Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Vibration
 Introduction
❑Book: MECHANICAL VIBRATION
➢by SINGIRESU S. RAO
➢FIFTH EDITION

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 Introduction
❑Vibration: Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is
called vibration or oscillation.
❑EX. Swinging of pendulum.
❑The theory of vibration deals with the study of
oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated
with them.
❑In this curse the subject of vibration is introduced in a
relatively simple manner
❑This chapter describes the modelling of spring, mass and damping
elements, their characteristics and the combination of several
springs, masses or damping elements appearing in a system.

❑Then, the concept of harmonic analysis are presented.

 Importance of the Study of Vibration
➢Most human activities involve vibration in one form or other.

➢Vibration occurs in machines, foundations, structures, engines,

turbines, and airplane etc.

➢Early studies in the field of vibration concentrated their efforts on

understanding the natural phenomena and developing mathematical
theories to describe the vibration of physical systems.

➢In recent times, many investigations have been motivated by the

engineering applications of vibration, such as the design of machines,
foundations, structures, engines, turbines, and control systems.
 Elementary Parts of Vibrating Systems
➢A vibratory system, includes:
➢a means for storing potential energy (spring or elasticity),
➢a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia),
➢a means by which energy is gradually lost (damper).

➢The vibration of a system involves the transfer

of its potential energy to kinetic energy and of
kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately.
potential energy

1
kinetic energy 𝑚 𝑣2
2
➢If the system is damped, some energy is
dissipated in each cycle of vibration
 Number of Degrees of Freedom
➢The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine
completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines
the number of degrees of freedom of the system.

How many degrees of freedom of the system ?

Two degrees x, y

One degree. x, y or θ
Single-degree-of-freedom systems
Two-degree-of-freedom systems
Three degree-of-freedom systems
 Discrete and Continuous Systems
➢Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are called discrete or
lumped parameter systems.
➢Systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom are called continuous
or distributed systems.

Discrete system Continuous system

➢Most of the time, continuous systems are approximated as discrete systems,

and solutions are obtained in a simpler manner
 Classification of Vibration
➢Vibration can be classified in several ways. Some of the important classifications
are as follows:
❑Free and Forced Vibration
➢Free Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the
resulting vibration is known as free vibration, such as oscillation of a simple pendulum.
➢Forced Vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of
force), the resulting vibration is known as forced vibration such as oscillation arises in
machines.
➢If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the
system, a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously
large oscillations.
❑Undamped and Damped Vibration
➢If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation,
the vibration is known as undamped vibration.
➢ If any energy is lost in this way, however, it is called damped vibration.
 Classification of Vibration (cont.)
❑Linear and Nonlinear Vibration
➢ If all the basic components of a vibratory system; the spring, the mass, and the damper
behave linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration.
➢ If, however, any of the basic components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called
nonlinear vibration.
➢The differential equations that govern the behavior of linear and nonlinear vibratory
systems are linear and nonlinear, respectively.
➢If the vibration is linear, the principle of superposition holds, and the mathematical
techniques of analysis are well developed.
➢For nonlinear vibration, the superposition principle is not valid, and techniques of
analysis are less well known.
❑Deterministic and Random Vibration
➢ If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system
is known at any given time, the resulting vibration is known as deterministic vibration.
➢ If the excitation is nondeterministic or random; the resulting vibration is known as
random vibration.
 Vibration Analysis Procedure
➢The analysis of a vibrating system usually involves mathematical modeling, derivation of
the governing equations, solution of the equations, and interpretation of the results.
❑Step 1: Mathematical Modeling: represent all the important features of the system for
the purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the
system’s behaviour.
➢The mathematical model should include enough details to allow describing the system
in terms of equations without making it too complex.
Modeling of a forging hammer
 Vibration Analysis Procedure
❑Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations: Once the mathematical model is available,
we use the principles of dynamics and derive the equations that describe the vibration of
the system.
➢The equations of motion can be derived conveniently by drawing the free-body diagrams
of all the masses involved.
➢Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations: The equations of motion must be solved to
find the response of the vibrating system.
➢Depending on the nature of the problem, the following techniques are used to find the
solution:
➢ Standard methods of solving differential equations,
➢ Laplace transform methods,
➢ Matrix methods,
➢ Numerical methods.
➢Step 4: Interpretation of the Results. The solution gives the displacements, velocities,
and accelerations of the various masses of the system.
 Spring Elements
➢A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is assumed to have
negligible mass and damping.
➢The most common type of spring is the helical-coil spring.
➢Any elastic or deformable body or member, such as a cable, bar, beam, shaft or plate, can
be considered as a spring.

➢For linear spring the elongation or reduction in

length x is related to the applied force F as

where k is a constant, known as the spring constant or

spring stiffness which denotes the force (positive or
negative) required to cause a unit deflection helical-coil spring
Spring in compression
(elongation or reduction in length) in the spring (N/m).
Spring in tension
➢The work done (U) in deforming a spring is stored as strain or
potential energy in the spring, and it is given by
 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements

➢The procedure of finding the equivalent spring constant of elastic members is illustrated
through the following examples.
❑ Spring Constant of a Rod
Find the equivalent spring constant of a uniform rod of length l, cross-sectional area A, and
Young’s modulus E subjected to an axial tensile (or compressive) force F as shown:
Solution: The elongation (or shortening) of the rod under
the axial tensile (or compressive) force F can be expressed as

Using the definition of the spring constant k, we obtain

 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements
❑ Spring Constant of a Cantilever Beam

Find the equivalent spring constant of a cantilever beam

subjected to a concentrated load F at its end as shown

Solution: We assume, for simplicity, that the self weight (or mass) of the beam is
negligible and the concentrated load F is due to the weight of a point mass (W=mg).
From strength of materials, we know that the end deflection of the beam due to a
concentrated load F = W is given by

where E is the Young’s modulus and I is the moment of inertia of the cross
section of the beam about the bending or z-axis (i.e., axis perpendicular to
the slide).
Hence the spring constant of the beam is
 Combination of Springs
❑ Case 1: Springs in Parallel

When a load W is applied, the system

undergoes a static deflection as shown

Then the free-body diagram gives the equilibrium equation

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of the two springs, then for
the same static deflection δst we have

In general, if we have n springs with spring constants k1, k2, ……., kn in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq can be obtained:
 Combination of Springs
❑ Case 2: Springs in Series

Since both springs are subjected to the same force W,

from the free body diagram we have the equilibrium

This equation can be generalized to the case of n springs in series:

 Example
A hinged rigid bar of length 𝑙 is connected by two springs of
stiffnesses k1 and k2 and is subjected to a force F as shown.
Assuming that the angular displacement of the bar (𝜃) is
small, find the equivalent spring constant of the system that
relates the applied force F to the resulting displacement x.

One can also use principle that:

The system and its equivalent have
the same potential energy
 Mass or Inertia Elements
➢The mass or inertia element is assumed to be a rigid body; it can gain or
lose kinetic energy whenever the velocity of the body changes.

➢ From Newton’s second law of motion, the product of the mass and its
acceleration is equal to the force applied to the mass.

➢Work is equal to the force multiplied by the displacement in the direction

of the force, and the work done on a mass is stored in the form of the
mass’s kinetic energy. 1
𝑇= 𝑚 𝑣2
2
➢In many practical applications, several masses appear in combination.

➢For a simple analysis, we can replace these masses by a single equivalent

mass
 Combination of Masses
❑Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar.

By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the

equivalent mass system, we obtain
 Combination of Masses
❑Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together.

Equivalent translational mass.

Equivalent rotational mass.

 Damping Elements
➢In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually
converted to heat or sound.

➢Due to the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the

displacement of the system, gradually decreases.

➢The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually

converted into heat or sound is known as damping.

➢A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and

damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between the two
ends of the damper.
 Viscous Damping.
➢Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in
vibration analysis.
➢When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas,
water, or oil, the resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body
causes energy to be dissipated.
➢The amount of dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as
➢the size and shape of the vibrating body,
➢the viscosity of the fluid,
➢the frequency of vibration, and
➢the velocity of the vibrating body.
➢In viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity
of the vibrating body.
 Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping.
➢Here the damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in
direction to that of the motion of the vibrating body.
➢It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry
or have insufficient lubrication.

Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping

➢When a material is deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated by
the material.
➢The effect is due to friction between the internal planes, which slip or
slide as the deformations take place.
 Combination of Dampers
➢When dampers appear in combination, we can use procedures
similar to those used in finding the equivalent spring constant of
multiple springs to find a single equivalent damper.

❑Parallel dampers

❑Series dampers

Resolve Example 1.13

 Harmonic Motion
❑Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a
simple pendulum, or
❑It may display considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground
motion during an earthquake
❑If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called
periodic motion.
❑Harmonic motion: is a periodic motion in which the motions are
symmetrical about a region of equilibrium.
➢Displacement:

➢Velocity:

➢Acceleration:
➢ The acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement and directed toward the mean position
Scotch yoke mechanism
(its direction opposite to that of displacement).
simple harmonic motion
 Definitions and Terminology
❑Cycle: The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or equilibrium position to its
extreme position in one direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme
position in the other direction, and back to equilibrium position is called a cycle of vibration.
❑Amplitude. The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position is
called the amplitude of vibration (A).
❑Period of oscillation. The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the period
of oscillation or time period

❑Frequency of oscillation. The number of cycles per unit time (Hz) is called the frequency of
oscillation or simply the frequency
Circular frequency

❑Natural frequency. If a system, after an

initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on
its own, the frequency with which it
oscillates without external forces is
known as its natural frequency.
 Homework

1.7 , 1.18 , 1.27 , 1.49 , 1.73