Cognitive and non-cognitive

learning factors
A literature review
June 2015
 Context

This literature review was written by Katherine Poynton. Katherine graduated

from the Human Development and Psychology program at Harvard Graduate
School of Education in 2014. She has a broad background working within the
field of education, primarily as a teacher and school psychologist.

Since graduating from the Masters program, Katherine has been gaining
experience as an educational researcher forming partnerships with schools
Katherine Poynton
based in the United States and United Kingdom. These various research projects
have centred around identifying practices and interventions within the school
context that can assist students in becoming more successful learners. Her other
research interests extend to developing more effective ways to build supportive
and trauma-informed schools.

This literature review represents an important part in the action research

process, used by the Centre for Inspiring Minds (cim) and its project teams. It
exemplifies our commitment to working with outside researchers to develop
research-informed approaches to improving teaching and learning and
supporting school development. This literature review was developed in support
of cim’s Advocacy for Student Learning project, led by Laura Mullertz.

Laura is a high school student at ACS Cobham International School. She initiated
her research project in partnership with the Centre for Inspiring Minds in March
2014. The project aims to support grade nine students by building a systematic
awareness of factors that shape academic behaviours and prepare students to
become empowered advocates for their own learning. When she completes the
International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in June 2016, Laura plans to
study Psychology.

Benedict Hren
Head of the Centre for Inspiring Minds
1 June 2015

The Centre for Inspiring Minds

ACS International Schools
West Lodge
Portsmouth Road
Cobham, Surrey
KT11 1BL
England

2
Introduction

Within the sphere of educational research, there is ongoing debate and

consideration given to how to improve outcomes for young people and provide
the support that is required for them to achieve success throughout their
schooling and into the future (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2011). This has
led to an increasing shift towards establishing more innovative, non-traditional
ways of supporting students and thinking about their learning pathway (Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, 2011).

Historically, research has focused primarily on the association between cognitive

skills and academic outcomes such as, grades and test scores (Rosen, Glennie,
Dalton, Lennon, & Bozick, 2010). This construct has been considered a central
factor to student achievement, and defined as something that is largely
inheritable and unchangeable (Farkas, 2003).

However, more recently, there has been an expansion upon this viewpoint to
include non-cognitive factors and their role in the learning process (Farkas, 2003;
Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001). It has become apparent that cognition forms one
component of a much more complex picture, and researchers are beginning to
consider how cognitive and non-cognitive factors can each contribute in
distinctive, and interactive ways to the learning process (Carneiro, Crawford, &
Goodman, 2007; Duckworth, 2009; Farrington et al., 2012; Farkas, 2003).

More specifically, research has started to investigate the relationship between

non-cognitive attributes and academic outcomes in young people, and how this
may contribute to continued success through life (Rosen et al., 2010). These
attributes begin to develop throughout childhood and adolescence, and are
described as being the skills and characteristics that reflect an individual’s
personality, motivational habits, and attitudes (Rosen et al., 2010).

Non-cognitive attributes help a young person to function effectively within the

school setting and may include characteristics such as, motivation, perseverance,
self-regulation, and conscientiousness (Rosen et al., 2010). Many of these skills
and attributes are also considered to be malleable and responsive to the
surrounding environment (Farrington et al., 2012; Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001).
When fostered and developed from an early life stage, non-cognitive skills and
attributes can serve an important function and may be utilized to help improve
cognitive development, academic achievement, learning, and life outcomes
(Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001; Rosen et al., 2010).

Evidence also suggests that the development of non-cognitive skills throughout

these formative years can have implications for future learning and life
experiences (Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001; Rosen et al., 2010). For example, in
considering the transition to college, there is an expectation that students will
be prepared to independently adjust to college life, manage the increased level
of rigor, and be equipped with the skills required to succeed (Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation, 2011; Conley, 2003; Conley, 2007). This extends beyond the

3
traditional focus on content knowledge, achievement, and grades attained at
the high school level (Conley, 2003; Conley, 2007).

In addition to these factors, college readiness is now being considered in terms

of a range of cognitive and non-cognitive skills that are described as being more
important for student success (Conley, 2007). These skills include an ability to
analyze, interpret, problem solve, reason, think critically, and complete work with
accuracy (Conley, 2003; Conley, 2007). This is also reflected through
demonstrating a commitment to intellectual development, completing work
tasks independently, accepting feedback, preparing for possible failures, as well
as remaining engaged and motivated to learn (Conlet, 2003; Conley, 2007).

Throughout this transition, students are also expected to be self-reliant,

recognize when they need to reach out to others for help, and actively seek this
support (Conley, 2007).

Given the number of significant changes that occur when shifting between high
school and college, this places responsibility on the school setting to ensure that
there is an emphasis on preparing students for the academic, social, and cultural
shifts that occur when transitioning to college life (Conley, 2007). There must
also be a commitment to building teacher capacity to support students to
develop a deeper awareness of the learning process, their own learning
preferences, to take responsibility for their learning, and believe in their ability to
achieve success in college (Conley, 2007). At a systemic level, this also calls for
more formalized programs to be implemented throughout the high school years
to develop each students capabilities across each of these areas (Conley, 2007).

In addition to preparing young people for success throughout their college

years, there is also evidence emerging to suggest that the development of non-
cognitive factors and associated work habits lead to greater effectiveness and
productivity within the workplace (Farkas, 2003; Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001;
Rosen et al., 2010).

These skills are also identified as being more desirable and valuable to
employers (Farkas, 2003). Within the workplace context, this may include
behaviors and characteristics such as, conscientiousness, perseverance, tenacity,
leadership, sociability, trustworthiness, being organized, regular attendance,
being effortful, and openness to experience (Farkas, 2003; Heckman &
Rubenstein, 2001).

This has also led to a focus on the important role schools can play in providing
support and intervention to instill the values, habits, and behaviors that will
become assets and lead to successful outcomes throughout a young person’s
working life (Farkas, 2003). This also places an emphasis on forming the
foundation throughout the years of schooling, and continuing to develop these
skills across the entire life span (Farkas, 2003).

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Furthermore, there is also research emerging to indicate a relationship between
non-cognitive factors developed earlier in life, and health outcomes evident
throughout adulthood (Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001; Kaestner, 2009). Overall,
research into the categorization and role of non-cognitive factors is considered
to be an important and emerging field (Heckman & Rubenstein, 2001).

Non-cognitive Factors and Academic Performance

A Definition and Summary of the Key Categories

In a recent paper prepared by Farrington et al. (2012), the authors provide a
comprehensive review of the literature relating to the role of non-cognitive
factors in shaping learning and academic performance throughout adolescence.
The emerging research highlights that an important component to promoting
and enhancing academic performance is the development of non-cognitive
factors. These factors are reflected through a students attitudes, strategies, skills,
and behaviors that are not measured through grading, scores, and standardized
testing.

What has now been established is that, in addition to acquiring content

knowledge and academic skills, students also need to be supported to enhance
their capacity to learn. This can be achieved through explicitly teaching students
the skills they need to achieve success and interact with the learning
environment in a more positive and meaningful way.

Therefore, academic performance is an outcome that is affected by a range of

factors that are both intrinsic to the individual learner, and apparent within the
context of their environment.

In drawing together the findings from the literature review, the various non-
cognitive skills and attributes were categorized into five areas including:
• academic behaviors,
• academic perseverance,
• academic mindsets,
• learning strategies, and
• social skills.

Many of these factors are considered to be interdependent, and interact to

affect a student’s academic success. From the perspective of intervention within
the school context, what holds much promise is that many of these attributes
and behaviors are considered to be malleable and conducive to change.
Therefore, students can be supported and explicitly taught how to develop
across many of these areas that are critical to academic performance.

Academic Behaviors
Academic behaviors are reflected through the visible and observable signs that
a student is engaged and being effortful with their learning. This includes
behaviors such as, going to class, being attentive, arriving to class with all the

5
required materials, being organized, participating in classroom activities,
committing to studying outside of school hours, and completing homework
tasks.

Academic behaviors are relatively easy to observe, monitor, and measure. These
behaviors are considered to be the closest in proximity to overall academic
performance, with all other non-cognitive factors working through these
behaviors to influence student performance. Academic behaviors directly relate
to how well a student performs in class and have a significant influence on
achievement.

Academic Perseverance
Academic perseverance is based on a range of psychological concepts that form
the foundation for understanding a students ability to set goals, stay focused,
and work towards educational attainment. This is reflected through being
thorough and timely with work tasks, working to the best of one’s ability,
avoiding distractions, and overcoming obstacles and challenges.

The level of perseverance is demonstrated through a student’s ability to remain

focused on a goal despite the obstacles that may be faced, also known as grit or
persistence, and prioritize these pursuits over other interests. This also requires a
commitment to putting in additional hours of study, mastering a skill and/or
subject area, and working towards achieving more long-term educational goals.

Academic Mindsets
Academic mindsets are the beliefs and attitudes that a young person holds in
relation to their academic work. When a student has a positive academic
mindset, they are more likely to be motivated to learn, persistent with their work,
and demonstrate perseverance.

This is also believed to have a direct relationship to improved academic

behaviors and academic performance. There is a strong interconnectedness
between each of these factors, and the reverse also applies whereby strong
academic performance serves to reinforce positive mindsets, perseverance, and
academic behaviors. In contrast, when a student develops a negative mindset
this can create a cycle of decreased perseverance, academic behaviors, and
academic performance.

The literature indicates that students can be supported to develop a positive

academic mindset through four key areas including:
• establishing a sense of connectedness and belonging within the school
community,
• holding a belief that their own abilities can change and grow through
effort,
• believing in their own ability to succeed, and
• finding value in the subject areas and work tasks that they are required to
do.

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Learning Strategies
Learning strategies are the processes that a student can draw upon to engage
with the cognitive tasks of thinking, remembering, and/or learning. This includes
the domains of study skills, metacognition, self-regulation, and goal-setting.

Specific strategies can assist students with recalling information, monitoring their
own understanding of content, detecting when they are confused, and self-
correcting errors in thought processes. Through developing and applying
effective learning strategies, students can then draw upon effective academic
behaviors to maximize their learning.

Social Skills
Social skills focus on the interpersonal qualities of a student and the behaviors
that facilitate social interactions with others. In addition to improving interactions
with peers and teachers within the school context, social skills are also
considered to be an important component of future work and life outcomes.

This can includes qualities such as, communication skills, problem solving,
empathy, working cooperatively with others, being assertive, and taking
responsibility. Within a classroom context, this may be reflected more directly
through working cooperatively in groups, contributing appropriately to
classroom discussions, and collective problem solving.

Social skills have been found to have an indirect impact on academic

performance, and are primarily expressed through students’ behaviors at school.

Supporting Student Transition from Middle to High School

Fostering the Development of Non-cognitive Factors

Adolescence is a life stage where a young person experiences a multitude of
changes (Crokett, Peterson, Graber, Shulenberg, & Ebata, 1989). These changes
relate not only to the physical, cognitive, and emotional development that
occurs, but also extends to the social and environmental contexts that a young
person may find themselves engaging in (Crokett et al., 1989; Eccles, Lord, &
Midgley, 1991; Eccles, Midgley, & Adler, 1984).

Within the school setting, adolescents are required to adjust to a number of

changes within the learning environment when transitioning both to, and from
middle school. This may be represented by changes such as, increasing school
and class sizes, more frequent transitions between classes, interacting with
different teachers, less personal interactions with teachers, increased teacher
control, different work expectations and grading practices, differing peer
groups, finding one’s place amongst the learning and social contexts, and
adjusting to a more formalized school environment (Crokett et al., 1989; Eccles
et al., 1991; Eccles et al., 1984).

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Research indicates that these transitional periods may be marked by a decline in
school-related behaviors, motivation, interest levels, and self-perception of
students (Eccles et al., 1991; Eccles et al., 1984; Farrington et al., 2012). For
some, the outcomes may also be associated with a decrease in academic
performance, grades, school attendance, engagement, connectedness, and
possible dropout (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2011; Crokett et al., 1989;
Eccles et al., 1991; Farrington et al., 2012). There is also evidence to suggest
that the more transitions that a student is required to make, the more disruptive
this can be to their learning experience (Crokett et al., 1989; Eccles et al., 1984).

Evidently these changes represent situations that can be very challenging for a
young person, however, they also highlight an opportunity where schools can
provide intervention that goes beyond the regular curriculum and course
content (Crokett et al., 1989).

In considering these developmental and environmental outcomes that emerge

throughout the middle schools years, which have been highlighted across
decades of research, it is imperative that preventative measures be put in place
to support the development of behaviors and mindsets that will lead to success
at school (Farrington et al., 2012). In order to facilitate and support the
development of non-cognitive factors amongst students, this also requires
building and re-shaping the school environment to equip young people with the
tools they require to manage these transitional periods, remain engaged, and
advocate for their own learning needs (Eccles et al., 1991; Farrington et al.,
2012). It is also important for schools to provide a safe and supportive
environment that meets the presenting needs of students, and helps to make
these transitions a positive experience (Eccles et al., 1991; Felner, Ginter, &
Primavera, 1982).

Adolescence is also a period of development that is marked by an increased

desire for autonomy and control, self awareness, exploring self-identity, a shift to
more abstract thought, increased ability to self-regulate, a strong focus on peer
relationships, and a need to develop meaningful relationships with adults within
the school context (Eccles et al., 1991).

However, the research indicates that schools continue to provide an

environment that does not leverage upon and foster these new capacities
amongst young people (Farrington et al., 2012). Schools not only need to
support students to manage transitional periods more effectively, but also
promote the development of noncognitive skills and attributes that will help
them to successfully meet new academic demands across both middle and high
school (Farrington et al., 2012).

Furthermore, adolescence is also identified as a period when there is significant

cognitive and emotional development occurring enabling a young person to
begin thinking and processing information differently (Eccles et al., 1984;
Farrington et al., 2012). The prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain

8
begin to mature, resulting in the ability to increasingly engage in more abstract
and higher order thinking (Farrington et al., 2012).

This reflects an optimal period to begin presenting students with new

challenges, support them in taking ownership of their own learning, help them
shape their own behavior, and make decisions about their engagement within
the school environment (Farrington et al., 2012). Given that students are
developmentally ready to make these significant shifts with their learning
throughout the middle school years and beyond, teaching practices and
classroom interventions must be re-structured to meet these needs (Farrington
et al., 2012).

Academic Perseverance
Academic perseverance is a concept that relates to student effort and the quality
of academic behaviors that are demonstrated in response to this effort
(Farrington et al., 2012). Research is suggesting that students who perform at a
high level at school not only do what is required to achieve good grades, but
they do these things well (Farrington et al., 2012).

Whilst academic perseverance requires an initial surge of momentum, focus, and

direction, it also requires the ability to maintain this momentum despite
obstacles or challenges that may get in the way (Farrington et al., 2012).
Students with academic perseverance continue working hard, strive for a good
grade despite the content being challenging or possible failure in the past, look
for new ways to understand material that is difficult, don’t give up, and work
towards longer-term academic goals (Farrington et al., 2012).

Tenacity has been identified as an important factor underlying a student’s

academic performance, and is defined as being the mindsets and skills that
enable a student to look beyond more immediate short-term goals to more
long-term goals (Dweck, Walton, & Cohen, 2014; Farrington et al., 2012). It also
involves the ability to withstand challenges and setbacks to continue persevering
and working towards achieving these goals (Dweck et al., 2014; Farrington et al.,
2012).

This can be directly influenced by students’ academic mindsets, learning

strategies, academic skills, and personality factors (Farrington et al., 2012).
Tenacious students hold the belief that they can achieve success, employ
effective self-regulatory strategies, and have strong social networks (Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, 2011; Dweck et al., 2014).

In aiming to enhance academic tenacity, interventions that are most effective

focus on changing the mindset of the student and establishing a learning
environment that supports the development of a positive mindset, as discussed
in the following section of this report (Dweck et al., 2014; Farrington et al.,
2012). These mindsets and skills can be taught within a supportive school
environment (Dweck et al., 2014).

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Another component to maintaining perseverance and effort with academic tasks
is grit (Farrington et al., 2012). This is reflected in a student’s ability to remain
focused on a long-term goal, despite obstacles and adversity, and eventually
succeed in that goal (Duckworth, 2009; Farrington et al., 2012).

What has been identified is that achievement and success are no longer
considered to be solely byproducts of intellect and talent, but of tenacity,
perseverance, hard work, determination, practice, self-discipline, and sustained
passion (Duckworth, 2009; Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007;
Tough, 2011). Research has identified that grit is a quality that is essential for
high achievement in any domain, and the element that helps people reach the
top of their chosen field (Duckworth, 2009; Duckworth et al., 2007).

It is estimated that it takes at least ten years of sustained practice for a person to
become a true expert in any given field, and grit is what enables them to sustain
the effort that is required to achieve this (Duckworth, 2009; Farrington et al.,
2012). These individuals will work hard on one significant goal with over an
extensive period of time, and do not deviate from this pathway (Duckworth et
al., 2007; Farrington et al., 2012).

Research has also established that grit is a quality that can be taught and
developed in young people (Duckworth, 2009).

Within the middle school context, Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen and
Gollwitzer (2011) designed an intervention that aimed to assist adolescents
successfully strive for long-term learning goals. This was inclusive of an
intervention that included mental contrasting, forming implementation
intentions, and sustained self-regulation.

Mental contrasting is a process that facilitates goal setting by strengthening

one’s commitment to the goal. It involves framing a desired future and the
contrasting this with present reality, which motivates the person to take action
and strengthen their commitment to the goal. Subsequently, implementation
intentions facilitate goal striving through effective planning and remaining on
track so that the goal can be realized. When combined, these two processes
(MCII) increase effectiveness of goal attainment.

This randomized study investigated the effectiveness of these processes for

students preparing for the Preliminary SAT (PSAT) exam. Students in the MCII
intervention received a PSAT workbook and were asked to write about the
positive outcomes of finishing the practice tests, two obstacles that could
prevent them from doing so, and two plans to overcome each of the two
obstacles they had identified. When compared with students in the control
group who received the same workbook but did not complete the MCII
exercise, students in the intervention group completed substantially more of the
workbook during their summer vacation.

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Academic Mindsets
Academic mindsets are the beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions that a student has
in relation to their learning and intellectual tasks, which have a subsequent
influence on academic performance (Farrington et al., 2012). A student’s belief
in their ability to learn and achieve success at school, also known as self-efficacy,
has been found to be a very strong predictor of academic performance (Dweck
et al., 2014).

Research is emerging to suggest that interventions designed to change and re-

shape the mindsets of students are effective and have lasting, positive effects on
learning and social outcomes (Farrington et al., 2012; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). A
student’s belief system has also been found to have implications for their
persistence and level of resiliency when faced with challenges in the school
environment (Dweck et al., 2014; Farrington et al., 2012).

There is evidence to suggest that there are four key mindsets that contribute to
successful learning outcomes including, a sense of belonging at school, a belief
that ability and competence can grow with effort, that one can succeed, and that
the work is of value (Dweck et al., 2014; Farrington et al., 2012).

Experiencing a sense of belonging within the school and classroom environment

has been found to have significant benefits for students, and also increases the
likelihood that they will engage in academic behaviors that are beneficial
(Farrington et al., 2012). Sense of belonging has also been associated with
positive mindsets and increased levels of satisfaction at school (National
Research Council, 2004).

Schools can also foster a sense of belonging in various ways including,

personalizing learning and instruction, demonstrating a genuine interest in
students’ lives, facilitating connections between students and their teachers,
explicitly identifying the values and goals of the school, and creating an
environment that is both caring and supportive (National Research Council,
2004). Sense of belonging can also be achieved through ensuring the students
feel included and respected by others in school setting (Dweck et al., 2014).

One example of a very brief in-class intervention that has been implemented
within the middle school setting focuses on value affirmations of students
(Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006; Dweck et al., 2014). The purpose in
developing this intervention was to remind students within the school setting of
the things that they value the most in themselves. What was found was that
through enabling students to think about and elaborate upon these qualities
they value within the school setting, and bringing presence to these values led
to an enhancement in their sense of belonging (Cohen et al., 2006; Dweck et al.,
2014).

Research also indicates that students who hold the belief that they can use their
own efforts to increase their level of competence and academic ability are more

11
self-motivated, persistent, and demonstrate learning behaviors that enhance
academic performance (Farrington et al., 2012; Yeager & Dweck, 2012).

In comparison, students who believe that their capabilities are fixed and cannot
be changed through their own efforts are more likely to focus outwardly on the
opinions of others with regard to their level of ability, be less self-motivated and
persistent, and perform less well at school (Dweck, 2006; Farrington et al., 2012).

Carol Dweck and colleagues refer to each of these viewpoints as the growth-
and fixed-mindsets (Dweck, 2006). This approach asserts that the view an
individual adopts for themselves has profound affects for the way they live their
life, determines whether they become the person they want to be, and
accomplish the things that they value (Dweck, 2006).

Students with a growth-mindset view failure as an opportunity to learn, believe

that personal qualities and intellectual skills can be fostered and developed
through effort, and that everyone can change and grow over time as a result of
their experiences (Dweck, 2006). This mindset is also reflected in an ability to
take risks, confront challenges, to keep working at them, and thrive as a result
(Dweck, 2006). These students are resilient in the face of setbacks, see learning
as a priority, and continually stretch themselves to learn something new (Dweck,
2006).

For learners with a fixed-mindset, the experience of learning is viewed quite

differently. Qualities, abilities, and intellect are seen as things that are carved in
stone and there is an ongoing need to prove oneself (Dweck, 2006). There is
also a strong emphasis on being flawless and free from mistakes, and
experiencing a deep-seated sense of failure when these qualities are not upheld
(Dweck, 2006). Students with a fixed-mindset thrive in situations that are safely
within their grasp, experiencing fear in the face of challenges, losing interest,
and devaluing situations where effort is required (Dweck, 2006).

Research indicates that adolescence is a period where students often evaluate

themselves from a fixed mindset, and this is also reinforced within the school
and social contexts (Dweck, 2006).

Research also indicates that growth mindset and a passion for learning can be
taught, and the simple act of knowing about the two mindsets can already begin
to instill change amongst young people (Dweck, 2006). Whilst this process may
take time, new beliefs can sit alongside old ones and as they become stronger
provide a different way of thinking, feeling, and acting (Dweck, 2006).

Within the classroom context, teachers can promote and adhere to the idea of a
growth-mindset and create a culture where all students can become fascinated
by possibilities and the process of learning (Dweck, 2006). It has also been found
that care must be taken to ensure that praise and feedback are directed towards
a student’s effort and commitment to doing what is takes to succeed (Dweck,
2006; Mueller & Dweck, 1998). Setting high expectations for all students is also

12
integral to the learning environment, as well as providing the necessary supports
to help students reach these expectations (Dweck, 2006).

A number of interventions have been developed and found to successfully

facilitate the development of a growth mindset when working with students.
Some examples of how this has been achieved within educational setting are
through delivering workshops, displaying messages about the growth mindset,
and emailing prompts to students (Dweck et al., 2014).

A more structured and comprehensive approach is the Brainology program that

has been designed to help students develop a growth mindset through the
combined use of online instruction, and follow-up classroom activities (Dweck,
2006; Mindset Works, 2015). The aim of the program is to demonstrate to
students that they are in control of their brain and its development; that the
brain is a muscle capable of growth and change which becomes stronger the
more that we use it and learn new things; the more you challenge your mind the
more your brain cells grow; things that were once very hard or impossible seem
to become easy with effort; and that the brain needs care and nourishment to
perform at an optimal level including, adequate sleep, eating the right things,
and using good study strategies (Dweck, 2006; Mindset Works, 2015).

In addition to this program, a further example of a classroom activity that has

been used effectively includes having students work through a series of
dilemmas (Dweck, 2006). Students are required to consider their reactions from
a fixed-mindset and how they may solve the dilemma from a growth-mindset
(Dweck, 2006). This includes making concrete, growth-oriented plans for
something you want to learn or confront from the dilemma, and visualizing a way
to carry this out (Dweck, 2006).

Overall, research indicates that interventions that educate students about the
growth mindset lead to a difference in behavior, motivation to learn,
commitment to improvement, resilience, and achievement (Dweck, 2006;
Mindset Works, 2015; Yeager & Dweck, 2012).

Another important component of a student’s academic mindset is the belief that

the work they are doing and the learning that is taking place holds relevance in
their lives, and is of value to them (Farrington et al., 2012). Through achieving
this, a student can become inherently motivated, persistent, and interested in
their learning as they imagine their future goals (Farrington et al., 2012;
Oyserman, Terry, & Bybee, 2002).

In a study conducted by Oyserman et al. (2002), the researchers developed a

Schools-to-Jobs intervention that was designed for marginalized middle school
students to assist them in imagining themselves as successful adults, and
connecting these future aspirations to their current attendance at school. This
program was implemented after school over a 9-week period and involved
students participating in various small group activities.

13
Sessions were developed around the themes of students:
• imagining the stage of adulthood through looking at images of adults
engaging in various life domains and talking about these images;
• creating a personal timeline that extends from the present to as far into
the future as the student can go, with facilitators normalizing failures and
setbacks;
• building a connection between their current schooling, the year ahead,
and their future possible selves by mapping out possible strategies to
achieve future goals;
• small group problem solving of everyday problems encountered at
school;
• planning for high school graduation and college entry; communication
skills; and
• preparedness for future jobs prospects, career pathways, qualifications,
and attending informational interviews.

At the conclusion of the school year, this intervention was shown to have
positive effects for student engagement, learning behaviors, identified strategies
to achieve future aspirations, school attendance, and bonding to school.

Social Skills
Social skills are reflected in qualities such as, cooperation, assertiveness,
responsibility, empathy, self-control, awareness of self and others, effective
decision-making, and maintaining relationships with others (Farrington et al.,
2012).

Research suggests that there is a link between social skills and academic
performance, in particular it has been shown that a range of school interventions
designed to build social-emotional competencies of students have been
associated with positive effects on achievement levels (Farrington et al., 2012).
Factors that are more likely to lead to change and positive outcomes for
students include, having well-trained facilitators, focusing on behavioral skill-
building approaches, and implementing programs at a school-wide level
(Farrington et al., 2012). Additional ways that social-emotional development can
be fostered and promoted within the school and classroom environments
include providing safety, care, inclusivity, structure, and a sense of community
(Farrington et al., 2012).

Also aligning with development of social-emotional skills is the field of positive

education, an approach to learning that advocates for building traditional skills,
optimism, and happiness amongst young people, as described by Seligman,
Ernst, Gillham, Reivich and Linkins, 2009.

Positive education is based on the premise that the school environment is a

place where the skills of wellbeing and academic achievement can be taught
conjointly. Extensive research also provides further support to indicate that the
skills that lead to an increase in resilience, positive emotion, and meaning can all
be taught to students. Whilst instilling these skills and qualities in young people

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may have positive outcomes for wellbeing, it also provides a foundation for
better learning. Additionally, positive emotion has also been linked with
increased attention, creative thinking, and more holistic thinking.

The field of Positive Psychology outlines three components to the experience of

happiness (Seligman et al., 2009). The first being the experience of positive
emotions, the second is finding a state of flow and being engaged with the life
experience, and the third being a meaningful and purposeful life (Seligman et
al., 2009).

It is the experience of achieving a sense of meaning that is enhanced by our

connections with others (Seligman et al., 2009). Optimism, however, is a trait
that is evident in a person who feels positively about the future, never gives up
in the face of stress and adversity, thinks about negative events in a constructive
way, pursues the goals that are of most importance to them, and works towards
the goals that they feel confident in achieving (Forgeard & Seligman, 2012).

Teachers are viewed as being largely influential in promoting optimism through

setting an example and giving thought to the language that they use when
addressing student success, mastery, and failure (Seligman, 1995). It has also
important for students to be taught the skills of flexible and reality-based
optimism (Seligman, 1995).

There are two examples of interventions that have been developed to promote
and enhance happiness, optimism, and wellbeing in adolescents, including the
Penn Resiliency Program (PRP) and Positive Psychology Programme (Forgeard &
Seligman, 2012; Seligman et al., 2009). These programs also incorporate
elements of social skills, problem solving, and interacting with others. The PRP is
a 12 session curriculum, and teaches students the skills needed to handle
everyday stressors and problems that are commonly encountered during the
stage of adolescence (Forgeard & Seligman, 2012; Seligman et al., 2009). It
promotes optimism through teaching students to think more flexibly and
realistically about problems that they may encounter (Forgeard & Seligman,
2012; Seligman et al., 2009).

The program also places an emphasis on teaching assertiveness, brainstorming,

decision-making, problem-solving strategies, coping skills, and relaxation
(Seligman et al., 2009). Evaluative studies have found that PRP elicits positive
outcomes for student wellbeing (Seligman et al., 2009).

The Positive Psychology Programme is also a curriculum-based intervention that

has been developed for adolescents (Seligman et al., 2009). The program is
implemented over a year-long period and aims to help students identify their
signature character strengths, and increase the use of these strengths within
their daily life (Seligman et al., 2009). Strengths may include qualities such as,
perseverance, kindness, courage, and wisdom (Seligman et al., 2009).

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The intervention also aims to promote a student’s resilience, positive emotion,
meaningfulness, and sense of purpose (Seligman et al., 2009). Lessons involve
discussions about character strengths, class activities, homework activities, and a
reflective journal (Seligman et al., 2009). The program has been found to
increase enjoyment of school, engagement at school, social skills, and
achievement (Seligman et al., 2009).

Learning Styles and Theoretical Approaches

Whilst not specifically categorized a non-cognitive factor, another important
aspect that has been linked with student engagement, motivation, self-
awareness, and lifelong learning is an increased understanding and
accommodation of variant learning styles within the classroom context (Coffield,
Moseley, Hall, & Eccleston, 2004; Tomlinson et al., 2003).

This can be achieved through identifying the different learning styles of

students, engaging in dialogue with students about these variations,
encouraging them to reflect on their own learning style, and aligning this
knowledge with teaching practices and classroom interventions (Coffield et al.,
2004; Tomlinson et al., 2003). Through applying these practices, students can
also become more aware of their own strengths and weaknesses, and teachers
can respond to these differing needs accordingly (Coffield et al., 2004).

Whilst this is an area still requiring further research, learning styles can help to
identify the different ways that students prefer to take in information (Coffield et
al., 2004; Prashnig, 2005). Developing a deeper understanding of learning styles
has also been identified as a useful tool for facilitating students in ‘learning to
learn’, identify ways to enhance their learning, and become more independent
in the learning process (Coffield et al., 2004; Tomlinson et al., 2003). It has also
helped students to gain more confidence and control over their own learning
(Coffield et al., 2004). The qualities and interests that are unique to the learner
can be identified and nurtured (Coffield et al., 2004; Institute for Learning Styles
Research, 2015; Tomlinson et al., 2003).

The Institute for Learning Styles Research (2015) is an organization that

conducted extensive research and developed a perceptual learning styles
theory. This theory outlines seven perceptual styles that assist students to extract
information from the surrounding environment, relying on the use of their five
senses. Each learner is thought to have their own unique pathway for extracting
information. This theory is inclusive of seven perceptual modes, or pathways
including: (1) print, which includes seeing printed or written words (2) aural,
which involves listening (3) interactive, where there is a preference for
verbalization, (4) visual, refers to seeing visual depictions (5) haptic, which
includes grasp and touch (6) kinesthetic, including whole body movement, and
(7) olfactory, which refers to the sense of smell and taste.

As an extension of this theory, two measurement tools have also been

developed, The Perceptual Modality Preference Survey (PMPS) and the Multi-
Modal Paired Associates Learning Test (MMPALT). These tools have been shown

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to be helpful for students in identifying their own perceptual strengths and
preferences as a learner.

Multiple intelligences (MI) is a theoretical framework for understanding and

developing people’s different intelligence factors, their range of capacities and
potentials (Gardner, 1999; Prashnig, 2005). Whilst this theory does not fall under
the category of learning styles, it can also be used to covey an important
message to teachers and students about capabilities.

Consistent with the literature relating to non-cognitive factors and the growth
mindset, this theory also deviates from the traditional notion that a person’s
cognitive ability can be adequately measured by a singular score obtained on a
standardized test (Gardner, 1999; Stanford, 2003; Strauss, 2013). Developed by
Howard Gardner, MI categorizes intelligence into seven distinct human
capacities including: (1) linguistic, the ability to learn and use language to
accomplish goals, (2) logical-mathematical, which involves analyzing problems,
mathematical tasks, and scientific inquiry, (3) musical, having skill in composing,
performing, and an appreciation for musical patterns, (4) bodily-kinesthetic,
using the whole body or parts of the body to solve problems or develop
products, (5) spatial, an ability to recognize and manipulate patterns, (6)
interpersonal, the ability to understand and work effectively with others, and (7)
intrapersonal, reflecting a capacity to understand oneself (Gardner, 1999;
Stanford, 2003; Strauss, 2013).

At a later stage, naturalistic intelligence was also added and reflects an ability to
recognize and classify numerous species from the environment (Gardner, 1999;
Stanford, 2003). It is believed that there may also be more (Strauss, 2013).

Within the school context, MI has been explored and applied effectively through
the creation ‘pods’ and ‘learning centers’ in accordance with the particular
intelligences for students to pursue an area of interest in more depth, to have
students complete a project on someone that exemplifies a particular
intelligence, developing classroom activities for students to explore their own
strengths and weaknesses in each of the areas, and integrating lesson plans and
curriculum that reflect MI (Gardner, 1999; Stanford, 2003).

All Kinds of Minds has also developed a neurodevelopmental framework to help

educators describe and understand all kinds of learners, as outlined by the
research and literature of All Kinds of Minds (2015) and Barringer, Pohlman, and
Robinson (2010). The framework reflects a synthesis of research from a range of
fields including neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and developmental
psychology to outline components of brain functioning and how these affect
student learning.

There are eight constructs that are believed to form the foundation for
identifying and addressing a students strengths and weaknesses as a learner,
and can be used to promote academic success. Whilst distinct, these constructs
are also thought to overlap in practice. Attention forms one of the constructs,

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and reflects an ability to maintain mental energy for learning and work, to
absorb and filter information, and discern the quality of academic outputs.

Higher order cognition, or complex thinking, includes conceptual

understanding, generating novel ideas, and approaching complex problems in a
logical way.
• The area of language is reflected through understanding written and oral
information, and being able to communicate both of these mediums.
Memory, which is includes drawing upon short-term memory,
manipulating and using information while completing a task, and storing
and recalling information at a later time point.
• Neuro-motor functions, or controlling movement, includes coordinated
bodily movement, gross and fine motor skills, in particular muscle
coordination required for handwriting.
• Social cognition, or making and keeping friends, involves knowing about
social conventions and styles of interaction, cooperating with others, and
nurturing positive relationships with significant others.
• Spatial ordering, or visual thinking, involves both understanding and
generating visual information, as well as organizing materials and spaces.
• Temporal-sequential ordering, or keeping track of time/order, is
reflected in an ability to sequence information, arrange products in a
meaningful order, and organize one’s time and schedules.

From the perspective of intervention, All Kinds of Minds (2007) has developed a
process ‘Attuning a Student’ which is a comprehensive approach that draws
together the teacher, student, and family to determine the strengths and
challenges of the learner. The goal is to view this process from a point of
optimism and collaboration.

A key feature of this approach is that the student themselves is invited to

become ‘attuned’ to their own needs and is viewed as being their own advocate
in the support process. Information is gathered from a range of sources,
observations, work samples, and use of an attunement measurement tool. This
information is then used to develop a profile of the students learning profile, in
accordance with the neurodevelopmental framework, and a management plan is
put in place outlining support strategies. The plan is monitored and progress
reviewed, with the student playing a central role in all of these processes.

Student Autonomy in the Classroom

Environmental Factors and Teaching Practices

A study by Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, and Turner (2004) explored the
varying factors within the classroom and school environment that can help
students build autonomy and ownership of their own learning. As discussed
throughout this paper, it is well established that teacher instruction and the

18
classroom environment are very influential in a student’s perceptions,
motivation, beliefs, and behaviors.

The authors assert that there are three needs of the student that must be met to
promote optimal learning including, competence, relatedness, and autonomy.
These factors can either be facilitated or diminished within the learning
environment.

In working towards enhancing student autonomy within the middle school

context, this involves teachers and other adult figures providing information
about the process of learning, and opportunities for students to make choices
about their own learning. It also requires a democratic leadership style and
reduction in the use of controlling strategies within the classroom.

Effective enhancement of student autonomy has been associated with

persistence on tasks, on-task behavior, self-regulated learning, curiosity, positive
attitudes towards learning, and perceived competence. Many of these outcomes
and behaviors are thought to accumulate over time, and also align with non-
cognitive factors.

Through investigating student autonomy, research has been established that

teachers who work towards enhancing this attribute report that they adhere to a
student-centered approach, nurture competence in their students, communicate
with students in a non-controlling way, and aim to internalize these practices
within their students.

In a practical sense, this is reflected through the following:

• listening to students more; allowing students to handle and manipulate
instructional materials and ideas more often;
• asking about student wants;
• responding to student-generated questions;
• perspective-taking and understanding of the students emotional state;
• refraining from giving solutions or using directives;
• fostering relevance of learning activities;
• allowing students to express dissatisfaction with learning activities and
acting upon this;
• providing opportunities for students to choose tasks consistent with their
person goals and interests; and
• enabling students to express their desires and become co-decision
makers in the learning process.

Overall, this requires opportunities for students to express autonomy within the
classroom environment at an organizational, procedural, and cognitive level.

19
Summary

§ Emergent research highlighting the significance of non-cognitive factors

in the learning process
§ Moving away from an emphasis on cognitive skills and intelligence to
find other factors associated with enhancing learning and academic
performance
§ Farrington et al. (2012) outline five categories of non-cognitive factors
within the school context: academic behaviors, academic perseverance,
academic mindsets, learning strategies, and social skills
§ Whilst the focus of this study is on middle school years, providing
intervention at this developmental stage may also have future
implications (i.e. college and work readiness). Not just an immediate
focus, but also considering potential long-term impacts and outcomes for
students
§ A focus on the middle school years is important due to a number of
factors: transitions, brain maturation, changing thought processes,
changing needs as students seek more autonomy, identified need for
schools to re-shape the learning context to meet these needs
§ The areas to be targeted in the intervention can all be taught and re-
shaped within the school environment, students can learn about and
develop these skills
§ Successful development of non-cognitive factors will require change at
the individual, teacher, and school-wide level. However, there is a strong
emphasis in literature on the importance of changing the school and
classroom environment to meet the needs of students.
§ There is an evident gap in the literature relating to intervention in schools
and (a) non-cognitive factors, (b) student autonomy and advocacy, (c) the
combination of factors proposed in this current study
§ Academic perseverance is reflected through the qualities of tenacity and
grit, and can promote academic achievement
§ Four key mindsets that contribute to successful learning outcomes
including, a sense of belonging at school, a belief that ability and
competence can grow with effort, that one can succeed, and that the
work is of value
§ Approaches to learning styles and theoretical models (i.e. ILSR, MI, All
Kinds of Minds) can be applied in the classroom context through general
strategies to engage and motivate students, as well as increase their self
awareness about their own capacities and preferences as a learner
§ Positive psychology programs can be used to enhance happiness,
optimism, wellbeing, learning, and achievement amongst adolescents.
Intervention programs also incorporate elements of social skills, problem
solving, and interacting with others
§ Important factors for students within the classroom and school
environment that are required for optimal learning include, competence,
relatedness, and autonomy. Student autonomy has been found to
promote persistence on tasks and increase self-regulation. Achieved

20
 through teaching practices, and enabling student ownership of the
classroom environment, delivery of content, and cognitive autonomy.

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The Centre for Inspiring Minds
ACS International Schools
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Portsmouth Road
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KT11 1BL

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