overall, condition assessment
of the timber member.

Stress wave technique

– calibration of the
equipment prior to
measurement of a
horizontal timber
structural member.

• Pulse echo and Radiography make use of ultrasonic and

electromagnetic waves for digital imaging of different angles of
the interior of the timber member, and are able to identify internal
connection methods, deterioration and defects. They may reveal
potential hidden internal materials and flaws that are undetectable by
other investigation methods.
• Moisture content can be derived by measuring electrical resistance
across a common two-pin. This method may be deployed where
timber deteriorations are encountered to help determine the cause
and existing timber condition.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 46

• Resistance drilling is a semi-destructive technique where a small

needle-like drill (diameter: 1.5–3 mm) is used to bore the timber
member at a constant speed, with the resistance encountered by
the drill bit at different penetration depths recorded and plotted
into a graph. The peaks and dips in the drilling log correspond to its
respective high and low resistance and density within the drill sample;
hence the result can be used to locate and estimate the size of cavities
or extent of deteriorated fibre in the timber members.

Above: Specialist carrying

out resistance drilling
measurement on a timber
structural member. • Wood density method measures timber density and hardness by
Right: Example of a
resistance drill graph,
measuring the penetration depth of a plunger pin that is driven into
revealing interior conditions. the specimen with controlled impact.

SAMPLING AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS

• Wood species identification is an indispensable step in the
conservation of historic timber structures. 1cm x 1cm x 1cm cube
blocks are extracted from the timber members and undergo
microtomy, where transverse, radial longitudinal and tangential
longitudinal sections of 15–20μm thickness are prepared for
microscopic study. The timber anatomical characteristics are then
analyzed to identify the species.
• Dendrochronology is a highly precise dating method providing
material evidence of building history or historic construction phasing.
The date on which the parent tree of the historic timber member was
felled can be traced by matching tree-ring patterns against an existing
database. In the process, cores of diameter 10–15 mm are extracted
Wood species identification
by microscopic anatomy from the timber member cross-section and subject to analytical
study of a timber sample studies. However, the method is not applicable to all timber species –
extracted from a historic for example, historic timber species that are no longer commercially
beam. available may be under-represented in existing databases. Wood
species identification needs to be carried out prior to determine the
feasibility of the timber member for dendrochronological sampling.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 47

Structural Repair and Rehabilitation

Depending on the complexity of the timber structural system,
Refer to Chapter a criteria matrix may be developed to objectively determine the
1, Principles and degree of intervention based on the structural role, damage level
General Notes On and heritage significance of individual members. For example,
Conservation and damaged members dated as very historic, with unusual joinery work
Intervention for or carved ornamentation, should be prioritized for repair and retention.
important concepts
and issues to be aware The extent of timber structural damage can be broadly classified into
of at the outset of three levels – (1) slight damage, (2) moderate damage and (3) severe
planning for structural
damage. Timber members that fall under levels 1 and 2 are considered
rehabilitation, including
protection and
repairable cases, whilst Level 3 is usually beyond repair and thus
temporary bracing. recommended for disposal and refabrication, or, if retained, to have the
load transferred to new structural additions. Disposed structural timber
may be recycled for repair of smaller timber members, or considered for
upcycling as furniture, landscape features and so on.

Damage
Scenarios Extent of Damage Direction
Level

Primary Overall section damaged area ≤ 1/3 1 or 2 Repair

Structural Overall section damaged area > 1/3 & more than
Members 2 areas damaged
3 Discard

High value Overall section damaged area ≤ 2/3 2 Repair

Internal Secondary
Damage Structural Overall section damaged area ≤ 1/2 1 or 2 Repair
Members Low value
Overall section damaged area > 1/2 3 Discard

Fungal Overall section damaged area < 1/2 1 or 2 Repair

Damage Overall section damaged area ≥ 1/2 3 Discard

Horizontal Cracks extend < 1/2 of total length 1 or 2 Repair

Cracks Cracks extend ≥ 1/2 of total length 3 Discard
Overall surface damage ≤ 1/2 1 or 2 Repair
Surface of
External
All Timber Either overall section damaged area > 1/3 or
Damage
Members overall surface damage > 1/2 ; & more than 2 3 Discard
areas damaged

Example of a criteria matrix for the assessment and conservation recommendation for
historic traditional Chinese timber structural members.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 48

LOCALIZED REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT

Where new timber Following are the basic steps of the four broad localized repair
material is introduced approaches, in increasing degrees of intervention.
in conservation
structural interventions, Minor repair with epoxy resin-sawdust mix should be sufficient for
it is important to ensure slight damage such as fine or shallow cracks.
that it is of a similar
wood species and
grain to the historic,
and that it has been
certified to be within
acceptable moisture
content, adequately
kiln-dried, and has
undergone appropriate
preservative treatment. From left: Clearing of debris within fine cracks; fill the cracks with epoxy-cum-wood
sawdust mixture; level or sand down surfaces, and air-dry upon completion.
Repairs using epoxy
resin should be Mechanical restraints may be introduced as a temporary or long-term
carefully designed
repair measure, for example to prevent existing cracks from widening
and skillfully applied,
or introduce resistance to joints to address known stresses such as
including trials
and mock-ups to tunnelling vibrations.
test different mix
calibrations and
techniques, to ensure
minimal visual impact
and effectiveness of the
intervention.

Reinforcing the existing half-lap dovetail jointed purlins with new bolted steel plates –
the steel connectors will subsequently be concealed by patching with timber of similar
species and grain to mitigate the visual impact of this intervention.

Existing brickwall Far left: Detail drawing of reinforcement of the joint

between timber floor joist and load-bearing masonry wall
New brick infill
by introduction of steel joist hanger brackets – this will also
Steel joist hanger protect the joist ends from moisture ingress due to rising
damp in the wall. Left: Historic purlin restrained with steel
Timber joist clamps to prevent the split from widening – a method with
high visual impact only for temporary application, or when
concealed from view.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 49

Timber-to-timber repair addresses moderate partial damage such as

by termite or fungal attack, or deep seasoning checks. The two main
categories are patch or face repair that addresses surface damage, and
whole-section repair where a complete cross-section is replaced. New or
recycled wood material of the same or similar wood species is used for
repair. New fastenings – often steel – may be introduced where historically
there were none. Epoxy-resin may also be deployed as an adhesive.

From left: Removal of

damaged regions with
tools leaving clean, straight
surfaces to receive new
wood material; new or
recycled wood are tooled
to the right dimensions and
scarfed onto the existing
timber - epoxy mix may be
used as an adhesive; level
or sand down surfaces, and Whole-Section Repair Using
air-dry upon completion. Splayed Scarf Joint

Joint line

Yellow balau
new timber
Existing roof beam

M6 screw (2 pcs each both sides)

Like-for-like localized replacement using similar wood species and

grain may be considered if structural members are damaged to an extent
that they can no longer function structurally and are beyond feasible
repair.

From left: Setting out

the dimensions for the
refabrication of the roof
short post member (gua-
tong 瓜筒) of a traditional
Chinese timber roof
structure; tooling of the new
gua-tong; trial-assembly of
the completed gua-tong
with the rest of the retained
historic timber roof structure
members.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 50

STRENGTHENING AND ADDITION

In some cases where seriously damaged members are nonetheless
recommended for retention due to their heritage or artistic significance,
strengthening or addition methods may be used. These interventions
may also be deployed where increased loading or stress resistance is
called for, such as in adaptive reuse projects, or as a result of building
regulation changes.

Timber construction is no longer mainstream in the local building

industry. As such, many practitioners do not have working knowledge of
timber structural behaviour or traditional construction. It is thus critical to
engage a professional engineer with relevant experience and expertise
in historic timber buildings to design for and supervise any modification,
strengthening of, and addition to conserved timber structures.

In general, strengthening and addition involve the introduction of new

material, usually timber or steel, to the historic timber frame system.
In designing any intervention, the visual and material impact of these
methods should be considered in relation to the location (concealed
or exposed) and heritage significance of the target structural member.
Especially for exposed structures in key spaces, interventions should be
sensitively designed to be visually compatible in scale and appearance.

Addition of steel tension cable and brackets

(highlighted) that enables the retention of the ancient
timber frame of Kai Shan Temple (1033), China.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 51

Strengthening generally refers to the attachment or embedding

of reinforcement material to the existing timber member for added
loadbearing capacity. A partnering or supplementary timber component
could be fixed to the existing member, for example alongside the
damaged section of a roof beam. Examples includes plates bolted to the
sides, or steel flitch inserted via a blind slot cut into the existing timber
member and bolted in place.

150x800x6mm THK Steel plates

150x800x6mm THK
Steel plates
M10 bolts and nuts (8pcs)

Steel Plate Strengthening of

Whole-Section Repaired Timber Beam

Addition involves introducing new members to the existing structural

frame, for example adding new joists between existing ones. The
Professional Engineer should ensure that the existing structure is able to
support the increased loading; alternatively the new members may be
designed as self-supporting frames – this may be done to lighten the load
borne by historic timber members, enabling them to be retained in situ
without compromising the overall building structural performance.

Right: Addition of steel

cross-ties (highlighted) to
improve the stiffness of
historic timber frames, on
the walls and roof of the
barn house at Hokkaido
University. Far right:
Addition of steel I-beams
(highlighted) to the original
timber floor system, likely
to accommodate the added
weight of the extended
organ at the Cathedral of
the Good Shepherd.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 52

LUOJIADA XIU
落架大修
Luojiadaxiu literally refers Four golden pillars
to the complete dismantling 四点金柱

and rehabilitation of
traditional Chinese timber
frame. This major traditional
intervention method is
undertaken when a high
number of main timber
structural members are
severely damaged by termite
infestation, fungal attack, or
major ground settlement,
with signs of impending
structural failure and thus
require immediate action.
The work can only be carried
out by master carpenters and
skilled artisans. In Singapore,
the building and maintenance Schematic drawing of traditional Chinese timber frame structure.
of Chinese traditional timber
buildings were particularly affected during the 1960s–80s Cultural Revolution period when
skilled artisans were banned from travelling or practising abroad.

Luojiadaxiu evolved as part of a long-term cyclical building maintenance process focusing

mainly on the timber structure. Nonetheless, in recent years when applied to historic
traditional Chinese buildings, the practice has been adopting a more encompassing approach,
taking into account other elements of historic and artistic value that may otherwise be
adversely impacted, such as roof finishes and ridge ornaments.

Luojiadaxiu is traditionally done via the top-down approach, where the entire roof
(including roof ridge decorations, roof tiles, and all interlayers beneath roof tiles and
rafters) is first removed, followed by the systematic dismantling of timber frames.
Beginning from an inner zone within the central bay demarcated by the four ‘gold pillars’
(四点金柱), timber members are dismantled starting from the top, and gradually moving
down and out towards the front corridor frames, before those at the two side bays and
inner corridor are finally taken down.

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CHAPTER 3: TIMBER STRUCTURES 53

Left: Each timber member is identity-tagged with cloth strips

before dismantling. Below left: In Taiwan, ornamented roof
ridges of high heritage and artistic value are recommended for
conservation. Instead of being dismantled, they are retained
in situ during luojiadaxiu using suspended steel plate supports
hung from a temporary shelter structure.

Although it ensures a thorough rehabilitation, given

the great time and cost involved in luojiadaxiu,
interim structural issues that surface tend to be
deferred, with temporary supports put in place
for long periods. Another possible ‘middleground’
measure would be a partial dismantling and
repair approach (jubuzhengxiu 局部整修) that has
been recently developed in Taiwan. Temporary
supporting systems are carefully designed around
the affected region to allow for the replacement of
the target member(s). Although the preparations
for executing this approach may be more complex
compared to the traditional dismantling procedure,
the overall repair time is significantly shortened and
impact on the historic fabric minimized.

Partial repair of timber column base section:

Above from left: Temporary structural support in place around
repair region; marking out the truncated lower region and master
carpenter working on the cross-shaped joint in situ; removal of lower
column base and temporary supporting of the original column with
a newly shaped cross-joint; fabrication of a new cross-jointed column
base with the same wood species. Right: Joining of the new and old
column on-site with mechanical fastening and epoxy.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 55

Overview: Structural Iron

Cast iron was the first structural iron material manufactured, followed by
Refer also to wrought iron, with both eventually replaced by steel. A material born of
Volume 2 Roofs, the Industrial Age, structural iron could be easily worked and produced
Chapter 2 Roof in a variety of sizes and forms – such as sheets, plates, I-beams, angles,
Structures for more channels. Standardized units could be combined and assembled in
information on different configurations depending on the function, such as roof trusses
structural iron roofs. or bridges. Compared to masonry and timber construction, much taller
structures of wider spans and higher load-bearing capacities could be
achieved with less material, within a much shorter erection time frame.

Made from mould casting, cast iron can form complex shapes and is
usually designed to be decorative, with the ornaments presented as
bas relief. Commonly used as compression elements such as feature
columns, cast iron requires a minimum thickness of 1–1.5 inches to
prevent twisting.

Common Components of
Metal Building Structure

Tile or metal
sheet roofing

Timber or metal
battens

Metal roof trusses

Metal tie beams

Metal columns
Metal bracing

Concrete slab

Pad/pile foundation

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 56

Both wrought iron and mild steel have strong tensile strength as much
of the inherent carbon in the iron is removed by oxidization, and they
can be used as beams. Wrought iron is forged by hand, while mild steel
is machine made. Due to the manufacturing processes, wrought iron can
be forged into elaborate three-dimensional shapes by hand; however,
the maximum size of each structure is limited. When deployed as beams,
short sections have to be joined using plates and rivets.

Structural iron probably first appeared in Singapore as infrastructure.

Prefabricated structural components were imported from iron foundries
in India or Britain to Singapore and reassembled on-site by skilled
workmen. Built in 1862 from parts shipped from Calcutta, the original
Elgin Bridge was the “first Iron Bridge erected in Singapore” as reported
in the news then. Early piers such as Dalhousie Pier (1850–1890s) and
Johnston Pier (1856–1929) were also constructed in a combination of cast
iron and timber.

Telok Ayer Market, better known as Lau Pa Sat and erected in 1894, is the
oldest existing cast iron building in Singapore. The design comprised
an assemblage of pre-designed building parts selected from the
catalogue of Scottish foundry Walter MacFarlane & Co. The components,
from the columns and beams to the elaborate clock tower, were all
cast in the firm’s foundry in Glasgow and shipped to Singapore for
assembly. Iron structural elements were also found in domestic buildings.
Shophouses and townhouses, especially those built in the early 1900s,
often contained ornamental cast iron columns supporting rooms
overlooking the internal airwell.

Left: 1920s view of Elgin Bridge (1862), designed with high tensile strength to support heavy vehicles over a single span
across the busy Singapore River, so as to allow boats to pass under. Right: Telok Ayer Market (1894), assembled from parts
chosen from a MacFarlane & Co. catalogue of cast iron components.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 57

The early 20th century saw the erection of increasingly large-scale steel
frame buildings, from Stamford House (1904), St. James Power Station
(1926), and the streamline moderne Kallang Airport and its hangars (1937)
to the Supreme Court (1939), whose appearance, complete with a dome
and massive corinthian columns supporting a pediment, was ironically
styled to suggest a masonry structure.

By the mid-20th century, steel and reinforced concrete were the preferred
structures for major construction. Examples include office towers such
as Asia Insurance Building (1955), and industrial buildings such as Pasir
Panjang Power Station (1953).

Advertisement by the steel

supplier for the former Supreme
Court (1939, now National Gallery).

Left: Cast iron columns, spandrel beams and decorative brackets at Chong Wen Ge
(1850s) within the compound of Thian Hock Keng Temple. Right: Cast iron columns
fronting the house entrance at 11 Keppel Hill (ca. 1890s).

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 58

Left: Anderson Bridge (1910). Middle from top: Singapore Civil Aerodrome hangars (aka Kallang Airport, 1939); Dairy
Farm cowshed (1930s). Right: St James Power Station (1926).

Left from top: Singapore Badminton Hall (1952); Institute of Health (1958). Middle: Factory at Alexandra (1960s–70s).
Right: Pasir Panjang Power Station (1953).

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 59

Structural Issues and Diagnostics

Characterizing and identifying the type of historic structural iron, and
Refer to Chapter its dilapidation tendencies, may begin with desktop research and study
1, General Notes into the provenance of the structural members, as well as the building’s
on Investigation history and past alterations, and on-site investigation to be carried out by
and Diagnostics for experienced expert investigators. Visual clues may provide insights into
information on the the material, such as foundry name imprints or corrosion patterns. For
prior investigation example, wrought iron is prone to delamination or 'flaking' of the surface
and documentation during corrosion, due to residual carbon slag left in the folds during its
to establish a sound forging process.
diagnostic basis.
The main deterioration of metal structure is corrosion in the presence
of water (liquid or vapour) and oxygen. Rising damp is a known cause
of corrosion of steel columns on the ground floor, and the problem can
be aggravated by the presence of chloride salt from the ground. Interior
steel structures are less likely to corrode since they are usually protected
from the elements.

Brand imprint found on

historic steel structural
member in Pasir Panjang
Power Station (1953)
indicating provenance from
Lanarkshire & Co., Scotland.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 60

VISUAL AND TACTILE SURVEY

Traditionally, A condition survey of any steel structure should include the following:
corrosion protection
• Types of structural steel members (I-beams, L-sections, plates,
was provided by paint
but the effective
C-channels, hollow sections, etc.)
lifespan of the coating • Types of connections/joints (welded, bolted, riveted, etc.)
is less than that of
the metal itself. • Other construction details (e.g., interface with other materials)
Regular maintenance • Corrosion pattern, location, and type (uniform, pitting, crevice –
is required to check e.g., pitting may indicate chloride-induced corrosion)
the condition of the
paint and reapply • Signs of deformation and distortion
paint as necessary. In
• Exposure condition (exposed, coated, exterior, interior)
practice, this is often
neglected, leading to • Remaining thickness of intact steel member should be measured
premature corrosion. by removing rust at corrosion spots, especially in the case of uniform
corrosion.
Refer to Volume 7
Paints and Coatings for Equipment- and lab-based investigations may be conducted for metal
more information on structures to complement, verify and extract more information for a more
this topic. comprehensive condition assessment and to inform the conservation
approach.

Left: Corrosion of steel column base due to rising damp. Middle: Joint between steel beams and column.
Right: Connection details of a steel roof truss with jack roof.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 61

NON-DESTRUCTIVE AND SEMI-DESTRUCTIVE

TECHNIQUES
• Videoprobe allows for extended visual access to tight spaces
• Surface-penetrating radar or metal detector to locate the presence
of hidden steel structures
• Surface hardness test may be used as a qualitative check on the
strength of the steel provided a correlation between the hardness
Radargram revealing hidden and the strength of the steel has been established
steel section.
• Ultrasound technique to detect thickness of remaining intact steel
member hidden under corrosion and other materials, and to check
the integrity of bolts or rivets
• Dye penetrant or magnetic particle inspection methods may be
used to test the integrity of welds.

SAMPLING AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Breakouts and sample extraction for laboratory analyses should only
be undertaken when necessary, and if structural integrity would not be
affected. The location for such destructive procedures should be carefully
chosen – it should be away from highly visible areas, and sensitive parts
such as delicately ornamented segments should be avoided.

Breakout of a latter-day • Localized breakout inspection may be carried out at a less visible
concrete encasement to area to examine structures hidden behind claddings
reveal the historic steel
structure originally designed
• Tensile strength test can be conducted if a sample can be extracted
to be exposed. from the steel structure.
• Chemical composition analysis of collected rust residue can verify
whether it is chloride-induced corrosion, and inform the treatment
method to be applied.
• Metallurgical examination of the material microstructure, in situ or
on an extracted sample, is usually for identification of the metal type
(e.g., to distinguish between cast iron, mild steel and wrought iron)
where other methods may not have yielded clear results.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 62

Structural Repair and Rehabilitation

Refer to Chapter
1, Principles and
General Notes on
Conservation and
Intervention for
important concepts
and issues to be aware
of at the outset of
planning for structural
rehabilitation, including
protection and
temporary bracing.

Refer also to Volume

3 Facades, Chapter
6 Cladding for Telok Ayer Market was dismantled and reassembled in 1988 during
similar conservation restoration works.
treatment for iron
surface defects and Entire buildings in exposed structural iron, such as the cast iron Telok
coatings that may be
Ayer Market or standalone garden pavilions, could potentially be
carried out as finishing
works for metal
dismantled for comprehensive restoration or even relocation, not unlike
structures following timber frame structures. In most cases, however, steel structures are used
structural repair and in combination with other types of structural systems or integrated with
rehabilitation. other parts of the historic building, and dismantling may impact on these
elements or finishes. Instead, conservation interventions are carried out
in situ.

Any structural repair should always go hand in hand with the removal or
prevention of deterioration causes, such as rising damp or salts.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 63

Steps of Cold Stitching

Metal Repair

Groups of holes are The holes are then Keys are inserted into
drilled across the line joined to conform to the aperture.
of fracture to the tool the shape of the keys.
depth of the casing.

Holes are then drilled The holes are filled The studs and keys are
along the line of with studs, each then ground down to a
fracture. stud biting into its polished finish.
predecessor, resulting
in a pressure-tight
joint.

LOCALIZED REPAIR
In general, cold stitching and welding are the preferred localized repair
methods given their minimal visual impact, especially if the repaired or
strengthened area is painted over.

Cold stitching may be applied on cracked cast iron. It is carried out

without the use of high heat which may cause distortion, and for sites
where heat treatment is not feasible. A locking material, usually steel or
brass, is driven into a row of holes pre-drilled across the crack, to seal it.

Welding, where the base metal is melted by high heat and cooled to
fuse, usually with an added filler, is used for repairing cracks on wrought
iron, cast iron and steel structures.
Welding repair of steel
column base. STRENGTHENING AND ADDITION
Strengthening refers to the application of reinforcement material to the
existing metal member for restoring or adding on load-bearing capacity.
However, this approach usually has significant visual and physical impact
on historic structures and may not be suitable as a long-term solution
for exposed members in feature spaces or historically and artistically
significant historic metal structures.

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CHAPTER 4: METAL STRUCTURES 64

Strengthening by steel – One method of strengthening is by bolting

steel plates or flanges to the historic cast iron, wrought iron or steel
beams. This process is reversible and is suitable for cast iron, wrought
iron and steel structures. Holes are drilled on original structures and
aligned with those on strengthening steel flanges or plates. High-
strength grip bolts are then inserted to lock the two elements together.

Strengthening steel plates can also be welded directly to a historic steel

structural member. However welding a steel plate to wrought iron or cast
iron is not advised. The high temperature during the welding could cause
the wrought iron surface to delaminate, while cast iron melts at a lower
temperature compared to steel and will not form a proper bond with the
welding alloy and steel.

Strengthening by fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) – Adhesive-bonded

composite is another viable strengthening method that is generally
reversible. It comes in sheet rolls and is applied directly onto historic
metal structures.

Addition involves introducing new members to the existing structural

frame, for example adding new steel floor joists or roof trusses between
existing ones. The professional engineer should ensure that the existing
structure is able to support the increased loading; alternatively the
new members may be designed as self-supporting frames, in steel or
reinforced concrete – this would lighten the load borne by the historic
metal structural members, enabling them to be conserved in situ without
compromising the overall building structural performance. Additional
structures should nonetheless be sensitively designed and located to
avoid any impact on other historic elements or creation of visual clutter in
historic spaces.

Right: Strengthening of
steel beam by bolting
steel plates to the bottom
flange. Far right: Sensitive
addition of steel portal
frame between historic
roof trusses allowing for
distinction between old and
new without detracting from
heritage presentation.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 66

Overview: Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete (RC) construction was developed in Europe and
Refer also to North America in the 19th century. The composite material combines
Volume 2 Roofs, the compressive strength of concrete with the high tensile strength
Chapter 2 Roof of embedded steel reinforcement, and can be made into almost
Structures and any shape and size. It was introduced into Singapore in the early
Chapter 5 RC Roof 20th century, employing mainly imported patented technologies such
Cover for more as the Hennebique, Coignet and Kahn systems. Early ferro-concrete
information on the construction encased I-sections with clinker concrete, which evolved
history, diagnostics later to the use of more flexible steel reinforcement bars or rebars.
and rehabilitation of
RC roofs.

Common Components of
Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structure

RC flat roof RC frame

Brick/hollow
block infill wall

RC floor slab

Precast RC vents/
balustrade

RC pile foundation

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 67

In the beginning RC was employed mainly for bridges and hydraulic

engineering projects. The technology offered clear advantages
especially in the tropical climate, being fireproof, rustproof, and able
to withstand both compressive and tensile stresses when compared to
steel. Pioneered by specialist builders such as Riley Hargreaves and
Co. Ltd (predecessor of United Engineers) and French builders
Brossard and Mopin, the use of RC proliferated quickly in colonial
Singapore. From selective application as roofs, columns or slabs,
by the 1910s commercial buildings designed entirely in RC were
being erected and touted for their premier qualities.

It was in the interwar period that the potential of RC inspired

architects and engineers in search of new architectural forms and
structural expressions, achieving unprecedented construction spans
and heights that are the hallmarks of modernism. Architects such
as local pioneer Ho Kwong Yew and Singapore Improvement Trust’s
(SIT) Lincoln Page created works that were proudly expressive of the
versatile RC construction and its associated modernist aesthetics: flat
roofs, cantilevered balconies, pilotis, accented by wafer-thin precast
sunshading fins. This culminated in the Cathay Building (1939) designed
by Frank Brewer, the first skyscraper in Singapore and tallest building in
Southeast Asia at the time, housing the first local air-conditioned cinema,
and the headquarters for the British Malaya Broadcasting Corporation.

Right: 1913 advertisement

for types of steel
reinforcement, 'rib bars'
likely being an early
precursor to the rebars that
became ubiquitous.
Far right: The Cathay
Building (1939), Art Deco
urban landmark and first
skyscraper in Singapore.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 68

Reinforced concrete can be manufactured in a casting yard (precast

concrete) or made on site (in situ concrete). Historically, precast
elements were deployed mainly as non-structural elements such as
balustrades, ventilation blocks, sills and sun-shading fins. On the
other hand, historic RC structures tend to be cast in situ; therefore,
their performance and appearance depend greatly on the quality and
composition of raw materials as well as workmanship during construction.

From the 1950s, RC evolved to become the main mode of building,

with its widespread use in the ramped-up postwar socialist government
building programmes by the SIT and Public Words Department in
standard-design public housing, schools, clinics, markets, community
centres, hospitals and so on. Given that steel structures had to be
erected from costly imported components, RC, which used much less
steel, was likely the more economical choice for public construction.
The much expanded market in reinforced concrete led to better
availability of material, equipment and skilled builders.

In the independence period, local architects left their marks on the

new nation’s skyline with high-rise high-density RC structures such as
People’s Park Complex, Golden Mile Complex (both completed in 1973,
by Design Partnership) and Pearl Bank Apartments (1976, Archurban
Architects Planners).

Left: The Chartered Bank (1916), designed by Swan & Maclaren, was one of the first buildings constructed entirely in
RC, built by Brossard and Mopin. Right: View of Fullerton Building under construction c. 1927, showing the exposed
reinforced concrete framework and casting in progress.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 69

HISTORIC RC STRUCTURES

Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church (1925) Straits Settlements Volunteer Force Drill Hall (1933)

Circular Road shophouse (1938) Chee Guan Chiang House (1938) Civil service housing,
Clemenceau Avenue (1950s)

Opal Crescent shophouses (1950s) Yan Kit Swimming Complex (1952) Golden Mile Complex (1973)

Jurong Town Hall (1974) Pearl Bank Apartments (1976)

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 70

Structural Issues and Diagnostics

Records of structural drawings and specifications are an important source
Refer to Chapter of information in the appraisal and condition assessment of reinforced
1, General Notes on concrete structures, where steel members are embedded within and the
Investigation and concrete is usually plastered and painted over, leaving little visual cue of
Diagnostics its construction. As with all past records, caution should be exercised as
for information some records may be of an earlier design intent that differs from what
on the prior was actually built. Non-destructive investigation techniques would aid in
investigation and the detection and verification of embedded steel elements.
documentation to
establish a sound
diagnostic basis.

Archival drawing showing deep RC pile foundations provides vital structural

information that may not be known without equipment-based or invasive
investigations such as trial pits.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 71

VISUAL AND TACTILE SURVEY

Concrete A commonly encountered structural distress is the corrosion of steel
carbonation refers reinforcement resulting from concrete carbonation, water ingress and
to the reaction of chloride salt attack. Loss of concrete strength can arise from severe
carbon dioxide from leaching, cracks due to overloading or pressure from expansion of rusted
the air with the
steel, and chemical attack from acid and sulphates, etc. The following
calcium hydroxide
in concrete to form
visual signs should be documented as an initial survey, with the pattern
calcium carbonate, and extent of cracks along with spalling concrete mapped:
a slow continuous • Efflorescence
aging process that
progresses from the • Rust stains and seepage stains
concrete surface • Peeling paint and hollow plaster
inward. In effect, it
lowers the alkalinity • Cracks
of concrete cover
• Spalling concrete
resulting in the
breakdown of a • Rusted exposed reinforcement
protective oxide
layer surrounding the
steel reinforcement,
leaving it vulnerable to
corrosion.

From left: Bubbling paint, seepage stains and efflorescence at soffit of concrete slab; spalling of concrete slab undercroft;
corrosion of steel reinforcement and salt attack of concrete due to rising damp.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 72

NON-DESTRUCTIVE AND
SEMI-DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
For more in-depth condition assessment or verification, the following
equipment-based in situ tests may be undertaken:
• Surface-penetrating radar, pulse echo tomography or electromagnetic
covermeter may be used to detect the presence and orientation of
embedded steel, other hidden construction details, and cavities.
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement, surface hardness test by
rebound hammer, or penetration resistance test by Windsor probe may
be used to assess the strength or quality of the concrete.
• Surface hardness test by Equotip may be used as a qualitative check
From top: Surface
on the strength of the steel provided there is intact exposed steel,
hardness test on concrete and a correlation between the hardness and the strength of the steel
using rebound hammer; has been established.
measurement of half-cell • Measurement tests of half-cell potential, resistivity or linear
potential to gauge degree
of concrete deterioration.
polarization may be deployed to assess the degree of concrete
deterioration

SAMPLING AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Breakouts and sample extraction for laboratory analyses should only be
undertaken when necessary, and if structural integrity would not be affected.
The location for such destructive procedures should be carefully chosen –
it should be away from highly visible areas, and sensitive parts such as
delicately ornamented segments should be avoided.
• Localized breakout inspection may be carried out in areas with
spalled concrete for inspection of the steel underneath.
• Depth of carbonation test can be carried out by spraying a concrete
core sample with a phenolphthalein solution.
• Compressive strength test of the concrete can be carried out in the
laboratory on an extracted concrete core sample.
• Tensile strength test of the steel can be conducted if a sample is
cut out from the exposed reinforcement.
• Mix composition analysis can be carried out on collected concrete
dust samples to determine the chloride and sulphate contents.
• Petrography study of extracted samples under a microscope will yield
From top: Depth of critical information such as the composition of the historic concrete
carbonation test and
measurement carried out on
mix, including type of cement, aggregates, presence of other binders,
a core sample; rebar sample secondary reactions and their compositions. This will inform the
extractions for testing. selection of compatible materials for repair and intervention works.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 73

Structural Repair and Rehabilitation

Through experimentation and adaptation to local environs, the use of
Refer to Chapter reinforced concrete has changed considerably in practice methods,
1, Principles and design and material selection since its early days. In fact, many issues
General Notes On concerning the conservation of historic RC are related to these early trials
Conservation and that may not yield the best results. Nevertheless, the material evidence
Intervention for of such transitional technology embodies valuable scientific knowledge
important concepts and testifies to critical phases in the history of building technology.
and issues to be aware These should be properly documented prior to intervention and design
of at the outset of enhancement works.
planning for structural
rehabilitation,
including protection
RC durability is highly dependent on the composition mix, individual
and temporary material component, design, workmanship, environmental conditions
bracing. and changes, and maintenance. Some basic repair and rehabilitation
approaches are introduced in this section. When selecting the repair
Refer also to Volume technique, the significance of the building and of the specific elements,
2 Roofs, Chapter 5 RC condition, technical properties, required performance and environmental
Roof Cover for more conditions should be considered together for a sensitive, balanced
information on the approach. Patching trials may be conducted for reinstatement of surface
rehabilitation of RC finish in terms of colours, aggregate and textures, especially for exposed
roofs.
concrete. It is important to ensure compatibility of any new material
Refer also to Volume
used, such as patching mix, in the intervention works.
3 Facades, Chapter 8
Precast Concrete for
similar conservation
treatment for concrete
surface defects and
coatings that may be
carried out as minor
repairs or finishing
works following
structural repair and
rehabilitation.

Existing RC beam strengthened through increase in sectional

depth by casting of new high-strength concrete beam below
(note darker material along the bottom of the beam).

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 74

LOCALIZED REPAIR AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Infill of non-structural cracks that show no sign of worsening may be
done to avoid water ingress. The mix should be carefully designed
according to the size of the crack and ensuring compatibility with the
historic concrete properties.

Patch repair may be carried out to address minor to moderate defects

on the concrete cover. Affected concrete surface is removed to expose
the steel reinforcement, to be cleaned and treated with a primer to
protect from further corrosion, or replaced if steel sectional loss is
excessive. The concrete surface is then reinstated using a compatible
concrete mix. A moderately invasive technique, this method should be
constrained to localize repair only where needed.

Electrochemical techniques to protect RC have been developed

in recent years, such as cathodic protection to reduce and prevent
the corrosion of embedded reinforcements, concrete re-alkalization
to address the issue of carbonation, and electrochemical chloride
extraction to remove harmful salts such as chlorides from the concrete.
These techniques are still evolving and should be designed or evaluated
by specialists for specific projects in terms of their effectiveness,
long-term performance and potential side effects.
From top: Concrete patch
repair – removal of affected
concrete cover to expose Surface coatings for concrete include water repellent, surface sealers
rebar for cleaning and and paints to protect the concrete surface from direct exposure to the
treatment, before patching atmosphere and elements, and prevent moisture ingress. The application
with compatible mix.
of coatings should be carefully considered, as they may change the
appearance, especially of exposed concrete, and require periodic
maintenance.

Corrosion inhibitors can be applied to the surface of the concrete

(migratory inhibitors), incorporated in a repair mix, or applied directly
to the steel during repair or introduced in pellet form in holes in the
concrete (vapour phase inhibitors).
Patch repair to RC beam
spalling at midsection, prior to
plaster and paint finishing.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 75

STRENGTHENING AND ADDITION

More interventionist strengthening, addition or even replacement
methods tend to have higher heritage impact and should be minimized
and applied judiciously, only where there is a need to restore or increase
the loading capacity of historic structures. Strengthening serves to
increase the capacities of the target RC members or joints in terms of
strength, stiffness, stability and integrity. Addition of members to the
existing structural scheme as reinforcement may be done to carry new
loads, reduce spans, or transfer load to the new foundation piles. Any
strengthening or addition works should take care to avoid or minimize
affecting spatial character, including headroom or floor level, facade and
Ornamental facade RC
other design features.
feature corbels that may
be adversely affected if Underpinning and micropiling – Underpinning refers to the
strengthening is applied. strengthening of foundations. The objective is to spread the load or
transfer it to deeper soil or bedrock with higher bearing capacity. In
particular, the micropiling method, which uses small-diameter piles
(usually reinforced concrete) driven by compact-size piling rigs, is
wellsuited for historic buildings where access and headroom may
be restricted. To minimise impact on existing historic floor slab and
floor finish, micropiles could be installed on the exterior and the load
transfered via cantilevered needle beams. If this is not feasible, the
impact should be mitigated by careful dismantling and reinstallation
of the affected historic elements. Underpinning works are irreversible
and subtractive, so the historic foundation should be well-documented,
or even selectively protected and retained as a showcase, prior to
underpinning works.
Addition of RC column to
support existing beam and Addition of structural members – Shear walls, bracings and columns
stiffen the masonry wall. in RC or steel may be added to reduce spans, or new independent
structural frames may be introduced to offload the stress on existing
structures. New members should be sensitively designed and inserted
to minimize visual, spatial and physical impact, while ensuring that the
historic structural scheme remains coherent in its heritage presentation.
Addition could potentially be designed as a reversible intervention.

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CHAPTER 5: REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 76

Left: Steel jacketing by installing steel plates on the columns and a new I-beam attached to the existing RC beam.
Middle: Design enhancement of RC floor beams for added loading requirement, by sensitive introduction of haunched
details at the joints. Right: External post-tensioning of historic RC beam by installing new high-tensile steel bars anchored
at the beam ends.

Strengthening by enhancement/jacketing (passive system) enlarges

the existing structures by bonding new structural materials, usually
reinforced concrete, steel sleeves or plates, or FRP wrap. This is, however
an irreversible intervention that impacts on historic finishes and design
proportions and should not be carried out on members that are also key
design features or come with significant ornamentation or finishes of high
artistic value.

Strengthening by external post-tensioning (active system), a relatively

new technique, is carried out by installing high-tensile steel bars along
target RC beams or slabs, typically anchored at the ends. The active
introduction of external forces helps to offset part or all of the external
loading on the target member. Unlike jacketing, surface preparation and
removal of finishes to the concrete substrate is not needed and may offer
a less invasive alternative for strengthening.

Like-for-like replacement of specific structural members may

be undertaken as a last resort only if they are beyond repair and
strengthening. The historic design and material should be thoroughly
documented prior to dismantling. Replacements can be cast in place
with compatible materials and designed to match the historic elements.
If the surface of concrete is exposed, special care is required to reinstate
the existing appearance in terms of colours, aggregate and textures.

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 78

Overview: Composite Structures

Hybrid or composite structures here refer to those where different
Refer to materials are bonded to perform structurally as a single unit, in what
Chapter 5 Reinforced is termed composite action. Such structural designs are usually
Concrete Structures, intended to compensate for the load resistance limits of one material
for more information by leveraging on the structural property of the other. The most common
on this material. example today is reinforced concrete, where the high tensile strength
of steel reinforcements is partnered with compression-resistant concrete.
This chapter takes a brief look at other types of composite structures that
can be found in Singapore’s historic buildings.

Black-and-White Bungalow –
Common Components

Timber roof system

with clay tile finish

Half-timbered walls
(upper storey)
Timber floor system
(upper storey)

Timber main frame Verandah with

timber balustrade
Brick infill with
half-timbering

Load-bearing brick
masonry walls/columns/
foundation (first storey) Unreinforced
concrete slab

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 79

Composite structures are not uncommon in traditional building practices

– examples include stone buildings with timber ties for seismic resistance
found in certain European locales that are earthquake prone, composite
timber trusses with iron tensile ties, and half-timbered construction
(timber frame with brick masonry infill) found in many cultures, including
colonial black-and-white houses in Singapore.

Some, however, are more recent products of the Industrial Age arising
from experimentation with then-newfound structural materials. Early
combinations of steel and concrete are also known as ferro-concrete,
mainly a transitional building technology prior to the proliferation of
reinforced concrete from the 1920s onwards. Locally, prefabricated steel
members may be found used in combination with concrete or masonry,
especially in historic structures dating to the 1900s. I-beams, also known
as rolled steel joists or RSJ may be encased in concrete or brick masonry
for weatherproofing, and deployed where there is exposure to the
elements or moisture, such as facade beams, or verandah and bathroom
Types of concrete mixes floor slabs.
used in ferro-concrete
encasement – Top: Various types of concrete mix have been observed, including lightweight
Lightweight concrete with
coke breeze aggregates.
porous coke breeze concrete, and brick concrete with crushed clay
Above: Brick concrete aggregates.
with crushed red clay
aggregates.

Left: Composite timber roof trusses with iron tensile ties, St George’s Church (1911). Right: Stamford House, a steel-frame
building with masonry envelope built in 1904, has historic ‘ferro-concrete’ where steel I-beams are found encased in brick
concrete on its facades.

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 80

Corrugated steel deck may also double up as permanent formwork and

external reinforcement for cast concrete slabs. 'Hy-Rib' was developed
in the 1900s as a self-supporting metal lath or mesh reinforcement that
served also as a substrate/formwork that the concrete mix could be
directly cast in/applied on.

Another type of permanent formwork comprised hollow blocks (or

‘pots’) in clay or concrete packed closely to form the soffit voids of
cast in situ ribbed concrete floors. Known as hollow pot slab, this was
devised to reduce the dead load and material (as compared to solid slab
construction) while maintaining its fireproof property. Precast concrete
blocks were also used in combination with clay bricks in the construction
of composite load-bearing masonry walls or columns.

Left: Concrete slab soffit with curved corrugated steel permanent form, at Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus (1900s,
current-day CHIJMES). Middle: Heavy gauge iron jackets as permanent form at a 1900s road bridge over a former railway
line (current-day Neil Road). Right: Hollow pot slab construction with ribbed cast concrete and clay ‘pots’ formwork infill.

Left: 1910s advertisement showing the use of curved ‘Hy-Rib’ mesh reinforcement
in concrete vaults spanning between I-beams. Middle: Spalled concrete cover
reveals mesh-formed concrete construction. Right: Composite masonry wall with
clay bricks and concrete block, Stamford House (1904).

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 81

General Notes on Structural Issues

and Diagnostics
Given the general lack of records, studies and understanding of local
historic composite structures, it is especially important to carry out
Refer to Chapter
1, General Notes on thorough research and field investigation to establish the material
Investigation and composition, details and construction to inform any conservation
Diagnostics intervention works. Conservation professionals, material specialists
for information and structural investigators with experience and knowledge of historic
on the prior composite structures should be engaged to undertake appraisal and
investigation and give recommendations if major works are planned.
documentation to
establish a sound Deterioration tendencies of composite structures, and specific diagnostic
diagnostic basis.
methods, vary from case to case depending on the type of material used
and the construction method.
Also refer to Chapters
2–5 for the relevant
structural material Poorly maintained timber composite construction may suffer from wet
for more details on or dry rot, and termite infestation of the timber elements. A common
deterioration and cause of problems encountered in local half-timbered construction is
diagnostics. moisture trapped by inappropriate unbreathable paintwork, which may
also lead to deterioration of the plaster and brick masonry infill. In rare
cases where timber beams are found encased within brick masonry,
moisture ingress may also result in wet rot, or termite infestation may
occur at the beam ends or where there are cracks. Insect infestation in
timber that are embedded or thickly painted may remain undetected
until structural failure occurs, or when a breakout inspection is done.
Timber members may also undergo structural deformation from
weathering, loading stresses or settlement, in turn affecting the infill or
encasing brick masonry.

Right: Double I-beam

encased in brick concrete,
already flaking with
corrosion. Far right:
Timber beam encased in
masonry already severely
compromised by wet rot
went undetected until mid-
construction.

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 82

Similar to reinforced concrete, embedded steel may undergo

corrosion due to ingress and retention of moisture due to rising damp,
inappropriate paintwork, and cracks in the encasing brick masonry or
concrete. In the case of external steel reinforcement, corrosion may
arise from direct exposure to the atmosphere or moisture due to paint
peeling or drainage issues.

A careful visual and tactile survey, especially in deteriorated areas

where substrates or embedded elements may be revealed, or an
observation of surface or formal manifestations such as corrugated or
vaulted soffits, usually provides the first clues of a composite structure.
In parallel, desktop study of archival records, old construction
photographs, and material history research on the possible type of
composite structure may verify initial site findings and shed light on its
structural behaviour, material characteristics, and deterioration or failure
tendencies.

Non-destructive techniques such as surface-penetrating radar and

pulse echo will be useful to establish the specific construction details
of such composite construction. Due to the lack of existing studies and
to enable effective conservation intervention works, limited breakout
Corrugated steel form and inspection and sampling for laboratory analysis are usually unavoidable
concrete composite slab
to verify the condition, construction details, and material composition
with water seepage, paint
failure, and steel corrosion – for example, the historic concrete mix and type used in a composite
occurring at the slab-to-wall structure.
junction.

Surface-penetrating radar scan reveals a composite slab system with reinforced

concrete vaults spanning between steel joists.

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 83

Conservation Considerations
Historic composite structures, especially the products of transitional
Refer to technology, present several challenges in their conservation. There is
Chapter 1, Principles a relative lack of local empirical studies and documentation of their
and General Notes construction, composition, structural and material properties, long-term
on Conservation behaviour, and performance. Some of the building materials derived
and Intervention for from transitional technology may no longer be readily available.
important concepts Nonetheless, as far as possible, any conservation intervention design
and issues to be aware and method should take into account the heritage significance and
of at the outset of material authenticity of the historic structure, beyond simply achieving
planning for structural
the intended structural capacity.
rehabilitation, including
protection and
temporary bracing.

Also refer to Chapters

2–5 for the relevant
structural material
for the respective
structural repair
and rehabilitation
approaches.

Documentation of composite roof truss with iron tie with sketch diagram and
photographs showing the truss design and details of timber joinery with metal
connectors.

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CHAPTER 6: COMPOSITE STRUCTURES 84

• Documentation – Given the relative rarity of intact heritage

composite structures in Singapore, a detailed heritage survey,
documentation and material studies should be carried out prior
to any intervention works that may result in the loss or alteration of
the historic fabric. The findings may then be shared, contributing
to a better understanding of these structure types.
A variation of hollow pot • Engaging relevant conservation expertise – This is especially
slab construction with
steel joist reinforcements
important for any major works planned on historic composite
flanking the concrete ribs structures, given the complex material behaviour and structural
– without documentation, performance. Depending on the scale of the project, a multidisciplinary
such historic building team of experts with relevant conservation experience and
practices, techniques and
knowledge of the structure type should work in collaboration to
the embodied knowledge
would be lost through devise a sensitive yet effective conservation and rehabilitation
unthinking interventions. scheme. The team may include a professional engineer, conservation
professional, material specialist, structural investigator and specialist
contractor, each with relevant skills and qualifications.
• Offsetting load-bearing role – Historic composite structures that
may be unfeasible to rehabilitate to the needed structural capacity
may instead be conserved with a reduced or even non-structural
role. This may be achieved by the addition of new structures to offset
existing and new live loads from the historic structure. Especially for
exposed historic composite structures of high heritage and artistic
value, the new additions should be sensitively designed to minimize
visual obstruction or clutter.
• Design enhancement and material replacement – Historic
composite structures with experimental, imported or adaptive
construction techniques that were untested in the local climate
may prove to have underperformed due to inherent material or
design flaws. In some cases, instead of like-for-like repair, it may be
necessary to carry out appropriate enhancement and even material
replacement. Such alterations should as far as possible align with
Rehabilitation in process the historic materiality and construction logic. For example, badly
– deteriorated brick deteriorated ferro-concrete elements could be considered for
concrete encased beam recasting in the more durable successor material of reinforced
is strengthened by re-
encasing in rebar reinforced concrete.
concrete. This allows the
historic steel element to be
retained in situ.

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REFERENCES AND CREDITS
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RESOURCES 86

References and Further Reading

Beckman, Poul and Bowles, Robert. Structural Aspects of Building Conservation. London, etc:
Routledge, 2012.

Burkhardt, Berthold, de Jonge, Wessel, Wedebrunn, Ola et. al., DOCOMOMO Preservation
Technology Dossier 2: The Fair Face of Concrete: Conservation and Repair of Exposed Concrete.
Eindhoven: DOCOMOMO International, Eindhoven University of Technology, 1997.

CIRIA. Structural Renovation of Traditional Buildings. CIRIA Report R 111. London: CIRIA, 1994.

Clark, Kate. Informed Conservation: Understanding historic buildings and their landscapes for
conservation. English Heritage, 2001.

Croft, Catherine, Macdonald, Susan and Ostergren, Gail, Concrete: Case Studies in Conservation
Practice. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute, 2019.

Davison, Julian. Black and White: The Singapore House 1898–1941. Singapore: Talisman, 2006.

English Heritage. Practical Building Conservation Series. London: Ashgate/Routledge, first

published 1988, last revised 2012–15.

Feilden, Bernard M. Conservation of Historic Buildings. Oxford: Taylor & Francis Ltd., first
published 1982, 3rd edition 2003.

Ho Weng Hin, Naidu, Dinesh and Tan Kar Lin. Our Modern Past: A Visual Survey of Singapore
Architecture 1920s–1970s. Singapore: Singapore Heritage Society, and SIA Press, 2015.

ICOMOS Charter- Principles for the Analysis, Conservation and Structural Restoration of
Architectural Heritage- ISCARSAH Principles, 2003.

ICOMOS ISC20C. Approaches for the Conservation of Twentieth-Century Architectural Heritage,

Madrid Document, 2nd Ed., 2014.

Insall, Donald. Living Buildings – Architectural Conservation: Philosophy, Principles and Practice.
Melbourne: The Images Publishing Group, 2008.

Jester, Thomas C. ed. Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1995

Killmann, Wulf et al. Restoring & Reconstructing the Malay Timber House. Kuala Lumpur: Forest
Research Institute Malaysia, 1994.

Kong, Lily. Conserving the Past, Creating the Future: Urban Heritage in Singapore. Singapore:
Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore, 2011.

Lee Geok Boi. Faiths of Our Forefathers: The Religious Monuments of Singapore. Singapore:
Landmark Books, and Preservation of Monuments Board, 2002.

Lee Kip Lin. The Singapore House, 1819–1942. Singapore: First published 1988, Marshall
Cavendish, 2015.

CONSERVATION TECHNICAL HANDBOOK | Volume 3 | Facades

Back to previous view
RESOURCES 87

Liu, Gretchen. In Granite and Chunam: The National Monuments of Singapore. Singapore:
Landmark Books, and Preservation of Monuments Board, 1996.

Liu, Gretchen. Singapore: A Pictorial History 1819–2000. Singapore: Archipelago Press (an imprint
of Editions Didier Millet), in association with the National Heritage Board, 1999.

Prudon, Theodore HM. Preservation of Modern Architecture. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,
2008

Tan Yeow Wooi. Penang Shophouses: A Handbook of Features and Materials. Penang: Tan Yeow
Wooi Culture and Heritage Research Studio, 2015.

Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore, and Preservation of Monuments Board.

Objectives, Principles and Standards for Preservation and Conservation. Singapore, 1993.

Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore. Conservation Guidelines Technical Supplement.

Singapore: URA, 1997–98.

Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore. Architectural Heritage Singapore – Architectural

Heritage Awards 1994–2004. Singapore: URA, 2004.

Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore. Architectural Heritage Singapore – Architectural

Heritage Awards 2005–2014. Singapore: URA, 2015.

US Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Series of Preservation Briefs: www.nps.gov/
tps/how-to-preserve/briefs.htm (accessed August 2018).

Waite, John G., Gayle, Margot and Look, David W. Metals in America’s Historic Buildings: Uses
and Preservation Treatments. Washington, D.C.: US Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, Cultural Resources, Preservation Assistance, 1992.

Selected International Charters

http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts
ICOMOS 1931 Athens Charter
ICOMOS 1964 Venice Charter
ICOMOS 1994 Nara Document
ICOMOS 1999 Burra Charter
ICOMOS 2005 Hoi An Protocol

Standards and Codes of Practice

BS EN (British Standard European Norm)
ASTM (ASTM International, founded as American Society for Testing and Materials)
SS (Singapore Standards)

Selected Archival Sources

Newspapers: Singapore Free Press, Straits Times, Malaya Tribune, Malayan Saturday Post
Journals: Journal of Institute of Architects of Malaya, The Malayan Architect
Government
records: Building plans, Annual Reports of Public Works Department/Municipality/
Singapore Improvement Trust

CONSERVATION TECHNICAL HANDBOOK | Volume 3 | Facades

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RESOURCES 88

Acknowledgements
URA and ICOMOS Singapore would like to acknowledge the following
parties for their invaluable assistance and generous support:

Estate of the late Jeremy San Tzer Ning

National Archives of Singapore
National Arts Council
Singapore Heritage Society

Image/Illustration Credits
Chung H. Y.
Pages 48 (top row); 49 (top row)

Church of St. Teresa

Page 13

Tan, Ian
Page 57 (left)

Lin Shi-Yi
Page 46 (margin top)

MAEK Consulting Pte Ltd

Pages 15 (top); 19 (all); 29 (all); 30 (top row right); 31 (margin); 43 (all); 44 (first two from top); 46 (all
except top photo at margin); 48 (bottom photo); 49 (whole-section repair illustration); 51 (steel
plate strengthening illustration); 60 (all); 61 (top image at margin); 71 (centre, right); 79 (2 top
margin images); 80 (top row left, right; bottom row centre); 81 (all); 82 (2 margin images; bottom
row left); 83 (all); 84 (all)

National Arts Council (Photography by Jeremy San Tzer Ning)

Pages 16 (bottom); 25 (bottom right)

Trikasemmart, Panyaporn
Page 40

Singapore Heritage Society and Estate of the late Jeremy San Tzer Ning
(Photography by Jeremy San)
Cover; Pages 9 (all); 10; 58 (top row right; bottom row except right); 65; 69 (all)

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RESOURCES 89

Studio Lapis Conservation Pte Ltd

Pages 9 (all); 15 (margin bottom); 16 (margin top); 20 (all); 21; 22; 23 (bottom row); 24; 25 (top &
centre row); 28 (top row right, bottom row right); 30 (top row left; bottom); 32 (all); 33; 34 (all);
35 (all); 36 (all); 37; 38; 39 (right); 42 (illustration); 44 (margin, carpenter bee damage photo); 51
(bottom row right); 54; 55; 57 (centre); 58 (top row left, centre above; bottom row right); 59; 61
(margin bottom photo); 64 (all); 66; 71 (left); 73; 74 (all); 75 (all); 76 (all); 77; 78; 79 (bottom row); 80
(first row centre; second row right); 82 (bottom row right); 85

Tan, Ian
Page 57 (left)

Tseng Kuo En
Pages 18 (bottom left); 48 (centre row); 53 (bottom 6 photos)

Tseng Yi-Jen
Page 45 (all); 53 (top 2 photos)

Urban Redevelopment Authority

Pages 18 (bottom right); 25 (bottom left); 28 (top row 2 images on left; bottom row left); 42 (bottom
row all); 48 (detail drawing on margin); 58 (top row Dairy Farm cowshed photo)

Yeo Sok Yee

Pages 44 (bottom); 47 (table); 49 (bottom row); 50; 51 (bottom row left); 52

National Archives of Singapore

Pages 23 (top left); 26 (bottom right); 56 (left); 68 (right)
Building Plan Collection: Pages 14; 27 (left)
Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection: Pages 23 (top right); 62
Wong Kwan Collection: Page 8

Other archival sources

Crown Colony of the Straits Settlements Public Works Department Annual Report (1938): Page 70

Web sources
Australian War Memorial Collection/public domain: Page 67 (right)
Jack Lee/CC BY-SA 4.0: Page 27 (right)
Metalock International Association/CC BY-SA 4.0: Page 63 (top cluster of 6 images) Metropolitan
Transportation Authority of the State of New York/CC BY 2.0: Page 63 (margin) Nabrande/CC BY
3.0: Page 72 (top)
Sengkang/CC 0: Page 41
Thomson, J.T./public domain: Page 26 (bottom row left & centre)

CONSERVATION TECHNICAL HANDBOOK | Volume 3 | Facades

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