90 Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process Industries

3.3. Criteria for transition from laminar to turbulent flow

For all fluids, the nature of the flow is governed by the relative importance of
the viscous and the inertial forces. For Newtonian fluids, the balance between
these forces is characterised by the value of the Reynolds number. The gener-
ally accepted value of the Reynolds number above which stable laminar flow
no longer occurs is 2100 for Newtonian fluids. For time-independent fluids, the
critical value of the Reynolds number depends upon the type and the degree of
non-Newtonian behaviour. For power-law fluids .n D n0/, the criterion of
,Ryan and Johnson [1959] can be used

6464n
ReMR D .2 C n/.2Cn//.1Cn/ .3.31/
.3n C 1/2
 Flow in pipes and in conduits of non-circular cross-sections 91

While for Newtonian fluids equation (3.31) predicts the critical Reynolds
number of 2100, the corresponding limiting values increase with decreasing
values of the power-law index, reaching a maximum of about 2400 at n D 0.4
and then dropping to 1600 at n D 0.1. The latter behaviour is not in line with
the experimental results of Dodge and Metzner [1959] who observed laminar
flow conditions up to ReMR ¾ 3100 for a fluid with n0 D 0.38. Despite the
complex dependence of the limiting Reynolds number on the flow behaviour
index embodied in equation (3.31) and the conflicting experimental evidence,
it is probably an acceptable approximation to assume that the laminar flow
conditions cease to prevail at Reynolds numbers above ca. 2000–2500 and, for
the purposes of process calculations, the widely accepted figure of 2100 can be
used for time-independent fluids characterised in terms of n0 . It is appropriate
to add here that though the friction factor for visco-elastic fluids in the laminar
regime is given by equation (3.28a), the limited experimental results available
suggest much higher values for the critical Reynolds number. For instance,
Metzner and Park [1964] reported that their friction factor data for visco-
elastic polymer solutions were consistent with equation (3.28a) up to about
ReMR D 10 000. However, it is not yet possible to put forward a quantitative
criterion for calculating the limiting value of ReMR for visco-elastic fluids.
Several other criteria, depending upon the use of a specific fluid model, are
also available in the literature [Hanks, 1963; Govier and Aziz, 1982; Wilson,
1996; Malin, 1997]. For instance, Hanks [1963] proposed the following crite-
rion for Bingham plastic fluids:

4 4
VD 1 c C c
.ReB /c D D 3 3 He .3.32a/
B 8c

where the ratio, c D .0B /wc /, is given by:

c He
D .3.32b/
.1 c /3 16 800

The Hedström number, He, is defined as:

D2 0B
He D D ReB ð Bi .3.33/
2B

where Bi D .D0B /B V/ is the Bingham number. For a given pipe size .D/
and Bingham plastic fluid behaviour ., B , 0B /, the Hedström number will
be known and the value of c can be obtained from equation (3.32b) which, in
turn, facilitates the calculation of .ReB /c using equation (3.32a), as illustrated
in example 3.4. More recent numerical calculations [Malin, 1997] lend further
support to the validity of equations (3.32a,b).
92 Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process Industries

Both Wilson [1996] and Slatter [1996] have also re-evaluated the available
criteria for the laminar–turbulent transition, with particular reference to the
flow of pseudoplastic and yield-pseudoplastic mineral slurries in circular pipes.
Wilson [1996] has argued that the larger dissipative micro-eddies present in
the wall region result in thicker viscous sub-layers in non-Newtonian fluids
which, in turn, produce greater mean velocity, giving a friction factor lower
than that for Newtonian fluids, for the same value of the pressure drop across
the pipe. For power-law fluids, he was able to link the non-Newtonian apparent
viscosity to the viscosity of a hypothetical Newtonian fluid simply through a
function of n, the power-law flow behaviour index, such that the same Q
. p/ relationship applies to both fluids. This, in turn, yields the criterion
for laminar–turbulent transition in terms of the critical value of the friction
factor as a function of n (power-law index) alone. Note that in this approach,
the estimated value of the effective viscosity will naturally depend upon the
type of fluid and pipe diameter, D. Similarly, Slatter [1996] has put forward a
criterion in terms of a new Reynolds number for the flow of Herschel–Bulkley
model fluids (equation (1.17)) to delineate the laminar–turbulent transition
condition. His argument hinges on the fact that the inertial and viscous forces
in the fluid are determined solely by that part of the fluid which is undergoing
deformation (shearing), and hence he excluded that part of the volumetric flow
rate attributable to the unsheared plug of material present in the middle of the
pipe. These considerations lead to the following definition of the modified
Reynolds number:
8V2ann
Remod D   .3.34/
8Vann n
0H C m
Dshear
Q Qplug
where Vann D , and Dshear D 2.R Rp /
.R2 Rp2 /

Laminar flow conditions cease to exist at Remod D 2100. The calculation of

the critical velocity corresponding to Remod D 2100 requires an iterative proce-
dure. For known rheology (, m, n, 0H ) and pipe diameter .D/, a value of the
wall shear stress is assumed which, in turn, allows the calculation of Rp , from
equation (3.9), and Q and Qp from equations (3.14b) and (3.14a) respectively.
Thus, all quanties are then known and the value of Remod can be calculated.
The procedure is terminated when the value of w has been found which makes
Remod D 2100, as illustrated in example 3.4 for the special case of n D 1, i.e.,
for the Bingham plastic model, and in example 3.5 for a Herschel–Bulkley
fluid. Detailed comparisons between the predictions of equation (3.34) and
experimental data reveal an improvement in the predictions, though the values
of the critical velocity obtained using the criterion ReMR D 2100 are only
20–25% lower than those predicted by equation (3.34). Furthermore, the two
 Flow in pipes and in conduits of non-circular cross-sections 93

criteria coincide for power-law model fluids. Subsequently, it has also been
shown that while the laminar–turbulent transition in small diameter tubes is
virtually unaffected by the value of the yield stress, both the flow behaviour
index .n/ and the yield stress play increasingly greater roles in determining
the transition point with increasing pipe diameter. Finally, the scant results
obtained with a kaolin slurry and a CMC solution seem to suggest that the
laminar–turbulent transition is not influenced by the pipe roughness [Slatter,
1996, 1997].

Example 3.4

The rheological behaviour of a coal slurry (1160 kg/m3 ) can be approximated by

the Bingham plastic model with 0B D 0.5 Pa and B D 14 mPaÐs. It is to be pumped
through a 400 mm diameter pipe at the rate of 188 kg/s. Ascertain the nature of the
flow by calculating the maximum permissible velocity for laminar flow conditions.
Contrast the predictions of equations (3.33) and (3.34).

Solution

D2 0B
Here, the Hedström number, He D
2B
1160 ð 0.42 ð 0.5
D
.14 ð 10 3 /2
i.e. He D 4.73 ð 105 which when substituted in equation (3.32b) yields,
c 4.73 ð 105
3
D D 28.15
.1 c / 16 800
A trial and error procedure gives c D 0.707. Now substituting for He and c in
equation (3.32a):
4 .0.707/4
1 ð 0.707 C
.ReB /c D 3 3 ð 4.73 ð 105
8 ð 0.707
Vc D
or .ReB /c D D 11 760
B
and the maximum permissible velocity, Vc therefore is,
3
11 760 ð 14 ð 10
Vc D D 0.354 m/s.
1160 ð 0.4
The actual velocity in the pipe is
  
188 4
D 1.29 m/s
1160  ð 0.42
Thus, the flow in the pipe is not streamline.
94 Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process Industries

Alternatively, one can use equation (3.34) to estimate the maximum permissible
velocity for streamline flow in the pipe. In this example, n D 1, m D 0.014 Pa and
0H D 0.5 Pa. As mentioned previously the use of equation (3.34) requires an iterative
procedure, and to initiate this method let us assume a value of w D 0.6 Pa.

0H 0.5 Rp
∴D D D , i.e. Rp D 0.166 m and
w 0.6 R

 D 0.833. Now using equation (3.14b) for n D 1:

 
0.6
Q D  ð 0.23 ð 1 .1 0.833/2
0.014
" #
.1 0.833/2 2 ð 0.833.1 0.833/ 0.8332
ð C C
4 3 2

D 0.0134 m3 /s

The plug velocity, Vp , is calculated from equation (3.14a) by setting r/R D Rp /R D

 D 0.833, i.e.
 
1 ð 0.2 0.6
Vp D .1 0.833/2 D 0.1195 m/s
.1 C 1/ 0.014
Qp D Vp Rp2 D 0.1195 ð  ð 0.1662 D 0.01035 m3 /s
∴ Qann D Q Qp D 0.0134 0.01035 D 0.00305 m3 /s
Qann 0.00305
Vann D D D 0.078 m/s
.R2 Rp2 / .0.22 0.1662 /
Dshear D 2.R Rp / D 2.0.2 0.166/ D 0.068 m
8V2ann 8 ð 1160 ð 0.0782
∴ Remod D  n D   D 90
8Vann 8 ð 0.078
0H C m 0.5 C 0.014
Dshear 0.068

which is too small for the flow to be turbulent. Thus, this procedure must be repeated
for other values of w to make Remod D 2100. A summary of calculations is presented
in the table below.

w (Pa) Q (m3 /s) Qp (m3 /s) Remod

0.6 0.0134 0.01035 90
0.70 0.0436 0.0268 890
0.73 0.0524 0.0305 1263
0.80 0.0781 0.0395 2700
0.77 0.0666 0.0358 1994
0.78 0.0706 0.0370 2233
0.775 0.0688 0.0365 2124
 Flow in pipes and in conduits of non-circular cross-sections 95

The last entry is sufficiently close to Remod D 2100, and laminar flow will cease to
exist at w ½ 0.775 Pa. Also, note that the use of equations (3.14a) and (3.14b) beyond
this value of wall shear stress is incorrect.
0.0688
∴ maximum permissible velocity D  D 0.55 m/s.
.0.4/2
4
This value is some 40% higher than the previously calculated value of 0.35 m/s.
However, even on this count, the flow will be turbulent at the given velocity of
1.29 m/s.

Example 3.5

Determine the critical velocity for the upper limit of laminar flow for a slurry with the
following properties, flowing in a 150 mm diameter pipe.

 D 1150 kg/m3 ; 0H D 6 Pa; m D 0.3 PaÐsn and n D 0.4

Solution

As in example 3.4, one needs to assume a value for w , and then to calculate all other
quantities using equations (3.14a) and (3.14b) which in turn allow the calculation of
Remod using equation (3.34). A summary of the calculations is presented here in a
tabular form.

w (Pa) Q (m3 /s) Qp (m3 /s) Remod

6.4 4.72 ð 10 5 4.27 ð 10 5 6.5 ð 10 3

7.4 3.097 ð 10 3 2.216 ð 10 3 26.6

8.4 0.01723 0.01 778
9.3 0.046 0.0224 5257
8.82 0.0287 0.0153 2100

Thus, the laminar–turbulent transition for this slurry in a 150 mm diameter pipe occurs
when the wall shear stress is 8.82 Pa and the volumetric flowrate is 0.0287 m3 /s.
Q 0.0287
∴ mean velocity at this point D D D 1.62 m/s
./4/D2 ./4/.0.15/2
Hence, streamline flow will occur for this slurry in a 150 mm diameter pipe at velocities
up to a value of 1.62 m/s.