Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering

Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

TITLE PAGE

PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
8 Annual Conference
th

OF THE
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY,
AUCHI POLYTECHNIC AUCHI

SET 2020

THEME:
ENGINEERING SYNERGY TOWARDS SOLUTION IN NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

12TH – 14TH AUGUST, 2020

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

CONFERENCE ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Engr. O. J. Ogundele Chairman
Dr. F. P. Momoh Member
Dr. H. C. Okoh Member
Engr. K. A. Yusuf Member
Engr. A. B. Oshomah Member
Mr. E. A. Adeniyi Member
Mr. T. A. Umoru Member
Engr. I. Omennaimen Member
Engr. Mrs. H. Mahmud Member

CONFERENCE SUB-COMMITTEES
Protocol Committee
Mr. T. A. Umoru Chairman
Engr. G. Ayodele Member
Engr. O. C. Afolabi Member

Registration Committee
Engr. D. A. Osiyoku Chairman
Mr. A. S. Ajayi Member
Engr. B. B. Olawepo Member

Technical Committee
Dr. H. C. Okoh Chairman
Engr. K. A. Yusuf Secretary
Engr. S. N. Onuoha Member
Engr. A. O. Imonigie Member

Rapporteurs
Dr. H. C. Okoh Chairman
Dr. F. P. Momoh Member
Engr. A. B. Oshomah Member

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

EDITORIAL COMMENT/ACKNOLWDGEMENT
I am happy to welcome on-line our special guests and participants to this 8th Annual
Conference organised by the School of Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi,
Edo State. This E-Conference is unique and being the first time of organizing on-line conference
in the School of Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi. The theme of this Virtual
Conference is Engineering Synergy towards Solution in National Development. Human body
consists of many parts. It functions adequately when the various parts perform their functions.

Our thank goes to the Keynote Address Speaker, Prof. Gabriel O. Shonaike, Former Director,
Centre for Research , Development and Linkages, Lagos State University, Lagos. Also, we thank
our Lead Paper Presenters: Engr. Dr. Dayo H. Oladebeye, the Rector, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria; and Engr. Aigbovbiosa Osagiy Jolly, Design, Modelling and
Simulation Unit, Engineering and Materials Development Institute, Akure.

The Conference Organizing Committee is grateful to our dynamic Rector, Dr. (TPL) S.M. Jimah
for his usual and full support to the School of Engineering Technology and to the Dean, School
of Engineering Technology, Engr. Osigbemhe, P. O. for able leadership and ecouragement. Also
my immense gratitude to the management of Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, the entire members of
staff of the Polytechnic and the lovers of our great Institution for their support to the School of
Engineering Technology. My thank goes to the members of the Conference Organizing
Committee for their dedication to achieve a success of this event. Also, my sincere thanks to all
the paper authors, guests, donors, sponsors, reviewers, exhibitors and other participants for their
mind and focus in working together to develop our nation technologically.

Thanks

Engr. Ogundele Olusegun John MNSE, TRCN Certified Teacher.

Chairman, Conference Organizing Committee

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CONFERENCE ORGANIZING COMMITTEE ii
EDITORIAL COMMENT/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
CONTENT iv

KEYNOTE ADDRESS
1. ENGINEERING SYNERGY: THE PANACEA FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA - Prof. Gabriel O. Shonaike 1

LEAD PAPERS
2. ENGINEERING SYNERGY TOWARDS SOLUTION IN NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT 10
Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah OLADEBEYE

3. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE STARRING ROLE OF ENGINEERS 39

Engr. Aigbovbiosa, Osagie Jolly

CONFERENCE PAPERS
4. DEVELOPMENT OF A TWO-STAGE ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM FOR
IMPROVED ATM SERVICES 51
Adegoke, B. O., Olawuni, A. and Olla, M. O.

5. ADSORPTION CAPACITY AND ADEPTNESS OF COMPOSITE ACTIVATED

CARBON (CAC) FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTES FOR DECONTAMINATION
OF METALLIC IONS IN PHARMACEUTICAL EFFLUENT 64
Abdullahi M., A. B. Bashirua and Y. Lukman

6. DEVELOPMENT OF A VEHICLE MOVEMENT BASED STREET LIGHT SYSTEM

USING ATMEGA328P MICROCONTROLLER 80
Oyediji F. T., Babalola A D., Adetunbi A. O

7. SUSTAINING EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE BY ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY

MONITORING SYSTEM 92
Aiyelabowo O. P. and Abubakar Abisetu

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Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

8. THE LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF RUNNING DOMESTIC GENERATORS IN NIGERIA:

CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS 103
Edema, A. O., Dolor, G. A., Ayadju, G., and Esabunor, T.

9. THE IMPACT OF OIL EXPLORATION ON THE NIGER DELTA REGION 111

Akande, Deborah Omoyemi, Osagioduwa Monday and Anyanwu, Maria

10. EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING ON POWER LINES: CASE STUDY OF ILORIN

METROPOLIS, NIGERIA 124
Kareem Jimoh Jekidero, Sule Taiwo Kamaldeen and Adeoti Adeshina Joseph

11. DEVELOPMENT OF DIGITAL LOGIC TRAINER FOR LABORATORY

APPLICATION 136
Ademiloye, I. B, Adeoye,O. S. and Adewale, A.S.

12. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ESTIMATED BILLING SYSTEMS ON

ELECTRICITY CONSUMERS IN ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE, NIGERIA 145
Adeoye, O.S, Yusuf, B. M. and Ademiloye, I. B.

13. ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY AND IMPACT ON ENGINEERING

STRUCTURES OF LAGOS SURFACE WELL WATER IN LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA
Agbalajobi, S. A., Adeoti, K., and Jethro, M. A. 154

14. COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF TWO PEDOTRANSFER FUNCTIONS (PTF)

FOR ESTIMATING SOIL SORPTIVITY 166
Ajayi A. Stanley, Eriakha E. Collins and Ibrahim Rasheed

15. DETERMINATION OF PROPAGATION PATH-LOSS FOR WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION NETWORK SERVICE IMPROVEMENT IN A NIGERIAN
HILLY ENVIRONMENT 173
John A. Onipe

16. EFFECT OF SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT ON ELASTICITY OF ZA5 SOLDER

ALLOY 185
Adedayo A. V.

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Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

17. DETERMINATION OF LIBERATION SIZE OF AGBAJA IRON ORE KOGI STATE

NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA 192
Ayoola J. O., Joseph O. F., Adino O. E. and Abayomi J. F.

18. MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTION HEAT TREATED LM4 ALLOY

Adedayo A.V. 200

19. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE HUSK FILLED LOW DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE WASTE 209
Inegbedion, F., L. C. Igbonazobi, A. O. Imasuen and A. E. Eboreime

20. INFLUENCE OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON CORROSION INVASIVENESS OF

CARBON STEEL IN PEPPER FLUIDS 216
Adedayo A. V.

21. INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF RICE HUSK AS A PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF FINE SAND IN LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 223
Olorunfemi K.O. and Naallah A.

22. PRELIMINARY HYDROGEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION OF IVIUKWE

COMMUNITY IN AGENEBODE, USING ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
Ikhimealo J. O, Egbhatheye, J. A., and Suleman L. Z. 238

23. TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: A TOOL FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Umoru Jude and Adamu Bala 246

24. THE STATE OF INTELLIGENT BUILDING FCILITIES AND ITS EFFECT ON

PROPERTY VALUES IN BENIN CITY 252
Dedegu Uduimoh Irumhi

25. EFFECT OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) WASTE ON THE COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 265
Yusuf Oziohu Kudirat, Shehu Shaib Abdulazeez, Adeniran-Bakare Silifat Mobisayo and
Alhassan Abdulaziz

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Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

26. PLASTIC INTERLOCKING TILES AS ALTERNATIVES TO CONVENTIONAL

BRICK TILES 271
Ajani, J. O., Adesina, A. S. and Adegbite, D. A.

27. MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT

USING MANUAL AND COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS 282
Adedoye, Emmanuel Ayobami and Ibrahim Rasaq

28. SEDIMENTOLOGICAL AND PEBBLE MORPHOMETRIC STUDIES OF PART OF

KAWO AND ITS ENVIRONS, CENTRAL BIDA BASIN, NIGERIA 291
Egbhatheye, J. A., Sule, T. U., Umoru T. A. & Sanni E. B.

29. QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF TV WHITE SPACES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

(A CASE STUDY OF UGBOWO, BENIN CITY) 297
Kebiru Abu and Jerome Dada K.

30. ELECTRONIC WASTE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND RECYCLING 308

Umoru, T. A., Sule, T. U. N., Sanni B. E., Sado-Alimikhena. E & Osiyoku Dada Akanni

31. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERIC AND MULTIBAND POWER SYSTEM

STABLIZER (PSS) ON ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM STABILITY 318
Abolaji Stephen Korede, Jerome Dada Keshi, Isichei Pius

32. MODELING CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON PLANTAIN (MUSA.SPP)

IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA 332
Olotu Yahaya, Luqman M.A, Abudu Mohammed and Thomas Bosede

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering Synergy
Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

KEYNOTE ADDRESS:
ENGINEERING SYNERGY: THE PANACEA FOR NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Gabriel O. Shonaike

Professor of Polymer Engineering, Lagos State University, Epe Campus, Lagos State Nigeria
Email:[email protected]

1.0. Background
In the comity of nations, Nigeria as a nation is still being referred to as a developing or third
world country in spite of her almost sixty years of independence from United Kingdom. It is
surprising that Nigeria that is blessed with great human, material and natural resources is still
having enormous challenges in her stride for development. Although Nigeria has initiated
various developmental programmes including first, second, third and fourth National
Development Plans, Structural Adjustment Programmes, Vision 2010, National Economic
Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), Vision 2020, among others, the
programmes could not be sustained because of lack of political will, corruption, and faulty
National development bedrock. National Development; which is the ability of a nation to
improve the quality of life of its citizenry by providing social amenities such as medical care,
education, employment and other infrastructures, depends on the development of different
aspects and facets of the nation (Lawal and Oluwatoyin, 2011).

National Development is measured using the Human Development Index (HDI) which takes into
consideration factors such as average life expectancy, level of education and National income. It
is a fact that there is no country that can develop without significant role from Engineering
sector. The role of engineering in society will improve the quality of life due to important
synergy between the country‘s engineering sector and its development. Engineering synergy can
be a good bedrock or platform for sustainable National Development in Nigeria. Thus,
engineering sector is an important vehicle for economic, social and environmental development.
Engineering should not be mistakenly used in place of technology. In a simple form, engineering
is basically the mind and effort that goes into making a new product while technology is the
result of making the product. Both affect society and human life in general. It is through the use
of both that a nation makes use of its natural resources. Thus, economic development of our
nation strongly depends on both engineering and technology.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Engineering can contribute immensely to economic development through either basic or applied
research. The basic research develops new knowledge while applied research develops new
technology. Usually the basic research is a long-term process while in most cases the applied
research is on a short-term basis and favors industries for quick money. According to Prof.
Burton Richter of Stanford University‘s linear accelerator center, the road from a scientific
discovery to the development of new technology is not the broad straight highways that many
would like to believe. To be sure, basic discoveries are not the heart of the development of new
technologies, but there are many twists and turns in the road before industrial applications are
realized. Does science creates technology or technology creates science? Both cannot be
separated as today‘s technology is based on yesterday‘s science; today‘s science is based on
today‘s technology

2.0. Branches of Engineering

The major branches of engineering are depicted in Figure 1. Most of the areas are interconnected
in that some cannot function without others. Materials science; which is the study of the
properties of solid materials and how those properties are determined by a material‘s
composition and structure, is an area that bridges the gap between engineering and science. A
material scientist can be an engineer as well. In materials science, there are different areas of
specialization including Metals, Polymers, Ceramics, Composites, Nanomaterials and
Semiconductors. With a basic understanding of the origins of properties, materials can be
selected or designed for an enormous variety of applications, ranging from structural steels to
computer microchips. Materials science is therefore important to engineering activities such as
electronics, aerospace, telecommunications, information processing, nuclear power, and energy
conversion.

3.0. Research and development in Nigeria.

Regarding research and development, where do we stand in the field of engineering, science and
technology? In an article written by the Vice-chancellor (VC) of Plateau State University, Prof.
Nenfort Gomwalk (Vanguard Dec 7th 2012), it was stated that 70% of lecturers in the nation‘s
universities were assistant lecturers with masters degrees. The VC also commented that most of
these master‘s degree holders have spent 10 – 15 years pursuing their PhD without success. The
master‘s degree holders may be good as lecturers but in terms of research, they may be
inexperienced. Therefore, it will probably be difficult for a nation with such caliber of lecturers
to compete with the rest of the world in basic and applied research in the areas of engineering
and technology. According to an Egyptian born American Nobel Laureate in Chemistry, Prof.
Ahmed Hassan Zewail of Caltech, Pasadena, California, the scientific worldwide community has
published about 3.5 million research papers in the last 5 years. Europe has 37%, The U.S share is
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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

34%. The Asia-Pacific share is 22%. Other places representing 70-80% of the world population
living largely in developing countries have contributed less than 7%. Where do we stand in this
7%? Nigeria‘s contribution in the 7% is suggested to be less than 0.05%. Who is to blame for
this predicament? The university professors are not to blame but the system.

Figure 1: Branches of Engineering

First of all, are there ministers for education, science and technology in Nigeria? If there are;
what roles are they playing in moving the country forward? The two ministries (education,
science and technology) need to develop strategies that will prevent brain drain syndrome. In
other words, Nigerian best engineers and scholars should be encouraged to stay in Nigeria and
those sojourning in foreign countries should be persuaded to return home. Nigeria is blessed with
engineers who can compete with the bests in the world. There are many in foreign countries
contributing to the development of these so-called first world countries. Efforts should be geared

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

towards making the politicians to realize the importance of engineering and technology in the
society. Research programs are not often funded by the relevant authorities, while various
proposals from Nigerian engineers are not allowed to see the light of the day because the leaders
believe the research programs are not needed as long as the western world can provide all the
needs. Moreover, the politicians are self-centred, they are not concerned about Nigeria but their
pockets. Nigerian politicians always think of what they will get rather than what they can
contribute. Meanwhile, there are some politicians that recognize the importance of research
programs to nation building. For example, former Governor of Bayelsa State stated some years
ago (Thisday 13th Dec 2012) that the vision of his administration was to develop the university in
his state to the level that it could provide consultancy services to government and its agencies in
order to generate income as well as assist in tackling the environmental issues like the twin
problems of flood and erosion.

Scientifically, Nigeria was better decades ago because there were first class Nigerian engineers
that were inspired to contribute to the progress of the country. Nowadays moneybag is the
solution, Nigeria cannot even compete with fellow African countries. Favoritism and barbaric
appointments of unqualified people to various positions have taken over. However, hope is not
totally lost, Nigeria with its strong and intelligent engineers, can build a good engineering
foundation with limited resources within a short time. The engineers need to make it known to
the policy makers that Nigeria with its abundant human resources should not be left behind in
scientific discoveries. The policy makers need to be aware that without serendipitous discoveries
that drove men to achieve greater things, the world of today would not have been different from
centuries ago. According to Dr Wale Babalakin, The Chairman of Committee of Prochancellors
(Punch 9th Sept 2012), Nigeria is spending about N160bn annually in Ghana to educate about
75000 Nigerians schooling there. According to him, Nigeria‘s budget for education in 2011 was
less than N160bn. This means that Nigerians spent more in Ghanaian universities in 2011 than
the Federal Govt. spent on education in 2011.

Development of science and technology will involve a lot of money. In the developed world,
about 10% of their GDP is set aside for development of science and technology (Prof. Daniel
Verishima Uza, Vice-Chancellor University of Agriculture, Markurdi – Commonwealth Finance
Ministers Report 2012-2013). However, since some of the developing countries know the
benefits of science and technology in society, they are also putting in 10% or more of their GDP
towards the development. In Nigeria this may not be the case, Nigerian budget for science and
technology may be less than 0.5% of the GDP. Nigerian Government needs to wake up because
development of science and technology is the fundamental of human existence. For examples,
about a quarter or more adult population in Nigeria carries cell phones and computer literacy is
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

improving on daily basis. It is obvious that advances in science and technology will lead to
improve quality of life, employment opportunities, more leisure time for recreation, among
others. Nigeria with its invaluable resources needs to move forward and put the right people in
the right job and avoids settlement or favoritism that may lead to backward movement.
Engineers are indeed part of the development as no nation can survive without contributions
from engineers.

4.0. Way Forward

What is next for Nigeria‘s Strategy Plans for National Development? It is expected that the
country through its engineers and technologists will build a research center similar to the one in
Figure 2a and b. Spring-8 (name derived from: Super Photon ring-8 Gev, i.e. 8 GeV, or 8giga
electron volts, being the power output of the ring) is the world‘s most powerful third-generation
synchrotron radiation facility conducting advanced research in materials science, life sciences,
biotechnology, nanotechnology, among others. It consist of a narrow beams of electromagnetic
radiation, synchrotron radiation produced when electron beams accelerated to nearly the speed of
light, and forced to travel in a curved path by a magnetic field (the circumference of the ring is
1,436m). Spring-8 is located in Harima science park, Himeji, Japan. I had the opportunity for
research visits when I was a professor at Himeji Institute of Technology. Engineers and
Scientists all over the world use this facility. Nigeria can be the first in Africa to build similar or
even more powerful synchrotron if the oil money is managed wisely. This adventure can
generate a lot of money in return because it will be open to scientists and engineers all over
Africa or even the rest of the world for research activities.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Figure 2a. Spring-8. World‘s most powerful third-generation synchrothron radiationfor advanced
research (outer view). The ring has a circumference of 1,436m: With permission from GNU free
documentation license)

Figure 2b. Spring-8. World‘s most powerful third-generation synchrothron radiationfor

advanced research (inside views). The ring has a circumference of 1,436m: With permission
from GNU free documentation license)
Recent plane crashes in Nigeria could have been prevented if research activities are carried out in
aerospace engineering. One of the areas that I‘ve been part of in the past is ―STRUCTURAL
HEALTH MONITORING‖ (SHM) of aircraft, designed to improve the safety and
maintainability of aircraft structures, i.e. a process of implementing damage detection and
characterization strategy for aircraft structures. The system combines a variety of sensing
technologies with an embedded measurement controller to capture, log and analyze real-time
data. SHM detects any sign of fatigue and damage in aircraft to avoid catastrophic failure. In the
United States, on any given day, more than 87,000 flights are in the skies, i.e. about 28,537
commercial flights (major and regional airlines), 27,178 general aviation flights (private planes),
24,548 air taxi flights (planes for hire), 5,260 military flights and 2,148 cargo flights (Fedex,
UPS, etc). Plane crashes in the United States are rare because they are well maintained and
contain sensors that can detect potential failure (Figure 3). When will Nigeria start rigorous
research and development? Do we have to rely on western world?

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Figure 3. Boeing 777 with damage sensors: courtesy Prof. W. Ostachowics, Polish Academy
of Science

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Fig. 4. Glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic elastomer composite (TPEC)

Within the last few decades, several investigations on fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites
have been reported in the literature. These composite materials are enjoying greater attention in
both academic and industrial communities due to their greater manufacturing flexibilities and
properties. Thermoplastic elastomers represent an area in both characteristics of thermoplastic
with the physical properties of vulcanized rubber. Some of the advantages of thermoplastic
elastomer over vulcanized rubber are; they do not require the process of vulcanization, i.e.
thermosetting process (this requires extra time for chemical reactions to occur) and they are
economical due to the elimination of compounding of rubbers with fillers, vulcanizing agents
and plasticizers. However, the main reason for developing reinforced thermoplastic composites
are due to their applications for various components in aerospace, automobile and related
industries where high performance materials are called for. Elastomer composites have been
used since early days of tyre production but matrix rubber production is a thermosetting process
and the matrix/fibre composites are not impregnated. Investigations have shown that non
impregnation can lead to layer separation and danger of skin poisoning. Thus manufacturing of
thermoplastic elastomer composites will combine the fast thermoplastic processing techniques
with the ability to produce rubber-like products.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Fig. 5. Fibre-Reinforced Components in Aircraft

Conclusions
Yesterday‘s discovery is today‘s technology. Engineers will continue to contribute immensely
towards a better Nigeria.

Reference
Lawal, T. and Oluwatoyin, A, ( 2011). National Development in Nigeria: Issues, Challenges and
Prospects. Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research. Vol. 3, No 9

 On sabbatical leave at Flour Mills of Nigeria Ltd - BAGCO

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering Synergy
Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Lead Paper One

ENGINEERING SYNERGY TOWARDS SOLUTION IN NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah OLADEBEYE
HND (Dist.), PGD (Dist.), M.Eng, MBA, PhD, FNSE, FRHD, FCAI, FIMC, FIOGRHS,
MNIMechE, MNIEM, COREN Regd. Engr.
Rector, The Federal Polytechnic Ado – Ekiti, Ekiti State of Nigeria.
PROTOCOLS
It is with great pleasure that I welcome you all to the 8th edition of the Annual Conference of
School of Engineering Technology of this Citadel of higher learning. Today, my joy overflows
with profound gratitude to God Almighty who has made it possible for me to stand before
this august assembly of erudite scholars, captains of industry, respected professionals, academic
juggernauts and the gurus of our time in the field of Engineering to present a Lead Paper on the
main theme of this eye opening and National development Conference titled, ―Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution In National Development‖. I am particularly grateful to the Rector
of this Polytechnic whose approval I believe propelled and upheld my invitation to the
conference. I also appreciate the Dean, School of Engineering Technology and the organizers
of this Conference for their thoughtfulness in selecting such a relevant theme and for
considering me worthy of this honour to address you on the subject matter.

The theme of this year‘s International conference ―Engineering Synergy Towards Solution in
National Development‖ is very germane and imperative in this contemporary time considering
the various developments in the field of engineering across the globe as it bridges the gap
between the Stone Age and the Modern Age. It also reveals how strengths are bridged, how
weaknesses are eliminated, how opportunities are harnessed and how threats are dissipated. We
have also seen Engineering responding to new waves of emerging issues and technology in the
world. People have started clamouring for synergy in Engineering because of its importance to
Engineering itself and to National Development. SYNERGY is such a powerful and
indispensable concept that if harnessed will bring about enviable national development. The
impacts of Engineering in the global environment over the years cannot be over- emphasized.

10 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye

 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The role of Engineering in national development cannot be overemphasized. It is one of the
engines that drive development in any thriving and successful nation in the world through steady
and meaningful advancement in innovations and technology. It is therefore noteworthy that the
demand for development all over the world is increasing day by day with diverse trends and new
ideas in technological development across the entire engineering and non-engineering
fields. This has created a lot of bottlenecks in recent times arising from high volume of works
to be done, timely delivery of projects and has inadvertently resulted to dwindling national
development especially in Nigeria. In ensuring national development, it is imperative and
critically important for engineers and non-engineers to engage in result oriented synergy such
that will propel and yield developmental results in the country. Engineering family is a scientific
field that has to work together in a bond and spirit of oneness to achieve exponentially increased
result while ensuring that progress and transformational development does not suffer in any
society. The transformational strength of Engineers and engineering rests on synergy as
experienced in developed countries.

Keywords: Engineering, Synergy, National Development.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A country is said to have developed when her economy has highly progressed and possesses
great technological infrastructure, as compared to other nations. A developed country is
characterized with independence, prosperity, industrialization, high per capital income, high
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), high literacy rate, good infrastructure, better environment in
terms of health and safety, high standard of living, industrialization, effective and efficient
utilization of a country‘s resources (Carree and Thuric, 1999).
Nigeria has been struggling for over six decades to achieve the status of a developed country.
Unfortunately, we are still far behind and below despite all efforts in achieving this feat but
the struggle continues because solution is daily beckoning on us. National Development is a
continuous process that requires continuous efforts for improvements. Virtually every discipline
and profession around the world is working towards National development and the role of
Engineering cannot be under estimated. However, there is need for cross-idealism and
collaboration within engineering profession and other professional fields; hence, the need for
Synergy (Chete et al. 2013).

Having gone through the sub-themes of this conference, it becomes a bit difficult for my
Lead Paper to cover all the sixteen sub-themes identified for focus at this conference. I have
therefore decided to highlight on few specific issues in each of the three broad areas of the main

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

theme of the conference – Engineering, Synergy and National development. I fully intend to
utilize the opportunity to share my thoughts on a number of contemporary issues in
engineering that I hope will stimulate further insightful discussions, corporate actions and
ultimately, multidimensional synergy for an overall meaningful and positive impact on our
country‘s National Development.

In doing this, however, I have taken the liberty to give a more generous attention to the issue
after my heart in Engineering – Innovation. To do justice to this paper, my presentation is
shaped by my experience as a seasoned professional and a practicing Engineer of over three
decades. In view of this, my presentation is arranged into five sections. After this
introductory section, Section 2 focuses on Engineering with emphasis on the various branches
of Engineering, mind blowing innovations over the years and challenges that must be overcome
in order to achieve the National Development that we can all be proud of. In Section 3, we will
discuss the meaning of synergy, the need for synergy in Engineering and its benefits to
National Development. In Section 4, we will discuss National development with respect to
the components and contemporary challenges. Section 5 suggests possible solutions to the
contemporary challenges of National Development. The paper is concluded in Section 5.

2.0 WHAT IS ENGINEERING?

Engineering is the branch of science which deals with the application of scientific and
mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, operation and
servicing of efficient and economic structures, machines, processes and systems. Today, these
end results are seen in the likes of constructed bridges, dams, roads, railways, buildings, factory
machines, automobiles, ships, aircrafts, computer and electronic systems, electrical fittings, their
maintenance and repairs. Engineering is a professional course which has been proven to be a
recognized tool for every nation‘s economic growth and development. It has been and still is the
forerunner for the development and progress of any country (Akingbagbohun, 2018).

Engineers are responsible for some of the most important advances in biomedicine and they
have played a key role in building the infrastructure around us – from roads to utility
networks. Engineers also play a role in the development of the food we eat and the development
of new materials, such as cutting-edge foams and coatings to be used in manufacturing. With
half the world living in poverty and millions of people without sufficient food or sanitation,
engineering continues to have a key role to play in helping countries to progress across the
world.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

2.1 BRANCHES OF ENGINEERING

Engineering covers different types of activities. It is a huge discipline with hundreds of areas
of specialization. Traditionally, the main branches of engineering are Mechanical Engineering,
Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
i. Mechanical Engineering: This branch of engineering concentrates on manufacturing,
design and maintenance of mechanical systems. It applies physical principles and
materials science to the design, manufacture, and analysis of mechanical systems. It helps in
developing mechanical solutions that cater for the needs of society.

Sub-disciplines: Manufacturing Engineering, Acoustical Engineering, Optomechanical

Engineering, Thermal Engineering, Sports Engineering, Vehicle Engineering, Power Plant
Engineering, Energy Engineering and Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, etc.
ii. Electrical and Electronic Engineering: This is a crucial type of engineering which
focuses on small circuits and electrical power supplies. It is used in nearly every aspect of our
lives.

Sub-disciplines: Electronic Engineering, Computer Engineering (Software, Hardware and

Network Engineering), Optical Engineering, Power Engineering, Instrumentation and
Control Engineering, and Telecommunications Engineering.

iii. Civil Engineering: This is one of the oldest forms of engineering that has to do with
design, construction, analysis, and maintenance of structures, both natural and manmade,
including bridges, roads, dams, and buildings.

Sub-disciplines: Environmental Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Mining

Engineering, Construction Engineering, Transport Engineering, Utility Engineering,
Materials Engineering, Control Engineering, Structural Engineering, Urban
Engineering, Water Resources Engineering, Municipal Engineering, Biomechanics
Engineering etc.

iv. Chemical Engineering: A combination of different subjects such as experimental and life
sciences, Chemical Engineering focuses on the development of new materials and is crucial
for numerous engineering fields. Producing new useful materials and substances is essential
to humanity's future prosperity.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Sub-disciplines: Biomedical Engineering, Biomolecular Engineering, Materials

Engineering, Molecular Engineering, Process Engineering, Corrosion Engineering,
Petroleum Refinery Engineering. etc.
The scope of engineering is continually evolving because of the dynamic nature of engineering-
related industries. There is a diverse range of specialised engineering disciplines or fields of
application which includes (but not limited to) the following:
• Aerospace Engineering: Aerospace Engineering deals with aeronautics and
astronautics engineering, including the design and analysis of aircraft, satellites, and
spacecraft.
• Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering: This branch of engineering
deals with farm machinery and structures, natural resources, bioenergy and farm
power systems. Sub- disciplines include Food Engineering, Aquaculture, and
Bioprocess Engineering.
• Automotive Engineering: Automotive Engineers are involved in the design,
manufacture, and performance of cars and trucks.
• Biological Engineering: Biological engineering is applied biology and medicine. It
includes Biomedical Engineering, Biochemical Engineering, Protein Engineering,
Genetic Engineering, and Tissue Engineering.
• Biomedical Engineering: Biomedical Engineering is an interdisciplinary
specialty that applies engineering principles to medical and biological
problems and systems. This discipline commonly deals with medical therapies,
monitoring devices, and diagnostic tools.
• Engineering Management: Engineering management combines engineering
and management principles to develop and assess business practices. These
engineers help plan and administrate businesses from their inception through
operation. They are involved in product development, design engineering,
construction, manufacturing, and marketing.
• Industrial Engineering: Industrial Engineering pertains to the design and study of
logistics and industrial resources. Types of industrial engineering include Safety
Engineering, Construction Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering, Textile
Engineering, Reliability Engineering, Component Engineering, and Systems
Engineering.
• Mechatronics: Mechatronics combines Mechanical Engineering and Electrical
Engineering, frequently in the analysis of automated systems. Robotics, Artificial
intelligence, Avionics, and Instrumentation Engineering may be considered types of
Mechatronics.

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Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
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• Nano-Engineering: Nano Engineering is the application of engineering on the

vastly miniaturized or nanoscopic scale.
• Nuclear Engineering: Nuclear Engineering is the practical application of nuclear
processes, such as those used to produce and harness nuclear power.
• Petroleum Engineering: Petroleum Engineers apply scientific principles to detect,
drill and extract crude oil and natural gas. Types of Petroleum Engineering includes
Drilling Engineering, Reservoir Engineering, and Production Engineering.
• Structural Engineering: Structural Engineering pertains to the design and analysis of
load- bearing structures and supports. In many cases, this is a sub discipline of Civil
Engineering, but Structural Engineering also applies to other structures, such as
vehicles and machinery.
• Vehicle Engineering: Engineering pertaining to design, manufacture, and
operation of vehicles and their components. Branches of vehicle engineering include
naval architecture, automotive engineering, and aerospace engineering.
• Architectural Engineering: Combining science, technology and a variety of
engineering systems such as Structural, Electrical and Mechanical, Architectural
Engineers design buildings to enhance the standard of living. You will design and
manage projects using an array of skills.
• Automobile Engineering: An exciting and rewarding career, you will use technical
expertise and creative skills to design and develop various types of vehicles.
Automobile engineers specialise in the development of motorcycles, cars, buses and
trucks to name a few - responsibilities include design, manufacture and distribution.
• Mining Engineering: As a Mining Engineer you will typically design underground
mines and open-pits. You will use your knowledge of extracting and processing
minerals to supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels, as well as develop
methods for transporting the minerals.
• Marine Engineering: As a Marine Engineer you will be responsible for the
design and production of boats, ships and underwater craft. You will also test and
repair sea vessels and structures, as well as work closely with engineers and other
professionals such as naval architects.
• Nuclear Engineering: As a Nuclear Engineer you will deal with the application of
nuclear energy. You could specialise in just one field of Nuclear Engineering, working
within a specific setting such as nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons and
radioactive-waste disposal facilities.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

2.2 ENGINEERING INNOVATIONS AND INVENTIONS

Engineering has completely changed the world we live in with thousands of innovations
which have had several positive impacts on the society. Innovative ideas are at the heart
of what engineers do, and they use their knowledge to create new and exciting prospects and
solve any problems that may arise (Constable and Somerville, 2003). The lists of engineering
innovations are quite long and beyond what could be fully enumerated within the context of this
paper.
However, some notable innovations that have immensely contributed to national development in
the last two centuries include;

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
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3.0 SYNERGY
The word synergy (pronounced SIN-ur-jee , from Greek synergia, meaning "cooperation," and
also synergos, meaning "working together") is the combined working together of two or more
parts of a system so that the combined effect is greater than the sum of the efforts of
the parts. Synergy means the combined power of a group of things when they are working
together that is greater than the total power achieved by each working separately (Byron, 2016).

Marriam-Webster Dictionary defines synergy as a mutually advantageous conjunction or

compatibility of distinct business participants or elements (such as resources or efforts).
Synergy is defined by the Collins English Dictionary as 'the potential ability for
individuals or groups to be more successful working together than on their own. It also
means the creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts (Wikipedia).

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

There are several key concepts relevant to synergy including sharing, partnership,
interdependency, collaboration and power. To summarize the essence of synergy;
 Synergy is a mutually beneficial and well-defined relationship entered into by two or
more organizations to achieve common goals.
 The relationship includes a commitment to a definition of mutual relationships and goals,
a jointly developed structure and shared responsibility, mutual authority and
 accountability for success, and sharing of resources and rewards

3.1 NEED FOR ENGINEERING SYNERGY

Synergy may occur at virtually any level of an organizational structure. People can
synergize within an organization, among different organizations and between
professions commonly referred to as inter-professional synergy. Everybody's professional
skills, cultural sensitivity, clear written and verbal communication, etc., are essential for the
successful 21st century Engineer and by implication, the overall development of our dear
nation. The two major approaches to tackling the need for synergy are; Intra-professional
synergy and Inter-professional synergy (Byron, 2016).

3.1.1 Intra-professional synergy:

This type of synergy takes place among people of the same profession for example.
Engineering profession is made up of diverse areas of specialization and branches. Its
activities are sometimes interwoven and require adequate skills for better achievement.
i. Engineering is highly synergetic and collaborative: Modern projects involve dozens, if
not hundreds, of engineers.
ii. Complexity in Modern Engineering designs: Today‘s machines are too complex for any
one person to design the entire apparatus in a lifetime. Dozens of people working in
parallel on connected pieces can get a lot more done, and quicker through synergy.
iii. Engineering is a team sport: Engineering requires each person to work on a different
piece of a project at the same time with the aim of achieving the same goal at a relatively
low time period.

3.1.2 Inter-professional synergy:

This is the kind of synergy that goes beyond a single profession. It harnesses a wide range of
expertise and creativity and it is the key to true innovation and to creating a better future. An
application Consulting Engineer Ryan Nabozniak challenged engineers to widen their
perspective by collaborating with professionals not just in different engineering disciplines, but
in different fields‘ altogether (Ryan, 2016).
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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

When COVID -19 started, at a point I came across an article on the internet from ―the
conversation independent academic and community research news website dated March 25,
2020‖ on ―Coronavirus: why we need to consult engineers as well as scientists for solutions”
which was written by an anonymous person challenging engineers to do something in curbing
the ravaging Corona virus. He stated that everyone was looking for solutions to the ravaging
corona virus from scientists. His points were substantiated by the statements made by some of
the world leaders. UK Prime Minister, Boris Johnson said the coronavirus outbreak has come to
show light on the use of experts and scientific advice and that his response to the Corona virus
outbreak was driven by scientific advice. (Skynews, Monday, 16th March, 2020). Similarly, the
Canadian Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau at a news conference held at his residence on 19th
March, 2020 urged people to “trust in science” while Germany‘s chancellor, Angela Merkel,
has referred to “consensus among experts” as a way of overcoming the deadly virus.

It should therefore be clearly stated that Engineers are among the experts mentioned by
Germany‘s Chancellor, Angela Markel. This is a call to synergy among experts of different
fields. It is obvious that scientific approach to curing the Coronavirus pandemic was the focus of
every government and individuals. The Question now is where is the place of Engineering?
What are engineers doing to mitigate the spread and or facilitate cure of the COVID-19
pandemic?

However, Engineers across the globe have come up with different innovations which had
resulted in the production/fabrication of different machines and equipment that could help in
stemming the ugly tide of the ravaging virus. The following are some of the innovations;
1. Ventilators
2. Pedal Operated hand washing and sanitizing machine
3. Solar powered/automated hand washing, sanitizing and drying machine
4. Non-contact, stand - Alone infra-red Temperature Sensing Device
5. Disinfection tunnels
6. Face shields etc

This has proven a level of synergy between engineers, scientists and health sectors. Since there is
no end to knowledge acquisition and progressive innovations and the fact that no profession can
thrive successfully in isolation, there is need for inter-professional synergy. There is a wide
range of non-professionals that engineers could synergize with, some of which are;

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

i. Anthropologists:
Anthropology is defined as “the study of what makes us human,” explores the broad range of
human ex peri ence . While engineers may take a technical approach to problem-solving,
anthropologists take a human approach. When t h e two approaches are put together, a
reasonable and acceptable solution will be provided. This is a synergy between social scientists
and engineers which benefit the global system. To tackle health issues on Medical Waste
Management, Anthropologist and Biomedical Engineer could synergize. (Gladys Ndagire,
2013).

ii. Psychologists
Similar to Anthropologists, Psychologists can help Engineers understand the human aspect of
their projects. In fact, psychology and engineering are intimately intertwined.
This article from Canada‘s Ryerson University explores the strong link between psychology
and civil engineering, focusing on ergonomics. The field of ergonomics uses information about
how humans interact with products, machines, and systems to optimize the design of those
products, machines, and systems. This requires understanding of both the humans (psychology)
and the technology (engineering). Ergonomics is vital to transportation, construction, and many
other areas of civil engineering. (Ryan Nabozniak, 2016).

Also, just like with anthropology, the link between engineering and psychology is so important
that there‘s a whole field devoted to it: Engineering Psychology.

iii. Architects
Engineer and architects need to work together all the time. This may sound obvious especially
on civil engineering projects.
Architects focus on form, engineers on function, and the end result is a building or other
structure.

The identified problem in the industry is that engineers and architects don‘t always work
together very well.
Architects think engineers don‘t care about how something looks, just about how it works.
Engineers think architects care only about how something looks, rather than about how it
works. This is because they approach the problems from two different perspectives which are
not true.
Fortunately, that‘s an easy problem to solve through education and communication. If
Engineers and Architects were to sit down and focus on understanding one another, they will
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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

likely discover their common ground. And once Engineers and Architects are on the same
page, the result will be great.

iv. Biologists
For many years, engineering and biology were close to opposite ends of the spectrum. But
nanotechnology, and in particular, Nano medicine, has changed all of that. The MIT-Harvard
Centre for Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence development of diversified portfolio of
nanoscale devices for targeted delivery of cancer therapies, diagnostics, non-invasive imaging
and molecular sensing which brought engineers, biologists, and medical doctors together was a
typical example of synergy. This has resulted in innovative treatments that neither discipline
could have achieved on its own.

v. Ecologists
In a 2013 editorial for Ecological Engineering, the journal‘s editor-in-chief Dr. William J.
Mitsch posed the question: “When will ecologists learn engineering and engineers learn
ecology?”
This question arose from Mitsch‘s evaluation of six major wetland restoration projects, only
two of which he views as successful and sustainable. If engineers and ecologists had worked
more closely, the results might have been more positive. (Journal of Ecological Engineering,
2013).
Indeed, there is a lot to be gained from a synergy between these two disciplines. For example,
Lisa Palmer has explored research showing how ecological principles can be incorporated into
water management products to make them more sustainable. And engineering projects that take
ecosystems into account are better at mitigating the effects of natural disasters, like flooding,
than either natural or engineered systems alone. (Journal of Ecological Engineering, 2013)

vi. Pilots and astronauts

Synergy between engineers and pilots is absolutely crucial for any projects related to flight.
Engineers may understand flight dynamics and what aircraft can do in terms of range and
efficiency, but pilots know what it‘s like to actually fly a plane. In this respect, it‘s somewhat
like the relationship between engineers and artists - engineers understand the data, pilots
understand the feeling.

Both perspectives are important when designing and developing new aircraft.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

3.2 BENEFITS OF SYNERGY

The derivable benefits of synergy are quite numerous some of which are mentioned below;
1. It boosts economic and national development: synergy among various professions and
organizations including government agencies bring about appreciable results which
invariably boosts economic and national development.
2. It helps in solving problems easily: corporate approach to tackling issues aids articulated
brainstorming, hence, speeds up problem solving.
3. It brings people (and organizations) closer together: Synergy promotes unity purpose
and love among focused team members. Hence it brings about unusual closeness.
4. It helps people learn from one another: It is a known fact that there is no monopoly
of knowledge. Synergy encourages continuous learning among team members.
5. It opens up new channels for communication: Information and communication are very
important in teamwork. Better ways of communication are enabled for the sake of
information dissemination in order to achieve the overall objectives of a project or an
organization.
6. It boosts morale across organizations: achievement of organizational goals and
objectives through a team effort is usually a morale booster for the team players. This goes
for synergy too.
7. It provides job opportunities: since there will be simplification and division of job
on specific assignments, more hands will be needed which will eventually lead to creation of
jobs.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

3.2.1 Synergy among Finance, Agricultural, Material, Mechanical and Automobile

Engineering etc.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

4.0 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In simple terms, National development is the ability of a nation to improve the lives of its
citizens. It is a combination of all aspects of the life of an individual and the nation. It
includes full-growth and expansion of our industries, agriculture, Education, social, religious
and cultural institutions. The national development plans and policies of government are
usually based on the perceived needs of its citizens. National development takes into
account, all-round and balanced development of different aspects and facets of the
nation which includes; political, economic, social, cultural, scientific and material
(Akingbagbohun, 2018).

4.1 COMPONENTS OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Quality Education and Skills development
2. Improved Social Amenities e.g. Housing, water, electricity and sanitation
3. Safety and Security
4. Employment
5. Industrialization
6. Increase in agricultural production
7. Development of human resource
8. Application of science and technology in production sector,

4.2 CHALLENGES OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Population Growth: Nigeria has steadily maintained not less than 2. 7% population
growth rate in the last four years from 2017 to 2019. Nigeria c u r r e n t l y has
Population of over 206 million people. The U.S. Census Bureau says with the rate
at which Nigeria is growing, there will be an estimated 402 million people in Nigeria
in 2050. Nigeria has the largest population in Africa. (Worldometers.info)

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Table 1: Past and Expected Future Population Growth Rate

Source: theglobalgraph.com, 2020

1. Security Challenge: In recent times, Nigeria has been desecrated by social unrest,
including Boko Haram terrorism, herdsmen attacks, kidnappings, ritual killings and many
other unwholesome security challenges. Nigeria currently ranks 147th out of 163
Countries on the 2020 Global Peace Index (GPI), and 3rd globally among worst hit
by terrorism for four consecutive years according to the 2019 Global Terrorism Index
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

(GTI) rankings. This has posed a very serious threat to National development.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

3. High Rate of Rural and Urban Poverty: National Bureau of Statistics on Monday
4th May, 2020, published that Nigeria National Poverty rate currently stands at 40.09
per cent, representing 82.9 million persons. Urban poverty rate stood at 18.04 percent,
while the rural poverty rate is estimated at 52.1 percent, this is a challenge to national
development.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

4. Large Scale Unemployment and Under-employment: National Bureau of

Statistics (NBS) 2019 report reveals that unemployment rate was at 23.13 per cent, and
underemployment was at 16.6 per cent. As alarming as this was, it has been projected that
the rate would reach 33.5 per cent in year 2020.

Figure 6: Unemployment Rate in Nigeria

Source: National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), 2019

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
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5. Political Instability: Lack of continuity in government, corruption among public

office holders, election rigging and other political vices are pointers towards political
instability which has over the years affected National development.
6. Low Industrial Output: According to data from trading economics, Industrial
Production in Nigeria averaged 1.42 per cent from 2007 until 2019, reaching an all-
time high of 25.10 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2019 and a record low of -20.40
per cent in the first quarter of 2016. While the world is tending towards
industrialization, it is unfortunate that Nigeria does not seem to be taking part in this
general movement of developed countries. Nigeria imports almost everything including
tooth picks. This impairs real national development. Industrialization is the breath with
which any economy can survive. Engineers therefore have important roles to play.

7. Poor Education Standards: Education is a maJor investment m the human

capital development of a nation. It plays a pivotal role in every aspect of nation
building. However, Nigeria national development is slowed down as a result of its
dwindling standard of education caused majorly by poor funding resulting to poor
educational infrastructures, inadequate classrooms, teaching materials, paucity of quality
teachers in some educational sectors and poor /polluted learning environment.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
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8. Large Pool of Illiteracy: based on available statistics, 62 per cent of Nigerians are
literate and 38 per cent are non-literate. "The out-of-school children are over 10 million,
while the non- literate Nigerians (youth and adults), over 70 million, so put together".
We have over 80 million citizens of Nigeria who cannot read and write or who lack
basic skills for modem living. (Unicef, 2019)

Figure 8: Out of School Children in Nigeria (2019)

Source: Unicef, 2019

9. Poor Health Care: This takes into account the number of doctors per thousand people,
access to affordable medicine, etc. in Global healthcare Index, World Health
Organization (WHO) Ranks Nigeria 187 out of 190 in World Health Systems. In the
same manner, Nigeria has the lowest life expectancy rates in all of West Africa and the
third lowest in the world according to United Nations with the average life expectancy
around 53.7 for men and 55.4 years for women.

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10. Poor Environmental Standards: Nigeria ranked 100 among 180 countries in the
2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which compares, analyses and
understands environmental performance for those countries.

11. Rising Domestic and External Debt: Nigeria‘s total debt according to the Nigeria senate
and Nigeria Debt Management Office (DMO), stands at thirty three trillion Naira
(N33trilliion). This is a pointer to impending inflation which is usually characterized by
poverty.

5.0 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES OF NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
1. Industrialization: Engineers should synergize with manufacturing sectors in order to
achieve greater global competitiveness in the production of processed and
manufactured goods through the use of technologies such as, artificial intelligence, robotics
and other modern day equipment. They should also link industrial activity with primary
sector activity, domestic and foreign trade, and service activity. This will help in raising
productivity, creates employment opportunities, reduce risk, enhance income generation for
the nation and raise the poor out of poverty.
2. Population Growth: Increase in population is a visible phenomenon. Statistics has
revealed that more than half of the world‘s population currently lives in urban areas, a
number that is expected to reach 70% by 2050. (United Nations, 2014) Climate
considerations should therefore play a major role in urban planning decision taken. This
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will therefore create investment opportunities for the world. Specifically, sub-Saharan
Africa has investment potential of $13 billion in waste management, $89 billion in
Renewable energy, $159 billion in Public Transportation, $101 billion in climate-smart
water, $344 billion in Electric vehicles and $768 billion in Green buildings. Nigeria‘s
estimated climate smart investment potential is over $104 billion from 2016– 2030 in
selected sectors. (International Finance Corporation (IFC) Climate Investment Opportunity
Report, 2016). Engineers should therefore be actively involved in climate control, waste
management, renewable energy, transportation and green buildings.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Insecurity: Engineers should synergize with security agencies in the area of technologies
which has advanced so well that if harnessed, would reasonably curb insecurity in any
country. Engineering efforts should therefore be geared towards the production and deployment
of reliable surveillance, intelligence gathering, identification and communication
tools such as, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), Satellite imagery, biometric
surveillance, data mining and profiling, radio-frequency identification and geo- location
devices, mobile telephony systems, social network surveillance, DNA, facial recognition and
finger printing technologies to curb insecurity challenge in the country (Oludare et al.,
2015).

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
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4. Agriculture and Food Production: Agriculture is the largest employer globally

with over a billion workers, including a large number of poor rural workers and
subsistence farmers (notably women). With the development of more agricultural
technologies, agriculture can meaningfully provide jobs for millions of Nigerians.
Relevant engineers and other professionals should synergize in ensuring that there
are sustainable food production systems in place that maintain ecosystems, and by
helping to improve land and soil quality. Also, more efforts should be put into
the discovery, design and production of agricultural tools that will assist in agriculture.

34 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye

 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

5. Technology Development: Industrialized nations hold technology in high esteem.

Engineers should synergize to produce more indigenous technologies in Nigeria. This will
enhance industrialization and boost the economy.

6. Renewable Energy: Globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the
renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaic system being the largest renewable
employer. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286
billion in 2015. In 2017, worldwide investments in renewable energy amounted to US$279.8
billion with China accounting for US$126.6 billion or 45% of the global investments, the United
States for US$40.5 billion and Europe for US$40.9 billion. Sub- Saharan Africa still has the
investment potential of US$89 billion. As of 2019, more than two-thirds of worldwide newly
installed electricity capacity was renewable. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end
by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewable and natural gas. (Renewable Energy Journal,
2018).

7. Mining R e h a b i l i t a t i o n : The dom esti c industry in Nigeria is still underdeveloped.

According to report of Ministry of Mines and Steel development, 2018, mining currently
contributes 0.33% of Nigeria‘s Gross Domestic Product which is very insignificant compared to
what it is capable of generating for the country if well harnessed. Nigeria is blessed with so
many mineral resources; Gold, Bitumen, lead, zinc, lime stone, coal tantalite, Uranium etc. that
are yet to be adequately mined. In fact a mining Consultant from Africa once said that the coal
mine in Kogi State was enough to power Nigeria electricity for more than 400years. Mining
engineers should synergize with relevant mining agencies to rehabilitate the mining sector.

8. Improvement in Health: Engineering synergy with the heath sector resulted to

biomedical engineering which is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to
medicine and biology for healthcare purposes. Because of the vastness and complexities of
healthcare systems, biomedical engineers can work on any of a number of necessary tasks,
such as developing artificial organs, building machines to aid in diagnosis, providing technical
support for medical technology, training clinicians in machine use, and even studying the
engineering aspects of biological systems, like the endocrine system, in humans and animals.
Biomedical engineers have made some notable inventions in the twenty first century such as
Electrocardiographs, Nanotechnology, Brain-Machine Interface, Bluetooth Pulse Oximeter,
Genome editing. Etc. they should do more to revamp the health sector at this critical time.

35 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye

 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

9. Improvement in Education: Engineering synergy with Education sector: Engineers

should produce more devices or objects such as audio, video, books, DVDs, Projectors,
computers etc. to aid teaching by teachers to enhance or enliven classroom instruction.

6.0 CONCLUSION
It is a known fact that Engineering is central to the well-being development of every nation. The
past and present contributions of engineering to the nation cannot be overemphasized. Its
creativity and dynamism evolves continuously to meet human needs and contribute to nation
building. Engineering is pervasive in our modern society, enabling every sector from
communication and entertainment to finance and healthcare, as well as its more
visible applications in construction, manufacturing and transport. Progress is driven, as it
has always been, by human curiosity and experimentation, but resources are finite and the art
of engineering is to devise affordable solutions to problems. It should however be noted that no
discipline can sufficiently survive in isolation.

7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Engineers should be more proactive in their response to the nation‘s population growth
by synergizing with relevant agencies to put sustainable measures in terms of technological
innovations in place to forestall the vices that may arise with it.
2. Technological development should be promoted within the country.
3. There should be synergy between Engineers and security sector on the use of technology
to curb insecurity in the country.
4. Mining Sector should be extensively revitalized and illegal mining should be curbed as
much as possible.
5. Engineers should be involved extensively in finding solutions to reducing carbon
emissions alongside ensuring increased portions of the world‘s population have access to
sustainable power.
6. Engineers should put in more efforts towards harnessing and utilizing our natural
resources profitably and for generating additional income through sustainable mining
activities.
7. Engineers should be intensely involved to ensure provision of quality, affordable
and sustainable Health Care delivery for all Citizens.
8. Government and Investors should provide affordable housing scheme for rural
dwellers through the great contributions of Engineers working in Synergy with these
stakeholders.
36 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

8.0 References
Akingbagbohun, F. (2018), The role of Engineers in National Economy Development.,
Lecture delivered at Covenant University, Otta on 21st February, 2018
Byron Seastrunk (2016), A Proposal For Developing Engineering Synergy, Engineer, General,
New, Technology, https://opinionbypen.com/developing-engineering-synergy/.
Carree, M. A., and Thurik, A. R. (1999), Industrial structure and economic growth, in
D.B. International Finance Corporation, Climate Investment Opportunity Report, 2016
Audretsch and A.R. Thurik (eds.), Innovation, Industry Evolution and Employment,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 86-1
Chete, L. N. Adeoti, J. O. Adeyinka, F. M. and Ogundele, O. (2013), Industrial development and
growth in Nigeria: Lessons and challenges, Learning to compete, Africa Growth
Initiative at Brookings (AGI).
Constable, G., Somerville, B. (2003), A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering
Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
https://doi.org/10.17226/10726.

National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), report on 4th May, 2020. National Bureau of Statistics
(NBS) 2019 report.
Oludare. A. I., Omolara, O. E., Umar, A. M., Kemi, D. V. (2015), The Use of ICT Tools in
Tackling Insecurity and Terrorism Problem in Nigeria, Network and Complex
Systems, Vol. 5, No. 5: 21-39.
Royal Academy of Engineering; Engineering for a successful nation., Key findings
from Assessing the economic returns of engineering research and postgraduate training
in the UK, 20th March, 2015.
Ryan Nabozniak (2016), Collaboration and Communication, General Engineering, November
9, 2016. http://www.engineeringchallenges.org/14373/GrandChallengesBlog/8275.aspx
https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-why-we-need-to-consult-engineers-as-well-as-
scientists- for-solutions-134460
https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/07/472752-more-half-worlds-population-now-living-urban-
areas-un-survey-finds
https://interestingengineering.com/9-inventions-from-the-21st-century-that-are-still-shaping-our-
world-today
https://www.jacarandafm.com/unpublished-articles/lifestyle_old/8-best-inventions-21st-century/

37 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye

 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

http://www.engineeringchallenges.org/14373/GrandChallengesBlog/8275.aspx
http://www.myengineers.com.ng/2020/03/27/coronavirus-why-we-need-to-consult-
engineersas-
well-as-scientists-for-solutions/ https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/synergy
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/national-development-meaning-and-problems/
76824

9.0 APPRECIATION
Thank you all.

38 Engr. Dr. Dayo Hephzibah Oladebeye

 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering Synergy
Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Lead Paper Two

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE STARRING ROLE OF ENGINEERS

Engr. Aigbovbiosa, Osagie Jolly

Manufacturing Services Department, Engineering Materials Development Institute (E.M.D.I.),
Km 4, Ondo Road, Akure, Ondo State
National Agency of Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI)
Federal Ministry of Science Technology
1. Introduction.
Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen, all protocols duly observed. I am very delighted to
welcome you to the 8th annual conference of the School of Engineering Technology, Auchi
Polytechnic, Auchi, Edo State, with the theme ―Engineering Synergy towards Solution in
National Development‖. I am highly honoured to address this special gathering of Distinguished
Academia, Professionals, Government Officials, Stockholders, and students in the engineering
industry on the topic ―National Development: The Starring Role of Engineers‖.

May I also commend the organisers of this conference for their foresight in assembling
technocrats, professionals, and stakeholders to rub minds and proffer solutions to national
development with engineers playing a starring role.

1.1 Background.
This presentation examines the field of engineering as a viable tool with the potential to spur
economic development within the international community. It provides an overview of the
synergy between engineering education and engineering practice and further describes the
significant role engineering technology plays through its different processes to influence the
economic development of a nation.

2. Engineering
The word engineer (ingeniator) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to create, generate,
contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness") [1],[2],[3]. According to National Society of
Professional Engineers (NSPE), Engineering involves the application of scientific analytic
principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism
under study [4].

2.1 Who is an Engineer?

An engineer is a person who uses scientific knowledge to design, construct, and maintain engines
and machines or structures such as roads, railways, and bridges. An engineer is a person who

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

repairs mechanical or electrical devices [5, 6]. According to Wikipedia, Engineers, are define as
practitioners of engineering, professionals who invent, design, analyse, build and test machines,
complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfil functional objectives and
requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and
cost [7]. According to US Department of Labour, "Engineers are those who apply the theories
and principles of science and mathematics to research and develop economical solutions to
technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial
applications. Engineers design products, machinery to build those products, plants in which those
products are made, and the system that ensure the quality of the products and the efficiency of
the workforce and manufacturing process" [8, 9].

2.2 Engineering Education

Engineering Education has been defined as the activity of teaching knowledge and principles
applicable in the professional practice of engineering. It includes an initial education (bachelor's
and/or master's degree), and any advanced education that delves into specific areas. Engineering
Education is the activity of teaching knowledge and principles to the professional practice of
engineering. The length of education, and training to qualify as a basic professional engineer, is
typically 8–12 years, while engineer who takes responsibility for major projects is between 15–
20 years [10].

Education in primary and secondary schools often serves as the foundation for engineering
education at the university level. In Nigeria, a bachelor‘s degree in engineering variously called
Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Technology in Nigerian universities,
earned in an accredited engineering programme, is the minimum academic requirement for
becoming a registered engineer in Nigeria [11].

2.3 Engineering Practice

Engineering practice offers an opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge gained in proper work
situation, thereby bridging the gap between the work in the classroom and in the industry.
According to National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), Engineering practice means
any service or creative work offered or performed in connection with any public or private
utilities, structures, buildings, machines, equipment, processes, works or projects. This including,
but not limited to, consultation, investigation, evaluation, planning, designing, design
coordination, with an ultimate goal of public welfare or the safeguarding life, health, or property
of society [12]. There are various branches of engineering both at academic and professional
levy, some of them are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1: List of Engineering Branches and Products
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

3. The Role of Engineer in National Development

The economic development of a nation can be measured by indicators such as gross domestic
product, income generation, rate of employment, manufacturing industries and retails services.
Generally, the development of a nation is tailored towards improving the social welfare of the
people by providing social amenities like good education, infrastructure, medical care and social
services [13, 14].
Engineers play a vital role in implementing the expertise of mathematics and natural sciences
obtained from previous research, experience and practice, both in the private and public sectors
of the nation in different areas of the Economy such as;

i. Educational Growth
ii. Community Development
iii. Engineers in the Industry
iv. Politics and Public Service

3.1. Educational growth

Engineers have a role to play in directing and educating students at tender age at high school
level in taking decisions on the option of career opportunities by making them informed of
technological and engineering disciplines. In tertiary institutions such as Polytechnics and
Universities, Engineers train for graduate studies by bringing them into realistic awareness of the
various engineering sectors, thereby impacting them with their abundance of expertise and
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

practice. Engineers instils in undergraduates the need for entrepreneurship skills for economic
growth, rather than finding and making the most of get rich quick activities [15].

3.2. Community Development

Engineers in this field are concerned with the development, enhancement and conservation of the
local climate, providing homes, small and medium-sized businesses and transport facilities,
including large buildings, highways, bridges, canals, rail lines, airports, water management
systems, dams, drainage, ports, docks and other designed buildings within a defined community.
Like Community Police, urban engineering plays a very active position in the oversight of local
building construction programs with a view to ensure commitment to technical norms and ethics
[16]. Local engineers come together as volunteers to fund community improvement initiatives
such as boreholes, water delivery, renovation, etc.

3.3. Engineers in the Industry

This is at the heart of engineering engagement where the discipline is associated with
maximizing dynamic operational processes and structures by designing (production,
manufacturing or construction), upgrading, integrating and reviewing interconnected staff,
facilities, procedures, knowledge, materials and equipment. The bringing together of Engineers
to integrate Engineering firms has come a long way to advise National Growth by maintaining
consistency in the Engineering Infrastructural Growth Programmed, as opposed to circumstances
where Engineering companies are family-sided, where the key collaborator is potentially the
only Engineer and his demise implies the company's collapsing [17].

3.4. Politics and Public Service

Engineers' participation in politics offers them the ability to be at the highest level of government
steeped in policy and decision taking that affects the growth of a country. We use their analytical
expertise to create rules or to establish requirements for the use of manufacturing products,
device systems and the like. They provide quality assurance. Several of the infrastructure
production programs are planned, managed, tested and accredited by the Public Sector Engineers
[6, 17]. Such engineers also ensure that such tasks are carried out in compliance with the
requirements. They even find it possible to spend in the recruitment of engineering programs.

4. Engineering Practices for National Development

The options for engineering practices for a developing nations like ours today is the options of
Forward or Reverse Engineering

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

4.1. Forward Engineering

Forward Engineering is a typical way of constructing or implementing a device with the aid of
precise specifications (system specification). It is also recognized as redesign and reconstruction.
It takes a high degree of ability and more time to build or create an application [18]. The basic
line of process involved in forward engineering are seen in the Figure 1.

Fig. 1: Line Flow of Forward Engineering Process [12]

4.2. Reverse engineering
Reverse engineering, is the process of forward engineering in reverse. Reverse engineering is the
method of forward-looking reverse engineering. In this case, the knowledge is obtained from a
specified or current application / product / system. Owing to this obvious benefit, engineers are
given less time to build newer technologies than forward engineering. The process often involves
disassembling the products into components, analysing & capturing its functionality & design
details. It finds its application in the fields of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering,
software engineering, chemical engineering and systems biology, among others. Basic steps
involved for reverse engineering process are shown in Figure 2.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Fig 2: Steps Involved in Reverse Engineering Process [19]

5. A Case Study of Reverse Engineering

5.1. Small Hydro Power (SHP) Turbine produce at EMDI, Akure. Nigeria
SHP is a type of hydroelectric power turbine that typically produces between 5 kW and 100 kW
of electricity using the natural flow of water. These installations provide power to isolated homes
or communities, or are sometimes connected to electric grids where net metering is offered.
There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

can provide an economical source of energy without the purchase of fuel. The installation of
SHP is usually on a small dammed pool, at the top of a waterfall, with several hundred feet of
pipe leading to a small generator housing, from where transmission is done to the end-users or
consumers [20].

For the reverse engineering process, A computer aided design software known as Pro-E was used
in the capturing of the features that include the 3D outlook, cross sectional view and the
exploded view of the system prior to production.

Fig 3: 3D design of a Small Hydro Power (SHP) Turbine

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Fig 4: Produced component of the SHP Turbine from locally sourced scraps and tools

Fig 5: Full Assembly Reverse Engineered SHP Turbine

5.2. Yam Pounding Machine (YPM) produced by Engr. Aigbovbiosa, Osagie Jolly
Pounded yam, is a local delicacy in Nigeria, which has been classified as special food. It is
always prepared using a local means of mortar and pestle. The mechanical preparation of

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

pounded yam at home using simple machine is crucial because of advances in technical
advancement. Several attempts made on home-built devices require further research and
development for this purpose [21]. Yam Pounding Machine (YPM): Technology development
provided an option to build processing machines, which resulted in the pounded yam being
prepared quickly, efficiently and smoothly

Fig 6: 3D - Modeling of existing Yam pounding machine

Fig 7: Exploded view of the different Parts

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering
Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Fig 8: Manual coupling of YPM

Fig 9: Completed assembled YPM

Conclusion
Engineering bridges the gap between the society and scientific knowledge for economic
development and wealth creation, the building of every nation can then be achieved through
pragmatic investment in engineering education and skills technologies. Engineers has
contribution to national development through;
 Increase gross domestic product (GDP),
 Income generation,
 Provision of Employment,
 Manufacturing Industries (Spare parts and new product)
 Retails services
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Achieving this is usually seamless when governments create enabling environment where the
learning and practice of engineering across all discipline can thrive. Awareness of the importance
and practice of the discipline should also be created, and taught from the primary grade level of
the educational system. Furthermore, for sustainability of the engineers involvement in national
development to be ensured and sustained, engineers should be trained and re-trained,
benchmarking global best practices, providing appropriate incentives, where applicable
especially to lead new frontiers in research.

Reference
[1]. Pevsner, N. (1942). "The Term 'Architect' in the Middle Ages". Speculum. 17 (4): 549–
562. doi:10.2307/2856447. JSTOR 2856447
[2]. Oxford Concise Dictionary (1995). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineers (Accessed:
April 15th, 2020).
[3]. "Engineer". Oxford Dictionaries (2010). Oxford University Press. (Accessed: April 15th,
2020)
[4]. Bureau of Labour Statistics, U. S. Department of Manual Labour
(2006). "Engineers". Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–07 Edition. (Accessed: May
21st, 2020).
[5]. Engineer‖ Collins Dictionary (2020), HarperCollins Publishers.
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2020)
[6]. Auyang, S. Y. (2006). Engineering—an endless frontier. Harvard University Press.
[7]. ―Engineer‖. National Society of Professional Engineers (2006).
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[8]. U. S. Department of Labour Website: http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm (Accessed:
May 15th, 2020).
[9]. National Research Council. (2009). Engineering in K-12 education: Understanding the
status and improving the prospects. National Academies Press.

[10]. Engineering Education (2020). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_education

(Accessed: April 9th, 2020).
[11]. Olorunmaiye J. A. (2017). Overview on the Benchmark Minimum Academic Standard
for Engineering Qualifications in Nigeria, Council for the Regulation of Engineering in
Nigeria (COREN).
[12]. Mitcham, C. (2005). National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics.
Encyclopaedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics, 4.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

[13]. David Rodeck (2020). What is Recession, Forbes, Forbes Media

[14]. Costin, A., Adibfar, A., Hu, H., & Chen, S. S. (2018). Building Information Modeling
(BIM) for transportation infrastructure–Literature review, applications, challenges, and
recommendations. Automation in Construction, 94, 257-281.
[15]. Rosenberg, N., & Nelson, R. R. (1994). American universities and technical advance in
industry. Research policy, 23(3), 323-348.
[16]. Van Stel, A., Carree, M., & Thurik, R. (2005). The effect of entrepreneurial activity on
national economic growth. Small business economics, 24(3), 311-321.
[17]. Jones, B. D., & Baumgartner, F. R. (2005). The politics of attention: How government
prioritizes problems. University of Chicago Press.
[18]. Yang, H., Liu, X., & Zedan, H. (2000). Abstraction: a key notion for reverse engineering
in a system reengineering approach. Journal of Software Maintenance: Research and
Practice, 12(4), 197-228.
[19]. ―Difference between Forward Engineering and Reverse Engineering‖
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-forward-engineering-and-reverse-
engineering/. (Accessed: April 21st, 2020)
[20]. Okot, D. K. (2013). Review of small hydropower technology. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 26, 515-520.
[21]. Olaleye, S. A., Arisoyin, A. G., Omoniyi, O., Elemide, O. A., & Okunola, A. A. (2020).
Development of indigenous yam pounding machine for home use. E&ES, 445(1) 012010.

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 Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering Synergy
Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

DEVELOPMENT OF A TWO-STAGE ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

FOR IMPROVED ATM SERVICES
1*
Adegoke, B. O., 2Olawuni, A. and 3Olla, M. O.
1
Department of Computer Engineering, School of Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic, Ile-
Oluji, Ondo State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Electrical Electronics, Faculty of Engineering, Osun State Polytechnic, Iree,
Osun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, School of Engineering, Federal University,
Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
*
[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper develops a two level access control for an improved electronic banking
operations. The system employed RFID and fingerprint biometric characteristics access
control with the use of 8051 micro-controller. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and
fingerprint is interfaced with AT89C51 to provide secured access to Automated Teller
machine (ATM) and relevant messages are displayed on a Liquid crystal display (LCD). The
design algorithm uses 8051 microcontroller, RFID reader, RFID tag and principle of serial
communication for the implementation. Evaluation of the system was done based on the level
of security and authentication of finger print signature. RFID tag used shows that the bar
can be encrypted compared to the pin code existing tag embedded in the present ATM
system. Further analysis of the result also shows an improved performance in terms of
enhancing the security of e-banking activities.

Keywords: Automated teller machine, Fingerprint, Microcontroller, Radio-frequency

identification

INTRODUCTION

Over the last decades, introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into
different facets of human endeavors (Adegoke, Adegoke, Akingbade, and Salako, 2015),
banking system inclusive could not be under-estimated. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
have become as much a part of the landscape as the phone booths made famous by Superman. As
a result of their ubiquity, people casually use these virtual cash dispensers without a second
thought (Gynanendra and Pawan, 2010). The notion that something could go wrong never cross
the minds. Unfortunately, things are not always as they seem with the ATM. Most ATM scams

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involve criminal theft of debit card numbers and personal identification numbers (PINs) from the
innocent users of these machines (Kowtko, 2014; Hasan and Nur, 2012). There are several
variations of the confidence scheme, but all involve the unknowing cooperation of the
cardholders themselves (Chintaiah and Dhanraj, 2011; Adegoke, Omidiora, Falohun and Ojo,
2013). Frauds in the financial sector is still alarming, in Nigeria, as revealed by Popoola, et al.,
2018). It runs into Billions of naira lost in Nigeria banks, both reported and there are many that
were not reported at all (CBN Annual Reports, 2019). There are similar menaces in the
developed nations amounting to €1.8 Billion, according to the 2019 European Central Bank
(ECB) report (Gabelgảrd, 2019).

In accordance to the ‗Nigeria Payments System Vision 2020‘, the CBN aimed at facilitating
economic activities by providing safe and efficient mechanisms for making and receiving
payments with minimum risks to the central bank, payment service providers and end users,
extending the availability and usage to all sectors and geographies, banked and unbanked, and
conforming to internationally accepted regulatory, technical and operational standards (Sanusi,
2013).

In Nigeria the deployment of ATM by banks and its use by bank customers is just gaining
ground and has burgeoned in recent times. This has happened especially after the recent
consolidation of banks, which has in all probability, made it possible for more banks to afford to
deploy ATMs or at least become part of shared networks (Fasan, 2007). The increased
deployment of ATMs in the banking sector has made the issue of technology relevance important
(Mohammed, 2013; Ola, Adegoke, Ogundimu and Ojodu, 2015; Eniola and Afolabi, 2015).
ATM services have a history that is less than ten years in Nigeria. At first, they were operated as
elitist services designed for those desirous of exclusive service. Cards were rare and the process
for obtaining them tortuous.

Presently, the use of ATM cards has been widely promoted. Banks no longer appear to have
personal contact with their customers. Some banks have resorted to penalizing the customer as it
were, for not possessing an ATM card, by debiting the account of such a customer for
withdrawing below a certain amount across the counter. Agboola reported that although only a
bank had an ATM in 1998 but by 2004, fourteen of them had acquired the technology (Agboola,
2011). He also discovered that the adoption of ICT in banks has produced largely positive
outcomes such as improved customer services, more accurate records, ensuring convenience in
business time, prompt and fair attention, and faster services etc. Also, the banks‘ image is
improved creating a more competent market (Weis, Rivest, Engels, Hutter, Muumller, Stephan,
and Ullmann, 2003). Work has also been made easier, and more interesting, the competitive edge

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of banks, relationship with customers, and the solution of basic operational and planning
problems has been improved.

Nowadays most bank customers operate with the use of ATM card. The ATM card is an RFID
passive tag (Syam and Ravindra, 2012). Every customer now use the ATM card on the ATM
machine to dispense cash and do some other transaction like recharge card, pay bills, transfer
fund. But the security of this card is not guaranteed as a result of the careless handling of the
ATM card and password on the side of the bank customers. This makes the customers to
complain about different ATM fraud on customers account. There is rise in the number of ATM
employed by banks as the year run and also there is a rise in fraudulent activities perpetrated
through the facility (Adeoti, 2011). Banking activities fraud exist in most countries of the world,
developed nations are not exempted.

Table 1: Comparative overview in 2017 (Source: Nets fraud Report 2019)

EU (2016) France UK Netherlands Denmark Norway Sweden
Population (m) 512.5 67.1 66.0 17.1 5.8 5.3 10.1
Number of cards (m) 812.4 86.0 180.2 32.3 9.0 16.1 20.3
Card payment value 3,053.5 527.8 1,14 133.9 88.8 88.2 107.6
(€bn) 3.2
ATM withdrawals 1,585.0 147.1 238.3 57.8 11.3 9.6 15.0
value (€bn)
Total of card fraud 1,800.0 360.7 690.7 11.7 13.3 15.6 25.9
losses (€m)
Card fraud Loss ratio 0.041 0.053 0.05 0.006 0.013 0.016 0.021
(%)
Issuer fraud loss by channel (ECB)
ATM fraud (%) 8 12 3 12 13 7 11
CNP fraud (%) 7.3 7.3 77 74 72 81 70
POS fraud (%) 19 15 20 14 15 12 19
Sources: ECB OSMP FFA Betaal Nets Finanstyl Nets
UK Vereining sinet
Notes: Number of cards covers both debit and credit. Card fraud losses cover transactions made
domestic and abroad on domestic cards.
Source: ECB, domestic associations, PCM research

Most ATM scams involve criminal theft of debit card numbers and personal identification
numbers (PINs) from the innocent users of these machines or, shoulder surfing, Lebanese loop,
card jamming, use of fake cards, duplicated card, card swapping and ATM burglers (Adeoti,

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2011; Chintaiah and Dhanraj, 2011; Hasan and Nur, 2012; Kowtko, 2014). Most of the
fraudulent activities with ATM transaction has the cooperation of bank officials (Popoola,
Fakunle, Omole and Oyedeji, 2018). In year 2014, ATM were major victims of fraudulent
activities in terms of volume as it experienced the highest number of fraudulent transactions
(Annual Review, 2015). In 2014, the Central Switch, Nigeria Interbank Settlement plc (NIBBS),
processed over 100 million. Transactions in terms of volume with a corresponding value of over
N40 Trillion (over USD 208 Billion). Furthermore, the volume of transactions grew by over 50%
between 2013 and 2014 (NIBBS) (Table 2).

Table 1. Total transaction volume and value processed by NCS (Nigeria Central Switch)
Year Volume Value
2013 74,059,575 34,191,968,951,140
2014 113,421,933 43,857,678,478,941
% Change 53% Increase 28% Increase

(Source: Annual Review, 2015)

Increased use of electronic platforms (non-cheques) accounted for 86% of the overall transaction
volume and 82% in terms of value which is an increase over the year 2013 by 6% in both
transaction volume and value.

Table 2. Transaction volume and value processed by NCS categorized by payment types
Product 2013 2014

Volume Value Volume Value

POS 11,258,846 229,903,237,909 24,607,497 447,459,739,698

Instant 17,967,646 11,674,496,434,771 42,540,034 21,148,614,937,311

Payments

EFTs 30,134,545 14,218,018,800,813 30,203,908 14,536,388,062,398

Cheques 14,698,538 8,069,550,477,646 16,070,494 7,725,215,739,533

Total 74,059,575 34,191,968,951,139 113,421,933 43,857,678,478,940

(Source: Annual Review, 2015)

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Table 3. Total fraud volume, attempted fraud value and actual loss value across all channels on
the NCS
Year Fraud Attempted fraud Actual Loss
volume reported value reported value reported
2013 822 19,148,787,069 485,194,350

2014 1,461 7,750,152,748 6,215,987,323

(Source: Annual Review, 2015)

As reported, technology will continue to change the battlefield for fraud in 2016 is true for
financial industries (Ren, Huang and Lin, 2003). It was identified that things that will change the
fraud landscape in 2016 among others include: fraudsters increased sophistication through social
networks, shift of more fraud platform to mobile, financial companies handling of less data,
advanced machine learning combined with human detectives will be critical to fraud prevention
and finally, data and advanced analytics will play a larger role in regulatory and compliance
effort (Ren, Huang, and Lin, 2003). Activities of fraudsters are increasing all over the world,
both in volume and value, and it is being shifted to the use of ICT-driven tools (Fraud in 2014,
2015; Hick, 2019).

Table 4. Fraud analysis by channels

Electronic Platforms Volume Non-electronic Volume
platforms
Internet banking 287 Across counter 153
E-commerce 114 Cheque 11
POS 166
Cheques 11
Web 218
ATM 491
Mobile 21
Total 1,297 Total 164

(Source: Annual Review, 2015).

Biometric identification is an emerging technology which gains more attention in recent years. It
employs physiological or behavioral characteristics to identify an individual (Richard, Yong, and
Kai, 2007). A biometric characteristic is a biological phenomenon‘s physical or behavioral
characteristics that can be used in order to recognize. Physiological characteristics are
characteristics that are genetically implied such as iris, fingerprint, face, etc. Behavioral or
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psychological characteristics are characteristics that are acquired or learned during life such as
handwritten, signature, a person‘s gait, her typing dynamics or voice characteristics, (Schatten,
Miroslav and Cubrillo, 2009). Inclusion of biometric technologies has been discovered to
increase security (Omidiora, Adegoke, Falohun, and Ojo, (2015); Falohun, Omidiora, Akanni,
and Awofadeju, (2013). Biometric propert(y/ies) can improve security and customer satisfaction
of bank services (Agidi, 2018).

Some of the problems existing in ATM services include inability to trace wrong users,
undispensed but deducted cash, card sharing by friends and family members (Agidi, 2018).
Many of the electronic devices, ATM have lent themselves to fraudulent activities (Olaleye and
Fashina, 2019). A system that will eradicate the use of password and use biometric properties
such as fingerprint needs to be implemented. Also, a system that uses magnetic strip instead of
inserting the ATM card into the ATM machine needs to be developed. Also in the pursuance of
Nigeria Payment System This prompted to the development of automated RFID with fingerprint
access control system for our modern banks in Nigeria. Forensic is a good technological way of
fighting fraud in banking services (India Fraud survey, 2019).

Therefore, there is need to enhance the security system of bank ATMs. In view of this, radio
frequency identification (RFID) system and fingerprint access control system in modern banks is
developed. This will provide more security than other systems because it allows only authorized
persons to access the ATM with RFID and Fingerprint. The objectives of this work are to
develop a security system that uses fingerprint biometrics and RFID as well as to create and
simulate the circuit using Proteus software.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

The developed security system is divided into two phases namely:

2.1 Phase 1: Confirm the user

RFID module consists of RFID tag and RFID reader. When the user punches his card (containing
the tag), the 12 byte serial number of the tag would be read by the RFID reader and be sent to the
microcontroller. The microcontroller then compared the data with the existing data stored in the
EEPROM memory (internal memory of the microcontroller). If the data matches with the
existing data in the memory, it means the person would be authorized and the user would get the
second stage of the security system. If the data did not match then the user would not be
permitted to access the ATM. The buzzer would start ringing to provide an alarm indicating the
presence of an unauthorized person and a message would be sent to the authorized person via
GSM module.

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2.2 Phase 2: Biometric authenticate the user

If the RFID tag of the user is correct the fingerprint module would be punched. If the fingerprint
of the person matched with the finger prints stored in the memory of the fingerprint module,
then, the ATM would grant access and the transactions would be executed. The block diagram as
well as flow process of RFID and Fingerprint access control system is as shown in figures 1 and
2. The circuit diagram for the ATM as well as that of RFID and Fingerprint access control
system were designed as shown in figures 3 and 4 respectively.

Start a
Enter RFID tag
Punch on the
fingerprint
capturing

Does the
RFID code

Does the
Message GSM fingerprint
of authorized signature
owner

Enter your Allow access into

password the account

Run the
Does the
accounting
password procedure

Stop

Fig 1: Block Diagram of the RFID and Fingerprint access control system

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Figure 2a: Circuit Diagram of the Power Supply for the ATM

Figure 2b: Circuit Diagram of the Power Supply for the ATM
Source: Designed with Proteus Software

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Figure 3: RFID and Fingerprint access control system

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The RFID reader reads the code 10 digits from RFID tag and sends to the PIC. The fingerprint
sensor will check incoming image with enrolled data and it will send confirming signal to PIC. If
both RFID check and fingerprint image confirmation are matched, the microcontroller will drive
door motor according to sensors at door edges. If the receive RFID and fingerprint codes will
send to the microcontroller to open the bank locker. USB connection is used as a carrier to
connect the PC and the microcontroller. The simulation results for the screen, RFID with
Fingerprint access control and microcontroller code are shown in figures 5, 6 and 7 respectively.
After verification of RFID tag and password, the microcontroller proceeds to the next step to
store the fingerprint. In this step, LCD displays ―Place Finger‖. We have to place finger on the
finger print module so that the module can verify the input fingerprint with the stored one.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Figure 5: Simulation result for welcome screen

Figure 6: simulation result for RFID with Fingerprint access control

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Figure 7: Simulation result for the microcontroller code

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This paper provides a highly secured and reliable e-banking system. The security system was
based on RFID tag, matrix keypad, finger print and GSM technology, successfully integrated,
designed and implemented. In this study, a security system which used passive RFID and
Fingerprint biometrics for its security. It is a low cost, low in power consumption, compact in
size and standalone system. The microcontroller compares the two signals from the user (RFID
and Fingerprint). If the two are correct, the microcontroller provides necessary control signal to
continue the transaction on the ATM machine otherwise access will not be granted. The
developed system can be used in other places such as offices, libraries and so on where ATM is
mounted. This system will solve the problem of ATM fraud if incorporated into ATM system.

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survey. International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER), 3(3): 1263 –
1267.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Adeoti, J. O., (2011). Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Frauds in Nigeria: The way Out.
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Agboola, A. (2006) Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in banking operations in
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Chintaiah, K. R. and Dhanraj, V. (2011) Automated advanced industrial and home security using
GSM and FPGA‖, IJCSIT, 2(4):1598-1602.
Falohun, A. S., Omidiora, E. O., Akanni, A. O. and Awofadeju, A. S., (2013). Remote access
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and Computer Science, (WCECS, 2013), San Francisco, vol. 1.
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Hick, D., (2019). Global Banking Fraud Survey: The Multi-faceted threat of fraud. KMMG
International Cooperative, Forensic Lead, Asia Pacific, KPMG in Singapore.
Kowtko, M. A. (2014) Biometric authentication for older adults, Systems Applications and
Technology Conference (LISAT), IEEE Long Island, 1(6):2.
Mohammad A., (2013) Microcontroller Based Reprogrammable Digital Door Lock Security
System by Using Keypad & GSM/CDMA Technology‖, IOSR Journal of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE) 4(6):38-42.
Nets Fraud Report, (2019). European Fraud Report: Payments Industry Challenges. Payments
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Ola, B. O., Adegoke, B. O., Ogundimu, A. F., and Ojodu, W. O., (2015). Biometric Integration
for Improved e-Business Applications. International Journal of Electronics
Communication and Computer Technology (IJECCT), 5(1): 799 – 805.
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Olaleye, J. O. and Fashina, A. F., (2019). Electronic Banking Fraud in Nigeria: Effects and
Controls. Global Scientific Journals (GSJ), 7(8): 52-65
Omidiora, E. O., Adegoke, B. O., Falohun, A. S and Ojo, J. A., (2015), Iris Recognition System:
Technical Overview, IMPACT: International Journal of
Popoola, A. F., Fakunle, I. O., Omole, I. I. and Oyedeji, O., (2018). Bank Fraud and its Effect on
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method for iris recognition system.
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systems. International journal of computer science issues, vol. 8, pp. 1-7.
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Weis, S. S., Rivest, R., Engels, D. Hutter, D. Muumller, G., Stephan, W. and Ullmann, M.,
(2003) Security and privacy aspects of low-cost radio frequency identification systems,
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Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

ADSORPTION CAPACITY AND ADEPTNESS OF COMPOSITE

ACTIVATED CARBON (CAC) FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTES FOR
DECONTAMINATION OF METALLIC IONS IN PHARMACEUTICAL
EFFLUENT

Abdullahi M.a, A. B. Bashirua and Y. Lukmanb

a
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering Technology, The Federal
Polytechnic, Bida, Nigeria
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic,
Auchi, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected] (08036615973)
ABSTRACT
Heavy metals discharged into water-bodies or land-dumps are deleterious to human and aquatic
lives. Thus, this study is aimed at detoxifying pharmaceutical effluent using low-cost, eco-
friendly activated carbon produced from composite agricultural wastes (groundnut shell and
sugarcane bagasse) under optimized technological conditions (Temperature and Pressure). The
prepared CAC was characterised using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Brenner Emmett
Teller (BET) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). In order to determine the
degree of adsorptivity, the effect of residence time and adsorbent dose was carried out at a
constant thermal condition of 500 oC and utilizing ZnCl2 as an activating agent, the
physicochemical analysis depicts 10.31% moisture content, 70.21% fixed carbon, 1087.28 m2/m3
surface area per volume, 0.4832 cm3/g micropore volume and 17.93 Å average pore diameter.
The SEM micrograph revealed that the CAC has an amorphous structure and heterogeneous
surface with the presence of functional groups O–H, O–N asymmetric; C–Cl, C-Br and C–O
cyclohexane in the carbon. The adsorption capacity of the CAC produced showed that the
percentage removal of Zn, Pb and Cd ions was 86.3, 95.1 and 84.5% respectively with maximum
absorptivity achieved in 100 min. Also, the approximate time to attained absorption equilibrium
using the unsteady-state mass balance model, for the three metallic ions was 91.696 min. The
empirical data obtained were fitted to the models to understand the adsorption mechanism
associated with lead, zinc and cadmium ions. The values depict the degree of affinity and
physiognomy of the CAC. The results showed high correlation coefficients (r2 > 95%) for the
isotherms investigated. This is an indication that the adsorption of Pb, Zn, and Cd ions could be
well described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models using the produced CAC.

Keywords: Effluent, Composite activated carbon, Isotherms, Heavy metals, Adsorption

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Technological advancement coupled with industrialization and urbanization in conjunction with
human accretion has led to increase in waste production and accumulation all over the globe and
the release of deleterious heavy metals to water bodies (Benchima et al., 2008; Motsi, et al.,
2009; Liu and Sang, 2010). These toxic metals are a spin-off from different anthropogenic
sources such as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, petrochemicals, textiles, mining, tanneries, rubber
and plastics, metallurgical and agrochemical industries (Ariffin et al., 2017; Lakherwal, 2014).
Studies have shown that human bodies are highly susceptible to heavy metals exposure.
Continuing exposure could lead to various health challenges that have been a subject of interest
to health practitioners and environmentalists (Ariffin et al., 2017; Annadurai et al., 2003).
Research has shown that the most frequently found toxic heavy metals are cadmium and lead
(Singh et al., 2011; Mudhoo, et al., 2012). This is attributed to its use as an anticorrosion
protective coating and in the production of plastics, glass, and pigments.

With the introduction of sterner legislation concerning wastewater disposal to the ecosystem;
researchers are constantly looking for new techniques or modify the present technology for
heavy metal removal before discharged into the environment.

Conventional technologies used in the removal of heavy metals from wastewater include ion-
exchange, adsorption, coagulation-flocculation, reduction, chemical precipitation, membrane
filtration, flotation and electrochemical (Fu and Wang, 2011; Cheng et al., 2012; Javadian et al.,
2015). The drawback‘s associated with these conventional methods include high energy cost,
high sludge production, disposal problems, bye-product formation, adsorbent regeneration, short
half-life and revenant expenses that are not suited for cottage industries (Ariffin et al., 2016).

The most prevalent physicochemical method utilized in the removal of heavy metals in
wastewater is the adsorption method using activated carbon as adsorbent (Huang and
Blankenship, 1984). Literature has shown that the most commonly used activated carbons are
derived from coal, wood and coconut shell (Deliyanni et al., 2015). These precursors are not
cost-effective and often imported, hence researchers are finding other alternative feedstock from
cellulosic materials that is effective, cheap, available and has high sorption capacity (Ariffin et
al., 2017; Mohana et al., 2007; pollards et al., 1992; Ali and El-Bishtawi, 1997; Deliyanni et al.,
2015).

Osakwe et al. (2014) studied the adsorption of Pb2+ and Cd2+ ions from synthetic wastewaters
using activated carbon from Adonosia digitata fruit shells and Theobroma cocoa pods. The
physicochemical and adsorption properties of the activated carbon from cellulosic materials were
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studied at 32 2 oC with a particle size ranged between 300 – 400 . They observed that the
2+ 2+
percentage of Pb and Cd ions adsorbed increases with the increase of contact time and
adsorbent dose. Carrying out comparative analysis in terms of adsorption capacity between the
two activated carbons produced, ADFS showed higher monolayer adsorption capacity for the
two metallic ions investigated. Other cellulosic materials suitable for heavy metal removal
reported including moss (low and lee, 1987), banana and orange peels (Annadurai et al., 2002),
hulls and bran (Marshall et al., 1993), polymerized corncob (Henderson et al., 1977),
unprocessed sugarcane bagasse (Mohan and Singh, 2002), bagasse fly ash (Gupta and Sharma,
2003) and water-hyacinth roots (Low et al., 1994).

Mohtashami et al. (2018) evaluated and optimized the production of activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse using phosphoric acid to determine the degree of affinity of the produced AC
towards phenol. They found that the optimum temperature of activated carbon production was
550 oC with an impregnation ratio of 1.5. The AC showed high efficiency with 95% phenol
removal in 30 min at a pH of 4.

The removal of heavy metallic ions from pharmaceutical effluent using composite activated
carbons from sugarcane bagasse and groundnut shell has not been fully documented. This paper
seeks to evaluate the potential of using composite activated carbon prepared from sugarcane
bagasse (SCB) and groundnut shell (GNS) for the removal of Zn2+, Pb2+ and Cd2+ ions from
pharmaceutical effluent.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

2.1 Sample Collection and Preparation

Sugarcane Bagasse (SCB) and Groundnut Shell (GNS) samples were obtained from Wuya
Kpansana Market and Gaba Village respectively using grab sampling technique, both in Lavun
Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. The sugarcane bagasse and groundnut shell
samples designated as ―A‖ and ―B‖ were cleaned using deionized water to remove all possible
unwanted materials (dirt and sand). The washed samples were air-dried in an electric oven
(Model S-936) at 100 oC for 24 h and then grounded separately with a mortar and pestle to obtain
small particle size. The pulverized samples were further milled using Asiko A11 Double
Grinding Mill and sieved into particle sizes ranged between 300 – 450 μm. 250 g of both
pulverized sugar cane bagasse and groundnut shell were blended in ratio 1:1 to obtain sample
―C‖.

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2.2 Adsorbate Collection and Preparation

2.2.1 Effluent collection
Industrial effluent from a Pharmaceutical Industry designated as ―PIN‖ in Niger State, Nigeria
was collected at the point of discharge and act as the stock solution for the research work (Figure
1). Materials used for the sample collection were pre-treated with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and rinsed with distilled water. At the collection point, a freshly discharged effluent was
collected in a 10 litres plastic container and taken to the laboratory for further treatment and
analysis.

Figure 1: Point of discharge of pharmaceutical wastes

2.2.2 Wastewater Sample Digestion and Analysis

The APHA (1998) method of effluent digestion was adopted for the research work. The zinc,
lead and cadmium concentration of the effluent sample and the standard aqueous solutions were
determined using 210VGP Buck Scientific, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) with a
hollow cathode lamp and air-acetylene flame. The analysis was performed in triplicates and the
mean signal response before adsorption experiments were recorded at the metallic ion‘s
wavelength. Analytical grade reagents were used throughout the experimentation. The digests
were stored at a temperature of about 3 oC prior to analysis to avoid any change in
physicochemical characteristics.

2.3 Preparation of Activated Carbon

The preparation of activated carbon was largely guided by the method of Subramani and Revathi
(2015). The Composite Activated Carbons (CAC) produced was pulverised and rinsed using 500
ml of 1.2 M HCL, and 500 ml distilled water to eliminate excess activating agent and inorganic
residue. The activated carbon thus obtained was finally dried, stored in well-fitted airtight

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

containers and properly labelled as Sample C for further experimental investigations and
characterization.

2.4 Adsorbent Characterization

The surface morphology, particle size and surface area of the prepared CAC was characterized
using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (Model: JEOL JSM-6400) and Brenner Emmett
Teller (BET) respectively. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) (Model: FTIR-200,
Perkin-Elmer) was also used to analyze the organic, polymeric and inorganic materials in the
CAC. The moisture and ash content were determined by weight difference based on AOAC
(1990).

2.5 Adsorption Experiment

The composite activated carbon powder (C) was used to adsorb the metallic ions in the digested
wastewater. Batch experiments were performed in different sets by taking 50 g of C in a
thermostat shaker at an ambient condition to investigate the effect of adsorbent dosage and
contact time of metallic ions on removal efficiency. After the flasks were agitated, the content of
the flask was removed, filtered and the filtrate analyzed by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS). The metal concentration (mg/g) retained on the adsorbent phase ( qe
) and the removal efficiency (%) of the adsorbent preparations were calculated using the
following mass balance equations respectively:
C  Ce
qe  O V (2.1)
m
C  Ce
Re moval efficiency (%)  O  100 (2.2)
Co
Where CO and Ce are the concentrations (mg/l) of metallic ions before and after adsorption
respectively, V (ml) is the volume of the metallic ions and m (g) is the mass of the adsorbent.

2.5.1 Effect of adsorbent dose on adsorption efficiency

The influence of adsorbent dose on the adsorption efficiency of metallic ions was studied in a
batch system by varying the adsorbent dose in the range of 0.5 to 3 g of composite activated
carbon (C) at ambient condition. The flask was corked and agitated for 30 min and aliquots were
taken, filtered and analyzed using AAS.

2.5.2 Effect of residence time on adsorption efficiency

The influence of residence time on the adsorption efficiency of metallic ions was studied in a
batch system. 2.0 g each of activated carbon (CAC) was weighed into a well labelled flask. The

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flask was corked and agitated at 350 rpm within each contact times (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and
120 min) and aliquots were taken, filtered and analyzed using AAS.

2.5.3 Equilibrium and Rate Adsorption Studies

In this study, equilibrium profiles or adsorption isotherms were fitted into the linear form of
Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms:
1
log qe  log K F  log Ce (2.3)
n
1 1  1 1
   (2.4)
qe q m  K A q m  C
Where K F is the Freundlich adsorption constant, K A is the Langmuir adsorption constant, q m is
the maximum concentration of heavy metals adsorbed. The rate of adsorption was performed
using 50 ml adsorbate solution in a batch process using 2.0 g of composite activated carbon.
Samples were taken at some intervals of contact time (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 min),
filtered and the filtrate was analyzed using AAS. The approximate time t required for the
metallic ions to be adsorbed by the activated carbon was determined using unsteady state mass
balance as shown in Equation (8) (Armenan, 2015).

1 C dC ' 1 C
t
KAp C0

C ' KAp C
ln 0 C >> C* (2.5)

Where Ap = Surface area of particle/liquid volume (m2/m3)

K = Mass transfer coefficient between carbon particle and waste water (m/s)
C= Metallic ion concentration (mg/l)
C*= Metallic ion concentration in equilibrium with concentration q in the AC at time t (mg/l)
C0 = Initial adsorbate concentration in solution (mg/l)

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Metallic Ions Concentration in Industrial Effluent

Table 1 shows the concentration of metallic ions in the pharmaceutical effluent. The result
showed a high concentration of Calcium, Lead, Zinc, Nickel and Chromium ions in the
wastewater. This could be attributed to the pharmaceutical formulations, corrosion, cleaning, and
sterilizing equipment, or chemical spills during production (Charlotte, 2002; EPA, 1991).

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Table 1: Concentration of Metallic Ions in the Effluent Wastewater before Adsorptive Treatment
S/N Metallic Ions Concentration (ppm)
1 Chromium (Cr) 0.0627
2 Lead (Pb) 0.0636
3 Iron (Fe) 0.0019
4 Zinc (Zn) 0.1373
5 Manganese (Mn) 0.0331
6 Calcium (Ca) 0.0668
7 Nickel (Ni) 0.0420
8 Cadmium (Cd) 0.0100
Source: NARICT (2018)

3.2 Adsorbent Characterization

As displayed in Table 2, the proximate analysis indicates low ash content of 5.11% for CAC,
which makes it a suitable agricultural material for activated carbon production with dwindled
inorganic components (Guan et al., 2013; Osakwe et al., 2014; Marsh and Rodrignez-Reinoso,
2006). The volatile matters embedded in the adsorbent were generally low (14.37%) indicating
removals of undesirable substances that could interfere with the adsorption process. High carbon
content depicted in Table 2 is an indication that the agricultural waste is a potential raw material
for activated carbon production. These values are comparable with values obtained by Guan et
al. (2013).

Table 2: Proximate Analysis and pore characteristics of Activated Carbon from Composite SCB
and GNS
Activated Carbon CAC
Moisture (%) 10.31
Ash content (%) 5.11
Volatile solids (%) 14.37
Fixed carbon (%) 70.21
2 -1
BET surface area (m g ) 937.286
3
Micropore volume (cm /g) 0.4832
Average pore diameter (A) 17.93

The result also shows that activated carbon produced from the blend of SCB and GNS (sample
C) showed a high surface area and enhance micropores. This is an indication of better adsorption
capacity and falls within the range of standard commercial activated carbon.

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Figure 2: Photomicrograph of CAC

The morphological photomicrograph of the CAC (C) synthesized at 500 oC before adsorption is
shown in Figures 2. Figure 2 exhibits well-developed and visible microspores. Mohtashami et al.
(2018) reported an optimal thermal condition of 500 oC that produced an enhanced microporous
structure. It is worth noting that the activation temperature could be responsible for the irregular
surface with a larger amount of fragments.

3.2.1 Adsorbent Surface Chemistry

The FTIR spectrum of CAC is shown in Figure 3 in the range of 4000cm-1 to 400cm-1 using
KBR disc for reference. This is aimed at determining the existence and absence of certain bands
of functional groups on the surface of the adsorbent. The result shows that the spectrum of CAC
were bands at 3587.72cm-1, 2808.45cm-1, 1519.96cm-1, 1342.50 cm-1, and 879.59 cm-1 which
indicate the presence of alcohol OH stretch, methylamino N-CH3, C-H stretch, O–N asymmetric
compounds; C–Cl, C-Br and C–O cyclohexane in the carbon, Sulphur-oxy compounds,
(Adialkyllaryl sulfones) and the peroxide C – O – O stretch (Coates, 2000). The formation of
different functional groups could be associated with the pyrolysis process and subsequent
activation of the CAC. These functional groups show that the adsorbent can be optimally
employed to remove heavy metals from pharmaceutical effluent.

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cm-1
Figure 3: The FTIR Spectra of CAC before adsorption

3.3 Effect of Adsorbent Dose on Adsorption Efficiency

Figure 4 shows the effect of dosage on the adsorption efficiency of the Composite activated
carbon. The results showed an increase in the percentage removal of heavy metals from the
pharmaceutical effluent as the AC dosage increases from 0.5 to 3 g at constant agitation and
time. The adsorption of Pb2+ ion by the adsorbent was higher (93.2%) as depicted in Figure 4,
followed by Zn2+ (82.1%) and Cd2+ (80.5%) respectively at a dosage of 2.5 g. The general
increase could be attributed to the increased surface area, pore-volume, and availability of a large
number of the active sites as the percentage of activated carbon dosage increases. This is
corroborated by Osakwe et al. (2014), Auta and Hameed (2011). The slight decrease in the
percentage removal of the heavy metals as the dosage increases to 3 g could be attributed to
aggregation by the CAC particles coupled with increased diffusion path length associated with
overlap and congestion of the CAC particles.

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100
90
80
% Removal of Zn, Pb, Cd

70
60
50 % Removal(Zn)
40 % Removal(Pb)
30 % Removal(Cd)
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Dosage (g)

Figure 4: Effect of adsorbent dose on adsorption efficiency

3.4 Effect of Residence Time on Adsorption Efficiency

Figure 5 shows the effect of residence time on the adsorption efficiency of the composite
activated carbon (CAC). The result shows that an increase in residence time significantly
enhanced the adsorption of the metallic ions to the active site of the adsorbent. It also showed a
high affinity of Pb2+ and slightly low adsorption of Zn2+ and Cd2+ ions to the CAC. The low
adsorption of Zn and Cd ions could be attributed to the high saturation of Pb2+ ion on the
sorption site. Generally, the increased adsorption of the metallic ions could also be attributed to
electrostatic forces between the negatively charged carbon surface and the cationic metallic ions
(Vukovic et al., 2011) coupled with the proliferation of existing active sites. The high affinity of
Pb2+ ion in agricultural waste materials has also been reported by Annadurai et al. (2002). Also
the adsorption approaches equilibrium after 100 min due to the initial high saturation of the
metallic ion on the active site as depicted in Figure 5. This is corroborated by Ariffin et al.
(2017) that show lead adsorption by fly ash-based geopolymer gain equilibrium at 120 min. Pb
exhibits high percentage removal (95.1%), followed by Zn and Cd (86.3 and 84.5%)
respectively. This result is in agreement with the result presented by Osakwe et al. (2014), Ho
and McKay (1998). In addition, the increase in the adsorption capacity of lead, zinc and
cadmium ions could be attributed to the presence of amino and carboxylic functional groups on
the CAC as depicted in Figure 3 (Chen et al., 2011). The decrease in the percentage of removal
after attaining equilibrium could be attributed to the decrease in the entire surface area of the
CAC (Wang et al., 2010).

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100
90
% Removal of Zn, Pb and Cd

80
70
60
50 % Removal(Zn)

40 % Removal(Pb)
30 % Removal(Cd)
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)
Figure 5: Effect of residence time on adsorption efficiency

3.5 Adsorption Isotherm

Table 3: Langmuir Isotherm Parameters

Metal qmax (mg/g) K (l/mg) r2
Pb2+ 8.32 7.1 0.983
Zn2+ 6.12 7.6 0.971
Cd2+ 5.41 6.5 0.972

Table 4: Freundlich Isotherm Parameters

Metal Kf(mg/g) 1/n r2
Pb2+ 2.65 1.81 0.993
2+
Zn 1.52 1.41 0.951
Cd2+ 0.95 1.09 0.981

Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models were used to disclose the relationship between the
amounts of metal ion adsorbed on the CAC and the metal ion concentration in the
pharmaceutical effluent. The empirical data obtained were fitted to the models to understand the
adsorption mechanism associated with lead, zinc and cadmium ions. Tables 3 and 4 show the
constant values associated with Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models for each metallic ion.
The values depict the degree of affinity and physiognomy of the CAC. Langmuir model assumed
a monolayer of molecules exists on an adsorbent and could be reversible, while Freundlich
isotherm describes the degree of homogeneity of the activated carbon surface. The results
(Tables 3 and 4) showed high correlation coefficients (r2 > 95%) for the isotherms investigated.

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This is an indication that the adsorption of Pb, Zn, and Cd ions could be well described by
Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. Won et al. (2006) suggested that the value of n less
than 1 indicates favourable adsorption and formation of a relatively stronger bond between the
adsorbate and the adsorbent (Mohan and Karthikeyan, 1997).

3.6 Time Estimate for Metal ion Removal

Equation (8) was used to estimate the approximate time required for the adsorbed ions
concentration to attend equilibrium. The Equation was developed based on the batch adsorption
process and the mass transfer coefficient (K) was determined using Levenberg-Marquardt (L-M)
least square minimization algorithm. The simulation was carried out using POLYMATH version
6.0 by CACHE Corporation.

Table 5: Estimated rate of adsorption of ions in pharmaceutical wastewater

Metal ion Co (ppm) Time (min)
Zn 0.1373 96.225
Pb 0.0636 95.182
Cd 0.01 83.683

Table 5 shows the approximate time required for the concentration of the ionic pollutants in the
pharmaceutical effluent to drop to the desired level. With a constant mass transfer coefficient
(1.8x10-6 m/s) and surface area per liquid volume (1087.28 m2/m3), the result shows that it takes
approximately 96.225, 95.182 and 83.683 min for Zn, Pb and Cd ions concentration in the
pharmaceutical wastewater to reach equilibrium respectively. The simulated result based on the
unsteady state mass balance for batch adsorption, the time obtained compared strongly with the
experimental values obtained as depicted in Figure 5. The difference could be attributed to slight
variation during experimentation.

4.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

Composite activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse and groundnut shell in a ratio of 1:1 was
produced and showed remarkable efficiency in the removal of deleterious levels of cadmium,
lead and zinc from pharmaceutical wastewater. The results show that particle size and surface
area were found to show a significant influence on the efficiency of the adsorbents. The
adsorption capacity of the CAC produced showed high percentage removal of Zn, Pb and Cd
ions with maximum adsorptivity achieved in 100 min which corroborates the approximate time
required to attained adsorption equilibrium using the unsteady state mass balance model. The
empirical data obtained were fitted to the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms model and the
results showed high correlation coefficients (r2 > 95%) indicating that the mechanism of
adsorption could probably be physisorption and chemisorption control.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

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Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

DEVELOPMENT OF A VEHICLE MOVEMENT BASED STREET

LIGHT SYSTEM USING ATMEGA328P MICROCONTROLLER
1
Oyediji F. T., 2Babalola A D., 3Adetunbi A. O
1,2
Department of Computer Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ile-Oluji, Nigeria
3
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering Federal Polytechnic, Ile-Oluji, Nigeria

E–mails: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The process of controlling street light manually is accompanied by time-wasting and
unnecessary stress. In this work, the automatic system of controlling street light makes the most
effective use of existing street light, manpower, and resources for the benefit of users. This
design is aimed at providing solutions to various challenges faced by manually controlled street
light. It will not eliminate the existing system but will rather work side-by-side with the existing
system. This system was developed using an ATmega328p microcontroller which was
programmed in C programming language using Micro C Pro compiler. PIR motion sensor was
used for sensing the movement of vehicles. Light Emitting Diode (LED) bulbs were used in place
of HID bulbs. This system is aimed at providing a solution to the consumption of electricity as
compared to the existing system.

1.0 Introduction
Street light can be defined as a source of light which are mounted on roadsides for security
purposes. Street lights as described by Mahamuni, Kotalwar, Kulkarni, and Mondal (2018), ―are
the major requirements in today‘s life for safety purposes to reduce crime rate and to avoid
accidents during the night‖. Providing street lighting is one of the most important and expensive
responsibility of a city. It also encourages social inclusion by providing an environment in which
people feel they can walk in hours of darkness despite that in today‘s busy lifestyle no one
bothers to switch streetlights OFF/ON when not required. Sindhu, George, Roy, and Chandra
(2016), said that automation plays an increasingly important role in the world‘s economy and
daily life. Automatic systems are being preferred over the manual system. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided
human operators with machinery to assist the users with muscular requirements of work,
automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. The
street light control system is a centralized system that controls and monitors the status of the
individual street lamp. Lights are switched to ON/OFF automatically based on PIR and LDR
status. Status information stored in the PIC controller and also monitored overall status in control
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base station via Zigbee communication channel, LED has been the best potential light source for
the next-generation lighting as it has many advantages such as high efficiency, long life, high
reliability, and low power consumption. (Bajaj and Mote, 2015)

Controlling of street lights in developing countries in which Nigeria is not left out is done
manually, thereby leading to using more time accompanied by unnecessary stress in switching
ON and OFF streetlights. The main challenge given by the previous streetlight system is that the
High Intensity Discharge (HID) bulbs used in the previous system has a choke coil which
consumes a bit of energy other than the original consumption of power assigned to the bulb,
which led to unnecessary consumption of electricity, whereby in college campuses or on the
highways, a large number of streetlights attached with High-Intensity Discharge (HID) bulbs
were kept ON even though there is no one to utilize them.

These challenges made the previous streetlight system inefficient. Over the years, hundreds of
streetlight systems have been developed, each adding features and functions but the majority of
the systems are still facing challenges such as efficiency, cost of developing the system among
other challenges. This work is aimed at providing a solution to these problems.
This design will control streetlights automatically by switching it on when there is vehicle
movement and off when there is no vehicle movement in the vicinity of the motion sensors. This
design will also reduce energy wastage and conserve the energy which can be used for other
purposes like distributing it to areas or communities that do not have electricity.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

This chapter describes the methodologies used for the design of the hardware and
software parts. The main hardware parts are the motion sensors and how it is interfaced to the
microcontroller and the GSM interface. The model and methodology, considerations/
specifications of the vehicle movement based street light energy conservative system and its
functional components are reported. The development stages and modes of operation of the
software application developed for the hardware was also reported here.

2.1 Design procedures

The design procedures involved in the development of the system will be such that the system
will be aimed to operate off a 12volts power supply system. The system is a vehicle movement
based street light energy conservative system with at least one programmable integrated circuit,
in this case, ATMEGA328P microcontroller will be used which is programmed using Micro C
Pro and Arduino. The microcontroller is programmed to receive a signal from the PIR motion
sensor once it senses or detects infrared from an object and activate the led unit inculcated in the
complete system and display the red light and allow the object in the field to pass. The program
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will be such that when there is no object detected by the system, the system will be in sleep
position and watching around the field to sense the presence of any object coming around and
during the waiting period for system to sense the presence of an object coming around the system
display a dim blue light to conserve energy. This means that if an object does not come around
the street light will continuing been in sleeping mode and saving energy until an object comes
around the system.

2.2 Selection of Components

The component requirements for the system that uses electrical electronic means in the vehicle
movement based street light energy conservative system are shown below:
i. Microcontroller (ATMEGA 328P)
ii. PIR Motion Sensor (BISS0001)
iii. Crystal Oscillator (12MHz)
iv. Light Emitting Diodes
v. Resistors (10k)
vi. Capacitors (1nf)
vii. Battery (9V)
viii. Voltage Regulator (LM7805)

2.3 Design Implementation

The sensor unit comprises an integrated circuit module such as a PIR motion sensor which is
placed in front of the design. This integrated circuit is powered using 5 volts dc power source. A
signal is sent to the microcontroller each time infrared is detected from the object‘s body and the
necessary actions are taken based on the program written to the microcontroller. The
microcontroller will thus be programmed.

The power source was obtained from a 9 volts battery. The microcontroller and other digital
integrated circuits use 5 volts for their operation and as such, a voltage regulator will be used to
regulate the 9 volts power supply to 5 volts for use by the circuit. The block diagram of the
design is shown in Figure 3.1.

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Power Supply Unit

Sensor Unit ATmega328p Output

Microcontroller

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of Vehicle Movement Based Street Light using ATmega328p
Microcontroller

2.3.1 Regulated Power Supply

Before the power circuit was designed, the required voltages (both Direct and alternating current)
in the circuit were first considered. Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5-volt power
supply. A means of stepping down the 240-volt AC is gotten by the use of a step down 12-volts
transformer with a transformation ratio of 20. The output of the transformer i.e. its primary side
is transformed into a DC voltage by a means of full-wave rectification (or bridge rectification).
The bridge consists of a four individual diode of 1N4004 types.

The principal advantage of a bridge rectifier is that it does not need a center-tap on the secondary
of the transformer. A further but significant advantage is that the ripple frequency at the output is
twice the line frequency (i.e. 50 Hz) and makes filtering somewhat easier.
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In the design of the power circuit, to calculate the rating of the transformer, the required output
voltage and current were considered. The maximum output voltage and current are 12-13V and
500mA respectively.

The output of the rectifier is not completely a DC, there is also a noise imposed on it (because of
the ripples caused by the diodes used in the rectification). This makes it seem like an AC signal.
To eliminate this problem, a 25V, 1000uF electrolytic capacitor is connected in parallel to the
output of the rectifier to filter the AC in the DC output.
To make a regulated 5-volts available, a voltage regulator IC LM7805 was used to realize the
voltage.

Figure 3.2: Circuit Diagram of the regulated power supply

2.3.2 Sensor Detection Unit
The sensory unit is composed of the PIR sensor. The PIR motion sensor is an electronic sensor
that senses or measures infrared light radiating from objects in its field of view. It has a sensing
range of less than 120 degrees within a distance of 5 meters maximum. The sensitivity and the
delay time can be adjusted with the aid of the potentiometer incorporated into the PIR sensor.

2.3.3 Programming
The program was written in C programming language using the Micro C Pro compiler. It
comprises the input, processing, and the output. The start and stop of the program are represented
by oval shapes, the input and output statements are presented in parallelograms while the
processing statements are presented in rectangular shapes. Figure 3.4 shows the flowchart of the
programming.

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Figure 3.3: Flowchart of the programming

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Figure 3.4: Complete Circuit Diagram of Vehicle Movement Based Street Light System using
Proceedings of 8th Annual Conference of the School of Engineering Technology (SET 2020), Auchi Polytechnic Auchi: Engineering

STREET LIGHT BULB

Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

U2 D1
7805
R2
10k
1 3 LED-BIRY
VI VO
GND

D2
R3
2

R1 C1
10k
10k LED-BIRY
1nF
U1 X1 D3
CRYSTAL
C2 R4
BAT1 2
PD0/RXD/PCINT16 PB0/ICP1/CLKO/PCINT0
14
9V 3 15
PD1/TXD/PCINT17 PB1/OC1A/PCINT1 10k
4 16 LED-BIRY
PD2/INT0/PCINT18 PB2/SS/OC1B/PCINT2
5 17 1nF
PD3/INT1/OC2B/PCINT19 PB3/MOSI/OC2A/PCINT3
6 18
PD4/T0/XCK/PCINT20 PB4/MISO/PCINT4

ATmega328p Microcontroller
11 19
12
PD5/T1/OC0B/PCINT21 PB5/SCK/PCINT5
9 D4
13
PD6/AIN0/OC0A/PCINT22 PB6/TOSC1/XTAL1/PCINT6
10
R5
PD7/AIN1/PCINT23 PB7/TOSC2/XTAL2/PCINT7
10k
21 23 LED-BIRY
AREF PC0/ADC0/PCINT8
20 24
AVCC PC1/ADC1/PCINT9
25
PC2/ADC2/PCINT10
26
PC3/ADC3/PCINT11

86
27
PC4/ADC4/SDA/PCINT12
28 D5
PC5/ADC5/SCL/PCINT13
1
R6
PC6/RESET/PCINT14
10k
ATMEGA328P LED-BIRY
1

1
LDR1 LDR2 LDR3 LDR4 LDR5
TORCH_LDR TORCH_LDR TORCH_LDR TORCH_LDR TORCH_LDR

2
SENSOR FOR DETECTING VEHICLE MOVEMENT
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2.4 Mode of Operation of the System

In this project, when the motion sensors (PIR) detects the movement of a vehicle, the sensor
sends a signal to the microcontroller which triggers the LED bulb to turn ON and be in ON
position while the vehicle is still in the vicinity of the sensor. Moreover, when the vehicle leaves
the vicinity of the sensor, the LED bulb then delays for five seconds. After the delay time, the
LED bulb will be OFF in order to conserve energy instead of allowing the energy to be wasted
when there is none to utilize it.

3.0 TESTING, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Testing
After the integration of various subunits of the complete prototype of this security system, the
implementation of the practical circuit has been tested with the help of Proteus software to
ensure the proper connection of the circuit.
The simulation is a decision analysis and support tool, which is used to know the performance of
the circuit. The hardware is the cost-effective equipment, so the proposed action cannot be
directly observed by the hardware. The simulation software has helped to know the circuit
performance, find and rectify the errors of the program.

3.1.1 Physical Testing

Initial testing of the board was carried out using a continuity meter to ensure all short circuit
faults are properly cleared. The sensory circuitry was tested to ascertain the level of sensitivity as
expected. In the connection, each component on the PCB was then tested. The implemented
design was initially tested on an open area after construction and the system performed as
expected. The device was further installed in a household to determine how effective the device
can detect an object. The test result shows that both the microcontroller attached to the street
light pole and the motion sensors perform adequately as expected.
Figure 4.1 shows the internal view and testing of Vehicle Movement Based Street Light Using
ATmega328p Microcontroller.

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Figure 4.1: Testing of the Vehicle Movement Based Street Light Using Atmega328p
Microcontroller

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3.2 Results
The result of simulation ensures that the circuit works properly. The practical implementation of
the simulated circuit has been presented in Figure 4.1. In the circuit diagram, ATmega328p
Microcontroller is the main component used for controlling other devices (PIR Sensor Module,
and LED). Motion sensor is used in the control unit as a sensor for determining the present status
of the system.

PIR motion sensors are placed at the street light pole where it is suitable to detect the range of
5m. This signal which detects an object presence triggers the input of the microcontroller either
to bring the red light with the led or showing the blue light be in dimming to conserve the
energy. The issue in this system of receiving high output signals can be reduced to low by
programming of the ATMEGA328P. As the microcontroller board has 14 digital input/output
pins, USB connection, ICSP header and reset button. It contains everything needed support for
system implementation. The system provides a user interface as it interacts with the system.
The human detection part of the project entirely depends on the program responsible for the
subtraction of any background noises. The PIR sensor responsible for the detection of motion
adjusts itself to the infrared signature of its surroundings and keeps watching for any changes. In
the absence of motion, the LED indicator will remain dim, and the program will continue
updating the surroundings. If the sensor detects movement, the frame for motion detected will be
the input frame to the process of human detection, and consequently, the motion detection
indicator will light.

3.3 Discussion
The prototype was designed and implemented. The results obtained from the combination of
various vehicle detection system components and corresponding constructions are evaluated and
some observations were made during the different stages of testing. Some distances were taken
to ascertain the workability of the object detection system. The best line-of-sight is about 100cm
the distance from the sensor to the object.

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion
The developed motion detection vehicle system gives a good response to the motion sensor when
it detects objects at the street light post. The test result shows that both the microcontroller
attached light-emitting diode and the motion sensors performed adequately as expected. The
entire decision making was carried out with the aid of ATmea328p microcontroller.
This system managed to help users to detect human and vehicle presence around the street
precisely. This system is a system that meets recently smart street applications to function in
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automation situations. During the study, a lot of knowledge and experience have been learned.
Besides the exposure on the microcontroller, this study also has sensors and functionality of the
motion sensor module.

4.2 Recommendation
This program should be reviewed to improve the information display in terms of accuracy in the
future. This study also can be continued in future to make improvements to the existing studies.
The future implication of this project is very great considering the amount of resources it saves.
This system can be used as a reference or as a base for realizing a scheme to be implemented in
other projects of greater level including vehicle traffic control and intelligent control of electrical
power consumption and wastage in a higher institution lecture theatre or international conference
hall.

REFERENCES
Aigbe, W.O. (2019). Intelligent Control of Electrical Power Consumption and Wastage in
University of Benin Lecture Theatres. Journal of Energy Technology and Environment,
1(1), 15-28.
Ankalkote, T., & Shere, V. B. (Professor). (2016). Modern LED Street Lighting System with
Intensity Control Based on Vehicle Movements and Atmospheric Conditions using WSN.
International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE), 5(3),
10-15.
Aravind, P., & Kishore, V. (2016). E-Street Zone-Automatic Streetlight based on the Movement
of Vehicles. Indian Journal of Science and Technology (IJST), 9(16), 1-6.
Bajaj, K. A., & Mote, T. S. (2015). Review on Intelligent Street Lightening System.
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 4(2), 1624.
Cynthia, P. C., Raj, V. A., & George, S. T. (2017). Automatic Street Light control Based on
Vehicle Detection Using Arduino for Power Saving Applications. International Journal of
Electronics, Electrical and Computational System (IJEECS), 6(9), 291-295.
D'Souza, A., Bhosale, O., Bhilare, M., & Sawant, S. (2018). Arduino Based Solar Street
Lighting. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research (IJSER), 9(2), 36-
38.
Lighting System for Smart City. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology (IJIRSET), 5(5), 7684-7691.
Madgavkar, S., Hankare, A., Pai, A., & Chankhore, N. (Professor). (2017). Intelligent Street
Light System: Automated Street Lights Based on Vehicle Detection. International Journal
on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication (IJRITCC), 5(3),
387-390.
Madhavan, N. S., Jha, K. K., Tiwari, M. K., Nagesha, R., & Vijayalakshmi. (2016). Vehicle
Movement Tracked Street Lighting. International Journal of Latest Technology in
Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS), 5(4), 84-85.

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Mahamuni, R., Kotalwar, D., Kulkarni, S., & Mondal, D.D. (Professor). (2018). Vehicle
Movement using Street Light Detection. International Research Journal of Engineering
and Technology (IRJET), 5(4), 3302-3306.
Mestry, P., Darekar, I., Adurkar, A., & Ojha, S. (2017). Vehicle Movement Based Street Lights
with External Light Sensing. International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering,
Science & Technology (IJAREST), 4(5), 1-4.
Parkash, Prabu, V., & Rajendra, D. (2016). Internet of Things Based Intelligent Street
Rao, A., & Konnur, A. (2017). Street Light Automation Using Arduino Uno. Internal Journal of
Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering (IJIRCCE), 5(11),
16499-16507.
Sindhu, A. M., George, J., Roy, S., & Chandra J. (2016). Smart Streetlight Using IR Sensors.
IOSR Journal of Mobile Computing & Application (IOSR-JMCA), 3(2), 39-44.
Singhal, A. (2015). AUTOMATIC STREET LIGHTS. International Journal of Advanced
Research in Engineering & Management (IJAREM), 1(8), 1-3.
Srivastava, S. (2013). Automatic Street Lights. Advance in Electronic and Electric Engineering,
3(5), 539-542.
Udoakah, Y. N., & Okure, I. G. (2017). Design and Implementation of a Density-Based Traffic
Light Control with Surveillance System. Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH),
36(4), 1239-1248.
Veena, P. C., Tharakan, P., Haridas, H., Ramya K., Joju, R., & Jyothis, T. S. (2016). Smart Street
Light System based on Image Processing. International Conference on Circuit, Power and
Computing Technologies (ICCPCT).
Yashaswini, N., Raghu, N., Yashaswini, S., & Prathib, K. G. (2018). Automatic Street Light
Control by Detecting Vehicle Movement. International Conference on Recent Trends in
Electronics, Information & Communication Technology (ICRTEICT), 847-850.

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SUSTAINING EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE BY ELECTRIC POWER

QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM

Aiyelabowo O. P1 and Abubakar Abisetu 2

Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering Kogi State Polytechnic, Lokoja
Email: [email protected]/08067040854

ABSTRACT
Power is required to drive all electrical equipment used in various spheres of technological and
engineering activities. These activities include manufacturing, telecommunication and medicine.
These equipment are sometimes powered from sources that suffers from voltage and frequency
fluctuations, which results in equipment damage. This article presents a system that monitors the
quality of power supplies, checks for fluctuations in voltage and frequency on the power sources
available and then connects the load to the purest source of the power. The system consists of
four (4) basic units, namely, power sources, power supply, controller and displays. In the display
unit are the liquid crystal display (LCD) and light emitting diode (LED). The power supply unit
provides the Vcc to all other units. The system’s control is a micro-controller, built around the
Arduino uno, which follows a set of instruction to identify the source with the purest power and
connects it to the load. The system was tested on the three power supply sources, two of which
were infested with forced impurities, one voltage fluctuation and the other frequency fluctuation,
while the third source was without the aforementioned defects. The system selects the third
power source that is void of the fluctuation and displays 50Hz and 230V on the LCD.

Keywords: Power quality, Voltage, Frequency, Fluctuations and Selection

1.0 Introduction
Power quality is the concept of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a manner that is
suitable to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the premise wiring system and
other connected equipment (Khalid & Dwivedi, 2011), (Ogheneovo Johnson, 2016) It is also a
set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its intended manner
without significant loss of performance or life expectancy (Beleiu, Beleiu, Pavel, & Darab,
2018).

The electric power industry comprises of electricity generation (AC power), electric power
transmission and ultimately electric power distribution to an electric meter located at the
premises of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the wiring
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system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system responsible for the
movement of energy from the point of production to the point of consumption, combined with
variations in weather, generation, demand, and other factors, provide many opportunities for the
quality of supply to be compromised. Most electric components and equipment get burnt-up and
damaged due to voltage fluctuations which is caused by problems associated with power quality.
There are many ways in which electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of
such poor quality power.

In recent years power quality assessment and improvement has been attracting a growing amount
of attention as the standard of living increases and as a result of the damages caused by
power/voltage fluctuations (Singh, Al-haddad, Member, & Chandra, 1999). Voltage fluctuations,
frequency fluctuations and low voltage distribution are considered to be the most frequent type
of power quality problems based on recent power quality studies (Ahmed, Mohammed, &
Agusiobo, 2006), (Ogheneovo Johnson, 2016). Their impact on sensitive load is severe. The
impact ranges from load disruptions to substantial economic loses up to millions of dollars. The
voltage supplied by the grid power can fluctuate and damage electrical appliances since these
electrical and electronic appliances use voltage of the same level, they are connected directly to
the source of supply which is between 220/240 V. Some major factors contributing to the
problems associated with power quality are; use of sensitive electronic loads, the proximity of
disturbance-producing equipment, the sources of supply, unbalanced incoming utility supply,
frequency from the source of supply and so on (Ahmed, 2006), which could result in nuisance
tripping due to disoperation of relays and contactors and problems with some sensitive electronic
equipment and components which requires a constant voltage getting burnt and damaged.

In this paper, a system is designed to access the quality of the available electric power sources
and select the one (single) with the best quality for the equipment at the load end. Thus the
performance of the equipment is guaranteed effectively and efficiently.

2.0 Power quality problems and issues

A recent power quality surveys reveals that 50% of all power quality problems are related to
grounding, ground bonds, and neutral to ground voltages or other ground associated issues.
Electrically operated or connected equipment is affected by power quality (Bhim et al, 1999).
Some symptoms that indicate power quality problems include, equipment mis-operation,
equipment failure or malfunctioning, circuit breakers trip without being overloaded, automated
systems stops for no apparent reason, increase of system losses, electronic communication
interferences and burning or damaging of electrical equipment and component (Khalid &
Dwivedi, 2011). Some of the equipment affected by power quality problems are, aircraft
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electrical system, personal computers, controllers, adjustable speed drives and contactors and
relays to mention a few.
Various means or methods have been designed and implemented in modifying the process in
switching from two or more electrical power sources known as ―changing over‖. In the past
years most known types of power protecting devices are, phase selectors, uninterruptible power
supply (UPS), switching power supplies, spikes and surges protectors, power line filters, line
voltage regulators, power line conditioners and standby power supplies (SPS) (Ahmed et al.,
2006).

3.0 Materials and Method

The methodology of this work is of two arms, the hardware and software. The software segment
is the development of a set of commands programmed into the memory location of the
microcontroller to drive the entire system. The hardware segment, involves the circuitry design
that receives information when there is voltage fluctuation from any of the sources of supply and
acts on it by automatically switching to the next healthy source of supply. The various units that
makes up the power quality monitoring system are as shown in the block diagram of Fig. 1
Source 1 Power Supply LCD Display

Source 2
Controller LED Display

Source 3
Load

Figure 1: Power monitoring system block diagram

3.1 System design
This section entails the circuit design for the power supply, controller and display units.
Power supply unit
The Power supply unit is comprised of a transformer, the half-wave rectifier, filtering capacitor,
power regulator and stabilizing capacitors. A centre tapped step down transformer, which
converts the input voltage of 220 ac volt to 12 ac volt was chosen. The half-wave rectifier
converts an alternating (AC voltage) to a pulsating direct (DC voltage). It performs a full wave
rectification of output voltage from the transformer. The electrolytic capacitor, C1 was used to
filter ripples of dc pulsating output of the bridge rectifier. The value of the capacitor was
determined using equation (1);
(1)
√

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Taking total load current, , the load resistance will be . Assuming a

ripple factor of 0.1, from (1), C1 = 714.43 µF. So, the minimum capacitor that can be used is
but 1000μF is chosen to cater for any exceptional condition that can be caused by the
manufacturer, temperature and others. The ceramic capacitors, C2 and C3, each 100 nF are used
to smoothen out the dc component in the circuit. A power (voltage) regulator is designed to
automatically maintain a constant voltage level. Since +5 V is required in the circuit, a 7805 TTL
IC was implemented to convert the 12 V dc input voltage to a constant 5 V that eventually
powers the controller.

Controller Unit
This unit comprises of resistors (R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17), Arduino microcontroller
capacitors (C6, C7), crystal oscillator (OSC) and buzzer (BZ1). It processes some set of
instructions (software) to carry-out specific tasks. On-board of the microcontroller kit is the
ATmega328p microprocessor. The microprocessor is a low-power CMOS 8-bit device based on
the AVR enhanced architecture (Godwin, Inyiama, Chidiebele C, & Ekene S, 2013) and
manufactured with Atmel‘s high density non-volatile memory technology programmer.
Moreover, it houses a 32 kilobytes of in-system programmable flash program memory, with
read-while-write capabilities, 1024 bytes EEPROM, 2 Kbyte SRAM, 32 general purpose I/O
lines, 32 general purpose registers, 10-bit ADC, to mention a few features. ATmega328 provides
a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to embedded control applications. The Arduino
microcontroller possesses 14 digital I/O pins, 6 analog inputs, 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB
connection, a power jack. It is powered by a 5 V (4.7 V – 5.3 V) dc supply. Use a low to select a
command register and a high to select a data register, low to write to register and high to read
from register. The pin configuration and mapping is as shown in Fig. 2

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Figure 2: ATMega328p pin configuration

Pins 6, 11, 12, 13 and 28 are output pins that are configured to either high or low state. Pins 19,
18, 17, 16 and 15 are configured to communicate with the display (LCD Display). A push-
button, SW2 was used to reset the micro-controller as it makes pin 1 low to ground. Pins 27 and
26 are dc voltage input pins. The processed three power supply sources are connected to the pins
2, 3, and 13. Pins 4, 5 and 6 are programmed to communicate with relays that selects the purest
source for the load.

LCD and LED Display units

The LCD module acts as textual information to the user. It is like a monitor hooked to the gadget
to show textual information on the operation of the device. A 20*4 LCD display is used in this
project work. It has 4rows and 20columns; it is used to show information on the operation and
status of the controller and the controlled device. The LCD display is connected to pin
12,11,10,9,8 and 7 of the microcontroller. It is put into operation by a regulated 5 V as well as its
backlight; the backlight contrast is controlled through pin3 of the LCD via a variable resistor of
5kΩ

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The pin connection of the 20 by 4 LCD is as shown in below

Pin 1 GND
Pin 2 +5 V
Pin 3 VLC
Pin 4 D12
Pin 6 D11
Pin 11 D10
Pin 12 D9
Pin 13 D8
Pin 14 D7
Pin 15 Anode of the backlight
Pin 16 Cathode of the backlight

The connection of the microcontroller is shown in the overall circuit diagram of the power
quality monitoring system.
A light emitting diode (LED) is a two lead semiconductor light source. It is a p-n junction diode
which emits light when activated. The light emitting diode is a diode that gives off visible light
when it is energized through the process of electroluminescence. It is used as an indicator
showing the operation of each device. Three (3) LEDs are used in this design to indicate the
different sources of power.

Other Components
A transistor was used to achieve amplification of signal. The general purpose transistor C1815,
was implemented as a driver of the relay switch.
Optocoupler is a component that transfers electrical signals between two (2) isolated circuits by
using light and prevents high voltage from affecting the system receiving the signal. The was
used to process the power source output that serves as input to the microcontroller.
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays uses an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism. Relay is applicable where it is necessary to control a circuit requiring a
low power signal or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
The parts of every relay include the following:
 Electromagnet which becomes a magnet when it receives an electric signal
 Armature that can be attracted by the electromagnet
 Spring which pulls the armature when the electromagnet is demagnetized
 Sets of electrical contacts
Three relays were required in this system to select a particular power source at a time. The
microcontroller‘s output triggers a specific relay for the load.
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System Architecture
The power quality monitoring system is integrated with the microcontroller (Arduino UNO). The
system detects voltage fluctuations from any of the sources of supply embedded in it with the
help of the microcontroller and automatically switches to the next available and most healthy
source of supply.
The structure of the system is working with the following steps
1. The system is supplied power by three (3) different sources of supply
2. The microcontroller is programmed to sense voltage fluctuation in any of the three (3)
sources of supply
3. The microcontroller issues commands to the relay switches
4. The relay switch automatically switches from one source to another as controlled by the
microcontroller.
The designed circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 3

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Fig 3: Circuit diagram of power quality monitoring system.

4.0 Results and Discussion

This system was carefully arranged and soldered on a Vero board taking into consideration all
rules, procedures and steps involved in soldering. The modules were constructed separately on
different Vero board and then joined together using wire link. The following are the modules
used in this project work
 The power supply module which comprises of the transformers, diodes, resistors,
capacitors, optocouplers and LEDs
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 The Arduino UNO microcontroller module which is connected to the LCD display
 The relay interface module which consist of transistors, relay driver circuit and relay
connection.
They were soldered on Vero board separately while wires were used to join the different
modules together
These various modules are shown in Plates 1 – 3. While Plate 4 shows the entire system.

Plate 1: Power supply module

Plate 2: Controller module

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Plate 3: Relay interface module

Plate 4: Power monitoring

system
5.0 Conclusion
The power quality monitoring system monitors, detects and automatically switches between
different sources of supply if there is voltage fluctuation in any of the source and thus supply the
purest source of supply to the load. Thus the load is protect from power supplies that are
contaminated by fluctuations in frequency and voltage. This protection will yield a prolong life
of the appliances and load in homes and work places. This system is recommended for homes,
schools, hospitals, and so on to protect electronic components and electrical appliances from
either getting burnt or malfunctioning.

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References
Ahmed, M. S., Mohammed, A. S., & Agusiobo, O. B. (2006). Development of a Single Phase
Automatic Change-Over Switch. AU Journal of Technicial Report, 10(1), 68–74.
Beleiu, H. G., Beleiu, I. N., Pavel, S. G., & Darab, C. P. (2018). Management of power quality
issues from an economic point of view. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(7), 1–16.
http://doi.org/10.3390/su10072326
Godwin, U. O., Inyiama, P. H. C., Chidiebele C, U., & Ekene S, M. (2013). Microcontroller
Based Real-Time Emulator for Logic Gate and Structured Logic Devices. International
Journal of Science and Technology, 2(8), 639–647.
Khalid, S., & Dwivedi, B. (2011). Power quality issues, problems, standards and their effects in
industry with corrective means. International Journal of Advances in Engineering and
Technology (IJAET), 1(2), 1–11.
Ogheneovo Johnson, D. (2016). Issues of Power Quality in Electrical Systems. International
Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, 5(4), 148.
Singh, B., Al-haddad, K., Member, S., & Chandra, A. (1999). A Review of Active Filters for
Power Quality Improvement. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 46(5), 960–971.

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THE LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF RUNNING DOMESTIC GENERATORS

IN NIGERIA: CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS

Edema, A. O.1, Dolor, G. A.2, Ayadju, G.3, and Esabunor, T4

1, 2 & 3
Department of Mechanical Engineering Delta State Polytechnic Otefe, Oghara, Delta
State, Nigeria
4 Department of Welding and Fabrication Delta State Polytechnic Otefe, Oghara, Delta State,
Nigeria
Correspondence E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The use of domestic generators as an alternative source of power in Nigeria is without doubt
inevitable, since the country’s current power generation is insufficient and disruptive. This paper
studied four different types of domestic generators to obtain the running costs in four years with
a view to using it to predict the life cycle costs (LCC). Cost breakdown structure (CBS) model
was used to analyze these data to identify the various costs components. The study revealed that
acquisition, operation, maintenance and disposal costs were prevalent in running domestics
generators. Data analysis showed that Honda generator had the best performance. Based on its
total life cycle costs, the percentage cost of acquisition, operation, maintenance and disposal
were 6.2, 75.7, 16.82 and 1.25 respectively. Further analysis of the 75.7% operation costs
revealed that energy, consumables and spare parts have 78.4%, 10.8% and 10.8% respectively.
The 16.82% of maintenance costs revealed that preventive and corrective have 33.33% and
66.67% respectively. The results further revealed that operation cost, especially energy cost is
more dominant. The paper recommends that domestic generator manufacturers should use LCC
tool to fine-tune their generators for fuel economy, emission and sound control. This information
should be included in the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) document. This document
should be made available during sales of the product. By this domestic generator operation will
be more society friendly and ensures the livability of Nigerian residents.

KEYWORDS: Power supply, Domestic generator, LCC.

1.0 Introduction
There cannot be any meaningful social-economic development in a country without a
sustainable, regular and steady power supply. Most African countries are characterized by
erratic, unsteady and insufficient power supply, thus, resulting to other economic and social
backwardness among other things. Nigeria is not left out in this state. The economic consequence
of unreliable power supply in a country is enormous (Olowosejeje, Leahy and Morrison, 2019).

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Almost sixty years after independence Nigeria is yet to get it right in terms of power supply. It is
power supply that ushers in the required increase in living standard such as education, health and
environmental protection to mention but few (Edema and Edward, 2010) and (Dalberg, 2019).
Many reforms have been made and many goals have been set in the past, it is sad to note that
none of these goals have yielded good results. The projection of power supply of 10,000MW
capacity by 2010 has become a mirage (Edema and Edward, 2010) .Today, Nigeria‘s actual
generated capacity is about 4,000MW as against installed capacity of 7,445MW (Akindele and
Adejumobi, 2017). The factors militating against the power supply include but not limited to the
following: poor government policy, economic factor, natural factor, society community factor,
defective energy management, lack of skilled personnel, inefficient technology and security
factor (Ohajiaha, Abumere, Owate, and Osarolube, 2014). While the government and the various
agencies concerned should go back to the drawing broad to cross check these factors, Nigerian
citizens would continue to source for an alternative power supply.

It is obvious that Nigeria has insufficient generated power capacity. Nigerians cannot pretend to
have power supply sufficiency in any way, because both the installed and generated capacities
are grossly inadequate. For instance, Brazil with a population of 201 million people generates
about 100,000MW, South Africa with 50 million people generates 40,000MW and Ghana with
23.84 million people generates 2,117MW (Ohajiaha et al, 2014) and (Dalberg 2019). The
reasons for Nigeria, a country with about 180 million people wallowing in erratic, unreliable and
unsteady power supply is obvious. In the midst of these problems a scientific approach is
required for a lasting solution. This paper aims at applying cost breakdown structure model to the
running cost of domestic generators with a view to identifying the component costs associated
with domestic generators. The data acquired would be used to fine- tune the fuel economy and
other associated risks to improve the livability of Nigeria‘s residents.

2.0 Literature Review

Ohajiaha et al (2014) enumerated the factors militating against the success of the power sector in
Nigeria. The inability of the government to provide regular supply rest squarely on her shoulder
since all the powers to make policy, secure life and properties is with her. Azimazi (2020) said a
bill is on the floor of the National Assembly to ban the importation of generators. This is
receiving attention because of its hazard and other negative effects on the power sector
(Aborisade and Awoyinfa, 2020), (Akindele and Adejumobi, 2017) and Dalberg et al (2018)
pointed the attendant problems of domestics generators such as, health hazard, noise, heating up
of the ecosystem among others. Adaju (2020) also mentioned the risk of these emissions. Adaju
(2020) lamented that 70 million generators have been imported in just a few years. It is on record
that 28,678 generator sets cost N40.8 billion in 2014, predicting that the value of importation
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may rise from $450 million in 2011 to $950.7 million in the year 2020 (Okotie, 2015). These
observations are laudable but the problem is not insurmountable by the government.
No one is complaining of too many cars because emissions have been contained by the
automobile manufacturers. Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) suffered a natural
death in the presence of a strong competitive private telecom companies. A strong, vibrant,
sufficient power sector could minimize the importation of generators and not the bill to ban it.
In another development it is obvious that Nigeria has insufficient power supply so it is needful
for citizens to search for alternative sources. The domestic generators used by residents are
mostly gasoline-driven, perhaps because of the cost and its availability (Dalberg, 2019).Various
types of domestic generators are found in the Nigerian market, they include but not limited to
Elipaq, Tiger, Sumec, Thermocool, Yamaha, Honda, Elimax, Lutian and Mikano. The capacities
of this generators vary from 1KVA to 4KVA (Dalberg 2019). It is worthy to note that generators
vary in quality. Quality is fitness for purpose of a product to a customer. The attributes of quality
are reliability, maintenanceability, serviceability, cost, colour, compatibility and performance.
Since a generator based economy is prevailing for now, it is imperative that one should acquire a
quality one. It is only a strong competition of the power sector that may cause the disappearance
of domestic generators from Nigeria. The total capacity of generators nationally is eight times
larger than grid peak capacity and the cost of alternative solar power is beyond the reach of the
average Nigerians (15-20 times the cost of acquiring domestic generator (Dalberg, 2019).
Nigerians depend more on the alternative sources (Osac-Brown and Olurounbi, 2019).

Specific problems require specific solutions. While most citizens would believe that total ban of
generators is drastic and represents the opinion of the haves, not-haves see it as a deprivation of
their daily livelihood. The major problems of these generators are fuel economy, emission and
sound control which have been handled by automobile manufacturers in the 80s.

They achieved this by developing life cycle cost software to track the performance of cost
implications of their products. Today most cars are fuel economy, emission and sound control
compliance (Fakoyejo, 2020). Manufacturers of generators are yet to achieve this. Life cycle cost
uses cost breakdown structure model. When applied to any product the various cost components
are identified and the data therefrom is used for improvement.

3.0 Materials and Methods

Four generators were studied with a view to knowing the life cycle cost for four years. The
generators were run for four hours per day, from 2016 to 2019. The generators are: Elemax (G1),
Honda (G2), Yamaha (G3) and Sumec (G4). Each of the generator has a nominal output of
2.5KVA. The generators were used for domestic purposes where record of blackout is
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pronounced due to bad transformer. Care was taken for adequate loading and maintenance
procedures were followed. Below are the specifications of the generators.
Data G1 G2 G3 G4
1 Product Elimax Honda Yamaha Sumec
2 Purchase date 2016 2016 2016 2016
3 Power Rating KVA 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
4 Avg loading(%) 80 80 80 80
5 Fuel Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline
6 Power Factor 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
7 Running (hr/day 4 4 4 4
8 Frequency (H3) 50 50 50 50

3.1. A cost breakdown structure (CBS) is like a Christmas tree with main branches and sub
branches. There is a pre-defined CBS from which a specific CBS is made for the domestic
generator product. For domestic generators, the specific CBS is shown below.

(a) Acquisition:
- Logistic Cost
- Installation Cost
- Purchase Cost

(b) Operation Cost:

- Energy Cost (fueling)
- Consumables Cost (oil, filters, plug etc)
- Spare parts cost

(c) Maintenance Cost

- Preventive Labour Cost
- Corrective Labour Cost

(d) Disposal Cost (if any)

Below is the table showing the fuel consumption per hour (H), the consumption per
day (D) and the consumption per 4 years (Y).
D = H x 4 (column 3) 3.1
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Y = D x 365 x 4 (column 4) 3.2

The results are shown below.

Table 3.2: Fuel Consumption for Generators

Generator H (litre/hr D (litre/day Y (litre/year

G1 0.751 3.004 4385.84

G2 0.720 2.880 4204.80

G3 0.743 2.972 4339.12

G4 0.786 3.144 4590.24

4.0 Results and Discussions

Table 4.1: Cost of Energy for the Period
Generator H (Litre/hr) D (Litre/day) Y (Litre per Cost/Period
period) ($)

G1 0.751 3.004 4385.84 1589.00

G2 0.720 2.880 4204.80 1524.24

G3 0.743 2.972 4339.12 1575.93

G4 0.786 3.144 4590.24 1663.96

The pump price used during the period was N145 at the present exchange rate of about $1 =
N400. Hence pump price in dollar $0.3625. Cost of energy.
E($) = Y x 0.3625 4.1

Table 4.2: Cost of Maintenance

Generator Preventive cost + Corrective cost + Total Maintenance

Transp. ($) Transp. ($) cost ($)

G1 144 300 444

G2 144 288 432
G3 144 324 468
G4 144 324 468

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Table 4.3: Operations Cost

Generator Cost of Cost of Energy (E) Cost of Spares Total
Consumables ($) $ Operation
($) Cost ($)
G1 216 1589.00 240 2045.00
G2 210 1524.24 210 1944.24
G3 225 1572.93 230 2027.93
G4 250 1663.96 245 2158.96

Table 4.4: Components of the Total LCC

Generator Cost of Operation Maint. Cost Disposal Total LCC
Acquisition Cost ($) ($) Cost ($) for Each
($) Generators
($)
G1 128 2045.00 444 23 2640.00
G2 160 1944.24 432 32 2568.24
G3 130 2027.93 468 20 2645.93
G4 120 2158.96 468 18 2764.96

From the above results it evident that energy is a dominant cost component responsible for the
life cycle cost of a generator followed by maintenance cost. The acquisition and disposal costs
are minimal. Fine - tuning the fuel consumption of the generator could improve the life cycle
cost. Invariably fuel economy emission and sound control should be improved simultaneously.
Improvement on these three variables could lead to a healthy livability of residents. From table
4-4, although the Honda generator has the highest acquisition cost, the LCC surprisingly is the
smallest at $2568.24. This is followed by Elemax with a total LLC of $2640.00. Conversely
Sumec generator which appeared cheapest to acquire $120 had highest total LCC of $2764.96.

The performance evaluation of Honda generator based on the data (Table 4.4) revealed that:
Acquisition Cost: 6.23%
Operation Cost: 75.7%
Maintenance Cost: 16.82%
Disposal Cost: 1.25%

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Of the 75.7% of operation cost, analysis of Table 4.3 further revealed that:
Energy Cost: 78.4%
Consumables Cost: 10.8%
Spares part Cost: 10.8%
Also from Table 4.2 the maintenance cost 16.82% has the following breakdown:
Preventive Cost: 33.33%
Corrective Cost: 66.67%
Analysis revealed that energy cost is a determinant factor for fuel economy, emission control and
even sound control. A stringent law on these parameters will make generators more
environmental friendly.

5.0. Conclusion and Recommendations

1. The paper identified three major reasons why generators are unfriendly in the society:
- Emissions
- Noise
- Fuel economy
2. Honda generator proved to be the best of the generators
3. The dominant cost of running a domestic generator is the operation cost which came from
the energy cost.
4. Generator manufacturers to fine-tune their product using LCC tool.
5. Nigeria government to sanction generators that are not fuel economy, emission and
sound control compliance.
6. Generators purchasers to demand for OEM document before payment.
7. The fuel economy, emission and Noise control to be included in the OEM document.

REFERENCES
Aborisade, S. and Awoyinfa (2020). Generator Importation to Attract 10-years Jail Term- Senate
bill. Punch Newspaper, March 2, 2020.
Adaju, S. (2020). Nigeria Imports 70m generators in few years. The Nation Newspaper April 4,
2020.
Akindele, A. and Adejumobi, D.O. (2017). Domestic Electric Power Generator Usage and
Residents Livability in Milliu, Ogbomosho, Nigeria. DOI:10.5296/emsd. V6i1.10941.
Azimazi, M.J. (2020). New Bill Proposes Jail Terms for Importers, Users, Sellers of Generators.
Guardian Newspaper, March 11, 2020.
Dalberg (2019). Putting an End to Nigeria‘s Generator Crisis: The Path Forward. Access to
Energy Institute. Org/resources. Assessed April 6th, 2020.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Edema, A.O and Edward, B.A (2010). Providing Alternative Power for Development in Nigeria-
The Residential Experience. The Nigerian Academic Forum, Volume 19 (1).
Fakoyejo, O. (2020). Nigerians Spends 14 Billion on Generator, Fuel. natametric.com, accessed
March 7, 2020.
Ohajiaha, C.; Abumere, O.E.; Owate, and Osarolube E. (2014) Erratic Power Supply, in Nigeria;
Causes and solutions. International Journal of Engineering, Science and Invention. ISSN.
(print) 2319-6726, volume 3 (71): 51-55. www.ijesi.org
Okotie, Roseline (2015) Importation of Generators hits N40.8Billion. Guardian Newspapers,
July 7.
Olowosejeje, S.; Leahy, P.; and Morrison, A. (2019) The Economic Costs of Unreliable Grid
Power in Nigeria. African Journal of Science, Innovation and Development, Volume 11
(2).
Osac-Brown, A and Olurounbi (2019) Nigerians Run on generators and Nine hours of Power a
day. 2/9/19 https//www.bloombergy.com/new/article/2019, assessed April 6, 2020.

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THE IMPACT OF OIL EXPLORATION ON THE NIGER DELTA

REGION
1
Akande, Deborah Omoyemi, 1Osagioduwa Monday and 2Anyanwu Maria
1
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi
2
Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi

Correspondence: [email protected] +2348039533196

ABSTARCT
Oil exploration and exploitation in Nigeria have evolved through a long history. However, they
have left trailed of woes in their path with so much damage to the ecosystem and problems to
human life in the exploration region. In the light of this, the paper examines the impacts of oil
exploration and exportation in the Niger Delta Region. Data used were obtained through
secondary source. The paper highlighted several direct environmental and associated problems
that emanated from oil exploration and exploitation in the region. The problems identified
among others include large-scale environmental pollution and degradation of agricultural land
which serves as source of income for the people coupled with social unrest arising from unpaid
claims of compensation and lack of concern for the people in the exploration area. The paper
advocates for oil spill management plan, control and clearance of spills; giving concessions to
indigenous oil companies during biding process by granting licenses to operate in the Niger-
Delta region; adoption of long-term monitoring and surveillance mechanism; continuous
provision of infrastructure for the host communities by prospecting oil companies; and
development of national oil spill contingency plan among others with a view to guarantee
sustainable development of the environment in the region.

Key words: Pollution, Exploration, Exploitation, Environment, Degradation

INTRODUCTION
The exploration and exploitation of the environment dates back to the existence of man on earth
(Anderson 2005). His exploration and exploitation activities continue to reveal complex
implications in spite of improvement in the technology adopted in carring out these activities.
Oil exploration and exploitation are few of such activities which started at different times in
different parts of the world. Oil and gas related operations are the most obvious industrial
activities in the coastal region. Oil and gas resources account for over 98% of the country‘s
exploit earning and 83% of the governments total revenue (Wikipidia,2006). Even when serious
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efforts are being made at different quarters to diversify the Nigerian economy, her dependence
on oil is bound to continue for a long period of time. Petroleum exploration has triggered adverse
environmental impacts in the Delta Region of Nigeria through incessant environmental, socio-
economic and physical disasters that have accumulated over the years due to limited scrutiny
and lack of assessment (Achi, 2003)

In Nigeria, immense tracts of mangrove forests have been destroyed as a result of petroleum
exploitation in the mangroves (Diop, 1993; Wikipedia, 2006). These have not only caused
degradation to the environment and destroyed the traditional livelihood of the region but have
caused environmental pollution that has affected weather conditions, soil fertility, waterways
aquatic habitats and wildlife. This inhuman situation continues to attract the interest of
environmental observers and calls for regular evaluation of the exploration and exploitation
activities in the coastal areas of the country. Niger Delta been the major coastine in Nigeria, this
paper evaluates the environmental implications of the exploration and exploitation activities in
the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, where massive oil exploitation activities has taking place due
to large abundant mineral resources.

The importance of petroleum to the socio economic development of nation (world wide), can not
be over emphasized. Research by Nwilo (2001), revealed that the areas were petroleum reserved
are highly produced are exploited enhances spatial interactions, provides employment
opportunities, attracts other subsidiary firms, provides foreign earnings, as well as enhancing
infrastructural facilities development.

The recognition of the importance of petroleum sector to the structural transformation of the
country Federal Government as well as deregulated the sector with the view of harnessing the
full potentials for the benefits of all and sundry. The petroleum sub sector stifled agriculture and
itself accounted for 88.557% of the total Federal Revenue Awosiku (2006). But in spite of
Government efforts, the sector has not been able to achieved the much desired result of
increasing the GPA, other employment opportunities provides foreign earning for the
development of other sector as well as reduce poverty, degradation and deprivation in the
country.

Explorations of petroleum in Nigeria have produced more of negative impact than positive
impact. These problems includes environmental pollution, land degradation, lose of human and
marine lives, as well as other environmental problems.
In view of the above, the Aim of this paper is to examine the environmental implications of
petroleum resources exploitation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria in other to enhance a
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sustainable development in the region. The objectives are to identify the various sources
responsible for environmental pollution in the study area, identify the impact of oil exploitation
in the study area, assess the trend of petroleum exploitation in the study area, identify the
resultant effect of the consequence of oil exploitation and also prefer measures to its problems.

HISTORY OF THE NIGERIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Oil was discovered in Nigeria in 1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta after half a century of
exploration. The discovery was made by Shell-BP, at the time the sole concessionaire. Nigeria
joined the ranks of oil producers in 1958 when its first oil field came on stream producing 5,100
bpd. After 1960, exploration rights in onshore and offshore areas adjoining the Niger Delta were
extended to other foreign companies. In 1965 the EA field was discovered by Shell in shallow
water southeast of Warri.

In 1970, the end of the Biafran war coincided with the rise in the world oil price, and Nigeria
was able to reap instant riches from its oil production. Nigeria joined the organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1971 and established the Nigerian National Petroleum
Company (NNPC) in 1977; a state owned and controlled company which is a major player in
both the upstream and downstream sectors.

Following the discovery of crude oil by Shell D‘Arcy Petroleum, pioneer production began in
1958 from the company‘s oil field in Oloibiri in the Eastern Niger Delta. By the late sisties and
early seventies, Nigeria had attained a production level of over 2 million barrels of crude oil a
day. Although production figures dropped in the eighties due to economic slump, 2004 saw a
total rejuvenation of oil production to a level of 2.5 million barrels per day. Current development
strategies are aimed at increasing production to 4 million barrels per day by the year 2010.
Petroleum production and exportation play a dominant role in Nigeria‘s economy and account
for about 90% of her gross earnings. This dominant role has pushed agriculture, the traditional
mainstay of the economy, from the early fitfties and sixties, to the background NNPC (2012)

EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION

The work of Hutchful (1970) is one of the very first attempts to document the environmental
pollution arising from oil production in the Niger Delta region. In his observations, the oil
industry operates are usually associated with pollution of the terrestrial, atmospheric and marine
environment.

Oil industry pollution consists of several types and arises from a variety of sources. Notable
sources of the pollution reported in the Niger Delta are seismic surveys, canalization, poor waste
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disposal, oil spillage and gas flaring. Their common effects are the incalculable damage to
aquatic life, agriculture and human health. The greater proportion of the evidence on
environmental pollution reveals that pollution from oil spillage and gas flaring has been the most
common and significant in the Niger Delta. Awobajo (2000) reports that between 1976 and 1980,
Nigeria recorded a total of 784 spills, involving 1,336,875 barrels in 2,796 incidents from 1976
to 1990. Some extensive cases have been reported in the news media over the years. The earliest
widely reported case is the Ejamah – Obudu community spill of 1970 by the largest oil
producing firm in Nigeria, Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC). This spillage
destroyed a substantial proportion of forestland. Shell‘s operations also resulted in oil spillage in
1979 (of 570,000 barrels), and in 1994, 1995 and 1998 (of 4,500 barrels). On average the SPDC
has been credited with not less than 221 spills per year since 1989.

Texaco and Agip oil firms have also caused significant oil spills. The disastrous Funiwa oil
spillage of about 4000,000 barrels is a typical example. The Agip Oil Company was responsible
for oil spills along its Brass-Ogada pipelines (500 and 10,000 barrels were spilled in 1979 and
1983, respectively). Omo 2001 using data from the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR),
also reports that from January to March and in June 1995, a total of 69 cases of oil spillage with
about 3,054 barrels of crude oil occurred. The Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC)
was responsible for the occurrences, which were attributed to some of the ageing facilities still
being used by the company.

Furthermore, in October 1999, a major oil spill occurred in Delta State after a pipeline of the
Nigerian National Petroleum Company (NNPC) got bursted, polluting a stream running across
six communities in Udu Local Government Area of the State. The spillage specifically occurred
at the bank of Emadjada community and spread to Ugogo, Ogbe-Udu, Okolor waterside, Ekrota
and Ukperhenre. As a result, the people‘s drinking water was polluted. The spill also deprived
these communities of their means of livelihood (fishing).

In addition to all these, substantial and significant gas flaring has occurred in the region. As
indicated by Baird 2010, cumulative gas flares between 1965 and 1987 amounted to about 3.15‘
10‖m3. Emissions from this volume of flared gas have been estimated as 5.1‘ 108kg of Nox. The
Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) provides further evidence of massive gas flaring. Between 1970
and 1974, as much as 98.5% of the total gas produced was flared. The magnitude declined
persistently to 95.2%, 83.4% and 74.7% from 1975 to 79, 1980 to 84 and 1985 to 89,
respectively. It increased slightly to 78.2% between 1990 and 94, but later decreased to 69.8%
during 1995 to 98 (See CBN‘S Statistical Bulletin 9 (2): December 1998). Despite the foregoing

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hard facts of pollution in the Niger Delta, little attention has been paid to the problems. The next
section provides an insight into why this has been so. (May 06, 2012)

OIL DISCHARGES TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

The widespread use of petroleum and petroleum products has inevitably resulted in the discharge
of oil to the environment. With respect to aquatic systems, it is the marine environment that has
received the greatest attention, since the majority of the more noteworthy oil spills have involved
accidents at sea. There is no doubt however that some fresh water systems have been seriously
polluted and indeed the largest single source of oil discharged into the oceans. It is worthy to
note that study of marine oil pollution encompasses most if not all of the problems relevant to
freshwater oil pollution as well.

SOURCES OF OIL DISCHARGES

There are various sources through which oil could be discharged into marine environment, which
include:
i. Natural Seeps: Natural seep of oil occurs when trapped petroleum finds its way to the
surface usually ocean bed-rocks.
ii. Offshore Production: Offshore productions discharge residuals into the sea.
iii. Transportation: The operations of tankers, routine operations of ships and tanker
accident from the major source of oil discharge into rivers and seas.
iv. Coastal Refineries: Refineries are mostly situated in coastal areas. The refineries carry
out the fractional distillations of the crude oil to obtain various forms of liquids such as
kerosene, diesel, and petrol and so on. The residual of production is discharged directly
into the sea.
v. Atmosphere: The atmosphere becomes a source of oil discharge into marine as a result
of the amount of petroleum introduced into the atmosphere through the combustion of
gasoline and other petroleum products.
vi. Coastal Municipal Wastes and Coastal Non-refinery Industrial Wastes: The source
of input coastal municipal wastes and that of non-refinery industrial includes discharges
to sewer systems from gas stations, garages, and commercial operations.
vii. Urban Runoff: This source of inputs includes fallout from automobile exhaust, oil
heating systems, spill of oil and grease. Runoff from rainfall may wash this oil into urban
storm drains, which in turn carries the oil to receiving waters.
viii. The input from urban runoff was estimated to be about 50% of the total input from
municipal and non-refinery industrial wastes.
ix. River Runoff: The major source is the oil transportation by suspended sediments to the
ocean. These sediments flocculate and settle out rapidly near river mouths.

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Table 1: Estimates of Global Oil Discharge to the Marine Environment (1970)

Source Annual Discharge Rate Best Estimate
(mmt)
Natural Seeps 0.6
Offshore Production 0.8
transportation 0.3
LOT tankers 0.31
Non-LOT Tankers 0.77
Dry docking 0.25
Terminal operations 0.003
Bilges and bunkering 0.5
Tanker accidents 0.2
Non- tanker accidents 0.1
Coastal refineries 0.2
Atmosphere 0.6
Coastal municipal waste 0.3
Coastal non-refinery, industrial waste 0.3
Urban runoff 0.3
River runoff 0.6
Total 6.13

Source: Hutchful, (1970), Oil companies and environmental pollution in Nigeria.

Unless and in fact until the global production and use of oil begins to decline, we can anticipate
little significant decrease in the rate of oil discharged into the marine environment and we can
except that much of this oil will continue to be released into coastal areas.

EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION

The effect of oil pollution on the coastal environment is toxic. The effect of oil falls into two
general categories. They are:
1. Effects associated with coating and smothering of an organism with oil.
2. Effects involving disruption of an organism‘s metabolism due to the ingestion of oil.

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1. EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH COATING AND SMOTHERING OF AN

ORGANISM WITH OIL

This first category is associated primarily with the higher molecular weight, water insoluble
hydrocarbon, and the various tarry substances that coat the feathers on birds and covers intertidal
organisms such as clams, oysters and barnacles.
The organisms most affected by oil coating or ―oiling‖ are certain kinds of aquatic birds‘ auks
(Murres, guillemots, and razorbills, Puffins, and so on), penguins and diving sea ducks. These
birds are particularly susceptible to oiling for the following reasons:
a. They spend most of their lives on the surface of the sea.
b. They are poor fliers or are flightless.
c. They dive rather that fly in response to a disturbance.

Birds that dive rather than fly are unlikely to escape an oil slick, but instead tend to keep
resurfacing in the slick after each dive. When oil is absorbed to the feathers of these birds, their
plumage becomes matted and the air-spaces, which normally provide buoyancy and insulation,
become filled with water and oil. Because many of these birds are poor fliers, the additional load
of oil and water in their feathers may make flight impossible and some literally drown due to the
loss of buoyancy (Janice, 2001).

2.EFFECTS INVOLVING DESCRIPTION OF AN ORGANISM’S METABOLISM DUE

TO THE INGESTION OF OIL

In this category, it is generally agreed that aromatic hydrocarbons are the most toxic, followed by
cycloalkanes, then olefins and lastly alkanes. The toxicity of hydrocarborns depends on their
solubility. The most toxic and also the most soluble in water are the low molecular weight
aromatics such as benzene and toluene whereas the least toxic and least soluble are the high
molecular weight alkanes.
Invariably oiled birds attempt to clean themselves by preening their feathers but in the process
they may ingest as much as 50% of the oil in their plumage and die from the toxic effects of the
ingested oil. The impact of a discharged is thus determined very much by:
1. The nature of hydrocarbons involved
2. The weather conditions.
3. The distance of the discharge from the shore.

The effects of oil pollution on various aquatic organisms are as follows:

a. Young fish are mostly killed while adult fish are rather resistant to oil pollution since
their bodies, including gill chambers are coated with slimy mucus that resists wetting by
oil.
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b. Crude oil and fuel have been found to be toxic to fish eggs at concentrations as low as 0.5
to 10ppm.
c. Toxic levels on plankton involving fuel oil, kerosene and crude oil is on the order of 50 to
200 ppb but growth rates are noticeably depressed at concentrations of about 1 ppb.
d. Organisms that are resistant to oil pollution flourish in oil polluted waters or for a period
of time after an oil spill due to the absence of more sensitive predators or competitors.
These organisms include bloodworm and annelid worm.
e. Macroscopic plants are relatively resistant to oil toxicity and even if extensively
damaged, tend to recover more rapidly than many other organisms. Such plants are Giant
kelps; their recovery is apparently due to the absence of the usual herbivore grazers
particularly urchins, which normally feed on the kelp.

Associated Problems of Oil Exploration resulting from oil production, According to Olujimi,
2010, various materials released into the environment in the course of oil production operations
include Drill cuttings, drilling mud, and fluids used for stimulating production, Produced fluids,
oil and water, and chemicals injected into them to control corrosion or assist the separation of oil
from water; and general industrial waste.

Despite careful precautions, accidents do occur periodically in the drilling and exploitation of
crude oil. These accidental discharges resulted from equipment failure and human error. It is
known that the majority of oil spills during 1976-1980 occurred through accidental discharges
attributed to equipment failure to malfunctioning, age, overloading, and corrosion or abrasion of
machine parts. Nigeria recorded 1,360 oil-spills incidents during 1976-1983 and the total
quantity of oil released into the environment was 1,426 million barrels (Nwankwo 1984).
Significant pollutants or pollution indicators for selected sources in the oil industry include
drilling mud and cuttings, oil and grease, chlorine, sulphides, turbidity, suspended solids, heat,
pH (acidity/alkalinity PH), heavy metals, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD).

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF OIL SPILLS IN NIGERIA

Several ―blow-outs‖ at prospecting sites coupled with spillage as a result of damage to pipelines
have been reported from time to time in different sites in the oil producing areas of Nigeria
(Nwilo 2001). Depending on the level of contamination, natural rehabilitation may take 1 to 25
years. A great percentage of those spills indicated in Table 1 occurred in sensitive environment
in onshore and offshore areas in Nigeria. The effects of these spills have been catastrophic in
many respects depending on the oil dosage, the type of oil, metrological conditions, physical
geography of the area and the Obiota (Nwankwo and Ifeadi, 1984. Statistics have shown that

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during 1976-1980, the majority of oil spill incidents occurred in the purely mangrove swamp
zones and the offshore areas of the Niger-Delta, which constitute the most productive biological
areas. Within six (6) months, mangrove vegetation started dying in the contaminated waters.
Crabs, mollusks and periwinkles died while associated fire hazard spreading to about 25 ha of
land occurred. Worse still, re-pollution of the top soil from below was noted about two years
after the incident while water table was affected across 15.1 ha. From the above analysis, oil
pollution whether it is due to a spillage or discharge of crude oil or refined petroleum products
may damage the environment in various ways.

In water, oil film on the water surface could prevent tural aeration and lead to the death of
trapped marine organism. In some cases, fish may ingest the spilled oil or other food materials
impregnated with oil and as such become inedible and unpalatable. Oil spill on the land could
lead to retardation of vegetation growth for a period of time and in extreme cases, to destruction
of vegetation. It could also create potential fire hazard, as in the Oyakamo oil pipeline.
Spillage which renders the soil unfit for cultivation and polluted about 360 km of salt marshes as
reported by Royal Society of London in 1982. It was said that some shell-fish population may
require 5 to 10 years to recover from the impact of the spill due to a decrease in the number of
reproductive-age shell-fish stocks and an increase in the mortality of larvae setting on the oiled
sediments.

There were worries on the handling of drilling mud and cuttings, with respect to prohibited
points of discharge, handling and disposal of oil-based mud at onshore and offshore locations,
handling and disposal of cuttings and methods of sampling and analysis. These environmental
Bayode et al 113 problems seem to be well articulated by people in the oil producing Niger-
Delta; for instance Ikporukpo (1988) in the study of two (2) small communities around the
Forcados Oil Terminal, 86% of the respondents in one (Odimodi) identified problems
consequent on oil exploration, report oil pollution, among four broad groups of problems as the
most important while the corresponding percentage for the other 6 community (Ogulagha) is
45%. In the light of the identified consequences of oil exploration and exploitation in the
reviewed literature, there is an urgent need for the appraisal of the current situation particularly
in the coastal area of Ondo State that harbors the longest part of Nigerian coastal region with a
view to promoting sustainable development of the region.

Agricultural Land Degradation

Agricultural land degradation results from many identified sources such as shoreline erosion and
landscape destruction resulting from oil and gas exploitation activities. Large chunk of coastal
land have been rendered uncropable, particularly the right of way created for pipeline thereby
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worsening the existing economic hardship being experienced. Survey revealed that a large
portion of land especially in Awoye area has been despoiled. This despoliation resulted from the
deposition of the earth crust removed from the production wells, which is toxic in nature and
consequently affected the immediate environment. Soil degradation in the region has deleterious
effects on the forest resources. The coastal region in the Region has suffered a major problem of
deforestation particularly reduction in mangrove species. This is leading to other problems such
as soil erosion, siltation of streams and reservoirs. Several farmlands and multiple of coastal
fauna species were confirmed lost to il spillages in the region. Olujimi Emmanuel, (2006).

Loss of Human and Marine Lives

The premature death of marine lives and human beings in the region had been partially attributed
to oil exploration activities in the region due to the consumption of polluted water particularly
caused by fresh spill that was yet to be clearly revealed in the water bodies. Fishing is an
important component in Nigeria agricultural sector, comprising about 20% of Gross Domestic
Products (CBN, 1994) but in some cases, fishing grounds have been abandoned due to this
problem. Niger Delta water front is one of the most productive water bodies for fisheries and a
critical nursery for offshore and upstream ecosystems. Destruction of mangrove forests and
pollution of water bodies resulting from oil spills affect fish habitats negatively and result in
reduced fish production in the surface water and reservoir through plant smelters has also
jeopardized marine lives in the region. Opuenebo, 1995.

Communal Clashes on Claim Over Exploited Land

Several communal clashes have resulted in the region on the claim of ownership of certain
portions of land where exploration activities are carried out. As a result of this, several lives and
properties which worth billions of naira have been lost. The intervention of the state government
had only been useful to douse such tension and apprehension in the atmosphere over communal
clashes on such claims.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Most oil discharged into an aquatic system is presumably degraded by a combination of
biological, physical and chemical processes. The amount of oxygen required to degrade
petroleum hydrocarbons completely to Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) is enormous.
Oxygen depletion may not be a serious problem associated with oil discharge in the ocean where
in most places turbulent mixing is adequate keep the surface waters aerated. Oil floating on or
near the surface of the water may be oxidized and broken down photo-chemically, and oil that
evaporates is undoubtedly subject to similar photochemical degradation in the atmosphere.

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The following corrective could reduce the total amount of oil discharge into the marine
environment:
i. The frequency of tankers due to structural failure could undoubtedly be reduced by
established a stricter programme of tanker inspection and maintenance and/or by
requiring that tankers be retired after reaching a certain age.
ii. Some tankers are simply old and decrepit, it is also true that certain modifications in
design could reduce the likelihood of accidents and/or eliminate much of the routing
oil discharge associated with cleaning ballast tanks and cargo holds.
iii. The use of LOT has greatly reduced the amount of oil routing discharged by tankers
in the process of cleaning their cargo tanks, but there is no doubt that such routine
discharge could reduced to almost zero by the use of segregated ballast tanks and
cargo bunkers.

Clean up Methods

Where oil pollution is concerned, there is no doubt that prevention is preferable to cure, but once
an oil spill has occurred, it may be possible to do something to ameliorate the damage.
Unfortunately, none of the currently used cleanup methods are without their drawbacks or
limitations, but it is worthwhile to review the state of the art to see what approaches are
available.
1. Once oil has been spilled into the water, there are basically three approaches to clean up,
namely, burn the oil, mechanically collect the oil, or chemically disperse the oil.

CONCLUSION
The issue of oil pollution should be not politicized but be seen as an environmental problem,
which must be given adequate and serious considerations. Effective corrective steps should be
taken and followed with adequate legislation, enforcement and implementation.
It is hopeful that if these measures are taken, there will be considerable improvements in the
management of problems associated with oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria at large.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY CONSIDERATION

The following steps could be suggested for the effective control of oil pollution of the Niger
Delta:
a. The immediate establishment of Enforcement Management Information System (EMIS) to
enforce all environmental laws.
b.All oil companies operating in the Niger Delta should henceforth be made to furnish the
pollution control enforcement agency with their annual anti- pollution plans.

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c. All oil companies should henceforth contribute 2% of their trading profits to an

environmental fund to tackle backlog of problems in the area.
d.Since the newly instituted NDDC is aimed at the total development of the Niger Delta, it is
therefore, important that the responsibility for administering these measures be vested in the
commission.
e. Advocate for oil spill management plan control and clearance spills
f. Continues provision of infrastructure for the host community by prospective oil companies
g.Adoption of long-term surveillance mechanism

REFERENCES
Achi C (2003). Hydrocarbon, Environmental Degradation and Poverty: The Niger Delta
Anderson, I (2005): Niger River basin: A Vision for Sustainable Development Pp. 1-131 The
world Bank.
Awobajo A.O. (2000). A N Analysis of Oil Spill Incidents in Nigeria: 1976
Awosika L. (2006). Coastal Oceanographic Processes and their Impacts on the Nigeria Coastal
and Marine Environment in Ivbijaro MFA.
Baird J. (July 26, 2010). ―Oil‘s Shame in Africa‖. Newsweek: 27
Diop ES (1993). Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Managrove
Dr. Janice Limson: Indigenous Plants to the Rescue Environmental remediation in Nigerian oil
Dr. P. C. Nwilo & O.T. Badejo: Impacts of spills along the Nigerian coast. The Association for
Environmental Health and Sciences, 2001.
Ekundayo J.A. (1988). Development in a fragile economy. 1998.
Emmanuel A.A, Alakinde MK (2006). Nature of Environmental Science.
experience. In proceedings of the Diffuse Pollution Conference, Dublin.
Http://en.wikipidia.or/wiki/petroleum.
Hutchful, Eboe. (1970). Oil companies and environmental pollution in Nigeria. In political
Economy of Nigeria, Claude Ake, ed. Longman, London, chapter 7.
Ikporukpo C.O. (1988). Managing Oil Pollution in Nigeria: Nigerian Coastal Areas.
International Federation of Surveyors, 2007. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
Nipa Palm Utilization Project Nigeria Conservation Foundation, 1996. Retrieved May 21 2007.
Nwankwo J.N (1984). Oil and Environmental Pollution. Paper Presented at the Conference of
strategies for the fifth National Development
Nwankwo N, Ifeadi CN (1988). Case Studies on the Environmental Issues in Olujimi JAB
(2010). The roles of the stakeholders in the Usage and Management of the Environment.
A paper delivered at the workshop on the Challenges of Environment and the Imperative

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

of Urban and Rural Development. Held at the Federal University of Technology, Akure
between 27th and 29th April, 2010.
Nwilo, Peter C. and Olusegun T. Badejo: Impact and Management of Oil spill Pollution Along
the regions. Science in Africa, 2002. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
Omo Aregbeyen (2001). Dealing with point – source environmental pollution in Nigeria: The
case of the Niger Delta. A paper delivered at NCEMA Training Programme.
Opuenebo B.O. Nnah W.W. (1995). Creating sustainable Environments in Oil Minerals
producing Areas of the Rivers State.
Perception and reality: Assessing Priorities for Sustainable Development in the Niger River
Delta (Moffat and Linden)
Pipeline explosion kills at least 200 CNN, 2006. Retrieved May 29, 2007.
Prison Pastor (2010). Map of Nigeria. Retrieved Tuesday October 26.
Wikipedia (2006). Petroleum in Nigeria. Retrieved December 12, 2007 from

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EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING ON POWER LINES: CASE STUDY OF

ILORIN METROPOLIS, NIGERIA

Kareem Jimoh Jekidero, Sule Taiwo Kamaldeen and Adeoti Adeshina

Joseph
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering Kwara State Polytechnic)
Correspondence: [email protected] 08108069598

ABSTRACT
In Nigeria, demand for electricity is rapidly increasing and the growth is expected to continue
due to population growth and industrialization. In order to supply constant power to consumers,
reliability is an important factor that the electric utility needs to consider. Lightning strokes to
overhead transmission and distribution lines have been identified as one of the common cause of
outages and the resultant power interruptions. It is therefore of vital importance that power
systems be protected from lightning. This study carried out a review of lightning phenomenon,
frequency of occurrence of lightning strokes in the study area, it effects and put forward
measures that can be implemented for better lightning protection and to improve the reliability
of our power system taking Ilorin metropolis as a case study.

Keywords: Lightning, effects, Protection, Power lines, Ilorin metropolis

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The reliability of a power system is the utmost important in any part of the world because
electrical power is indispensable for the present day living. Lightning is a random and
unpredictable event. A direct lightning strike on a conductor of a power line causes extremely
high voltage pulses at the strike point, which are propagated as travelling waves in either
direction from the point of strike (Lucas, 2001). One way to improve the quality of transmission
services by the power transmission companies is to reduce the number of power line
interference.

Lightning arresters are devices mostly used on electrical power systems and telecommunications
gadgets for the purpose of protecting the insulation and conductors of the system from the effects
of lightning attacks. A typical lightning arrester generally consists of a high-voltage terminal and
a ground terminal. It is generally understood that lightning can be seen as an atmospheric
discharge of electricity, occurring from the accumulation of static charges, usually during a
thunderstorm incident. Lightning mostly occurs when there are enough charge separation inside

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the cloud to cause a localised electric breakdown of the air. Lighting activity are mostly
described by the ―Keraunic number‖. Accordingly, the keraunic number is the mean number of
days per year when thunder can be heard in a given area, and the likelihood thereby of a
thunderstorm (Punekar and Kandasamy, 2011).

Ilorin metropolis is located on latitude 8030‘N and longitude 4035‘E with an area of about
100km2. The city in its geological setting consists of Pre-Cambian basement complex with an
elevation of between 273m to 333m (i.e 900 ft to1,200 ft) above seal level. According to Ifabiyi
(1999), the climate of the city is tropical continental with high temperature throughout the year.
It is characterized by wet and dry seasons. Ilorin falls within derived savannah vegetal cover with
the existence of dry lowland rain forest vegetal cover.

2.0 LIGHTNING PHENOMENA

Lightning is a natural phenomenon which develops when the upper atmosphere becomes
unstable due to the convergence of a warm, solar heated, vertical air column on the cooler upper
air mass. These rising air currents carry water vapour which, on meeting the cooler air, usually
condense, giving rise to convective storm activity. Pressure and temperature are such that the
vertical air movement becomes self-sustaining, forming the basis of a cumulonimbus cloud
formation with its centre core capable of rising to more than 15,000 meters (Sanketa, 2016).

Consider the cloud whose upper part is positively charged and the surface of the earth (lower
part) is negatively charged. Due to this the portion of earth below the cloud becomes positively
charged. As the charge on the cloud increases, so also the charge induced on the ground below
the cloud increases. This situation results in rise in the electric field intensity in the space
between the cloud and the ground. Finally electric breakdown of the space between the cloud and
ground takes place which is seen in the form of an electric discharge (Sanketa, 2016). Fig 1
shows a cloud located above an overhead transmission line.

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Figure 1: Induced Charges on transmission line

2.1 Frequency of Occurence of Lightning Strokes

Knowledge of the frequency of lightning strikes is of utmost importance in the determination of
appropriate protection schemes needed against lightning. The frequency of occurrence is defined
as the flashes occurring per unit area per year but this cannot be easily measure without highly
sophisticated equipment.
However, Keraunic level, has been a lightning parameter widely used for lightning protection
designs. This is a rough data, many standards still reference it for designing purposes
(Chowdhuri &Gross 1970)

The KERAUNIC LEVEL is defined as the number of days in the year on which thunder is heard
in a defined area. Fortunately, it has been found by experience that KERAUNIC level is linearly
related to the number of flashes per unit area per year. In fact it happens to be about twice
number of flashes/square mile/year. It is now possible to obtain the frequency of occurrence of
lightning in any given region easily (Chowdhuri &Gross 1970).

2.1.1 Ilorin (IBDEC) Distribution Network

Ilorin (IBDEC) distribution network is made up of two main branches.
1. Transmission station (132/33/11KV Substation)
2. Distribution station (11/0.415KV (Lower Tension Distribution)

2.1.2 Distribution Network at the Substation

The Ilorin transmission station located at Sawmill consists of two main transformer rated
60MVA 132/33KV and 45MVA. 132/33/11KV, for the purpose of transformation of alternating
current from one voltage level to another.

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The transmission station receives the 132KV supply from Osogbo transmission station. The
60MVA 132/33KV step down the voltage supply from Osogbo transmission station to 33KV.

On the secondary side of this 60MVA transformer are two 15MVA 33/11KV transformers which
feeds places like harm township feeder I, Unilorin General Hospital, Unity and Ilorin township
feeder II. Also, this 60MVA 132/33KV feeds Otte/Ogbomosho feeder which feed place like Otte
township and Ogbomosho town.

A I5MVA transformer was connected to 60MVA transformer and one 15MVA on 45MVA
further step down the voltage to 11/KV feeders. The feeders and the areas feeding are shown in
table 1 and figure 2 respectively

3.3 Lower Tension Distribution

Ilorin distribution circuit consist of a number of step-down three-phase 11/0.415KV
transformers spaced within the network for the low tension supplies to the consumer via three
phase four wire network which give either 240V single or 415V three-phase to consumers as
required.

Figure 2: General Layout of Ilorin IBDEC Power Supply Network

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Table 1: 11KV Feeders and the areas feeding

FEEDERS AREA FEEDING
Feeder 1or Surulere, Oja-Oba, Agbo-Oba, Kankatu, Okelele, Ita-
Baboko Ajia, Gambari and Oja-gbooro
Feeder 2 or Taiwo, Niger, Ita-Amodu, part of Opomalu, part of
Taiwo Post Office, Edun, part of Murtala Mohammed way
University Mini Campus, General Hospital, College of
Education, some part of Agbo-Oba
Unity Unity, Saw-mill Motor Park, Muritala part of Maraba,
Opomalu, Isale-koko etc.
Airport Saw-mill area, Olorunsogo, Odota, Airport road and
Asa-dam, Geri-alimi
Adewole Adewole Estate, Kwara Poly. Yebumot, Lubcom, Gerewu

3.4 Frequency of Occurrence of Lightning Flashes on 11kV and 33kV feeders

The frequency occurrence is defined as the flashes occurring per unit area per year.The several
cases of occurrence incidence of direct lightning strikes on 11KV and 33KV feeders between
year 2016 -2018 are recorded in Table 2 to Table 4.

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Table 2: Frequency of Occurrence of Direct Lightning Strikes on 11kV Feeders for the Year
2016
MONTH FEEDER FEEDER ADEWOLE UNITY UNIVERSITY AIRPORT
I II FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER
JAN - - - - - -
FEB. - - - - - -
MARCH - - - - - -
APRIL 2 1 - 1 - -
MAY 3 1 1 1 - -
JUNE 2 - - 2 2 1
JULY 1 - 3 1 1 1
AUGUST 1 2 1 1 - 1
SEPT. 2 1 1 1 2 1
OCT. 1 1 2 - - -
NOV. - - - - - -
DEC. - - - - - -
TOTAL 12 6 8 7 6 4

Table 3: Frequency of Occurrence of Direct Lightning Strikes on 11kV Feeders for the Year
2017
MONTH FEEDER FEEDER ADEWOLE UNITY UNIVERSITY AIRPORT
I II FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER
JAN - - - - - -
FEB. - - - - - -
MARCH - - - - - -
APRIL 1 1 1 - - 1
MAY 1 - 2 1 1 -
JUNE 2 2 - 1 2 1
JULY 1 - 3 1 1 2
AUGUST 1 - 1 2 1 -
SEPT. 2 2 1 - - 1
OCT. 2 - - 1 1 -
NOV. - - - - - -
DEC. - - - - - -
TOTAL 10 5 8 6 6 5

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Table 2: Frequency of Occurrence of Direct Lightning Strikes on 11kV Feeders for the Year
2018
MONTH FEEDER FEEDER ADEWOLE UNITY UNIVERSITY AIRPORT
I II FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER FEEDER
JAN - - - - - -
FEB. - - - - - -
MARCH 1 - - - - -
APRIL - 1 - - 1 1
MAY - 2 - 1 -
JUNE 2 1 - 1 2 1
JULY 2 - 2 1 1 2
AUGUST 1 1 - 1 - 2
SEPT. 2 1 1 - 1 -
OCT. 1 - - 1 1 -
NOV. - - - - 1 -
DEC. - - - - - -
TOTAL 9 5 3 4 8 6

3.0 TYPES OF LIGHTNING STROKES

Lightning strokes can be classified into two major types. They are direct stroke and indirect
stroke.
A. Direct Stroke
Lightning direct stroke can be defined as the lightning stroke that directly hit any part of the
electrical network. In most cases in power distribution lines, the insulation flashover is occurred
although the return stroke current is small due to the high generated overvoltage which is very
high comparing with the overhead distribution lines insulation level (Phyo, 2014)
B. Indirect Stroke
Indirect lightning stroke can be defined as the lightning stroke that does not directly hit any part
of the electrical network; however, the induced overvoltage is generated and travelled over the
network. This type of strokes is responsible for many of lightning outages of low insulation lines.
Most of the flashes hitting near to the line produce overvoltage less than 300 kV. Although the
indirect strokes generate induced overvoltage with small amplitude comparing with generated
overvoltage by direct stroke, they are frequently occurred affecting on the performance of
overhead distribution lines (Phyo, 2014).

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3.1 Effects of Lightning on Power Lines

Lightning strike is one of the factor that affect distribution of electricity and it is of a higher
magnitude during the raining season. Electricity finds it hard to travel through air (it has low
conductivity).trees, buildings, towers and other objects conduct electricity much better than air
which is why they are susceptible to lightning strike.

In Nigeria, power lines are exposed to weather and therefore subjected to lightning strikes which
results to over voltages. The frequency of occurrence of lightning strike is very high in Nigeria.
Some of the effects of lightning in Nigeria power system are given below:
i. Flashover:- can be describe as an unintended high voltage electric discharge over or
around the surface of a power lines, transformers, poles, towers and substations.
Arcing from flash-over can cause extensive damage to electrical equipment.
ii. Effects on a living being (human or animal) i.e burns heart attack, damage eyes,
vision loss, respiratory failure

3.2 Effects of Strokes to a Tower With no Earth Wire

Lightning can produce overvoltage when it hits either the line conductors (direct strokes) or a
point in the vicinity of the distribution network (indirect strokes). If there is a direct strike to the
tower a current would be discharged through the metal work of the tower and there would be a
potential difference between the top of the tower (Swati & Manoj, 2014).

Figure 3 shows a steel tower {inductance} of a transmission line with no earth wire. lf the
earthing resistance of the tower is R{=5-100Ώ}, And it is struck by lightning then the potential
built up on the tower top Would be:
Ri+Ldi/dt ……………………………………………………….3.11
If e, is the induced voltage on the conductor due to lightning then the Potential difference built
up across the tower and the conductor is given By:
e= Ri+Ldi/dt +ei…………………………………………………3.12
If the value of e exceeds the line insulation strength, then a flashover occurs from the tower to
the line and this is termed BACKFLASHOVER (Swati & Manoj 2014)

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Figure 4.1: Strokes to tower

3.3 Effects of Lightning on Transformer Winding and Core
Surge generated by lightning strikes or switching operations represent a significant risk to
bushings and windings of power transformers. Many transformer failures are reported as
dielectric failures and they are not necessarily linked to any particular event when they occur but
may be the result of prior damage from transient overvoltage events. The number and amplitudes
of overvoltages which stress the insulation depend on various parameters such as the lightning
strike density in the considered area, since it determines how often the transformer is stressed
by lightning overvoltages (Samir et al, 2018).

4.0 LIGHTNING AND SURGE PROTECTION

The purpose of these is to protect electrical systems, building and other property from
lightning and other high voltage surges. The destructive effects of natural lightning are well
known. Studies of lightning and means of either preventing its striking an object or passing the
stroke harmlessly to ground have been going on since the days when Franklin first established
that lightning is electrical in nature (Christian, 2009). From these studies, two conclusions
emerge: (1) Lightning will not strike an object if it is placed in a grounded metal cage. (2)
Lightning tends to strike, in general, the highest objects on the horizon. Various protective means
have been devised either to prevent lightning from entering system or to dissipate it harmlessly if
it does (Battan, 2002).

4.1 Power System Earthing

Generally, earthing is the direct connection to ground of all exposed metallic parts of an
electrical appliance or installation for the purpose of limiting voltage buildup relative to ground.
Earth provides common return path to earth of electric current through direct physical connection
to ground and it is the reference point in an electrical system from which other voltages are
measured (NESIS, 2015)
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4.1.1 Types of Power System Earthing

Earthing is divided into neutral and equipment earthing.
Neutral Earthing: is the connection of system neutral to the ground for security and protection
of the equipment.
Equipment Earthing: is the earthing of the non-current carrying parts of the equipment for
personnel safety and protection against lightning (Oyeleye, 2019)

4.2 Protection with Ground Wire / Sky Wires Against Direct Strokes
―SKY WIRES‖ (also called ―Sky lines‖ or overhead ground wire‖) are installed to shied high -
voltage lines and stations from direct strokes of lightning. These wires are made of conducting
materials such as galvanized steel, copper-covered steel, copper on aluminum. Galvanized steel
wires are used for sky wires on 330KV and 132KV lines except in areas of severe atmospheric
corrosion, where copper-covered steel is used. Sky wires above stations are usually copper
(Golde, 1997).

Sky wires themselves offer little protection unless they are connected to low resistance grounds
which can absorb the very high instantaneous currents present in the lightning stroke. To drain
this current each tower and wood pole structure is carefully grounded on wood pole lines, copper
wires are run down the poles to connect the sky wires to ground resistance below 20 ohms at
each structure (Golde, 1997).

4.3 Protection with Lightning Arresters

These are protective devices for reducing the transient system over-voltages to levels compatible
with the terminal apparatus insulation. They are connected in parallel with the apparatus to be
protected. One end of the arrester is grounded and also connected to the case of the equipment
being protected: the other end is connected to the electric conductor. Lightning arresters provide
a relatively low discharge path to ground for the transient over voltages, and relatively high
resistances to the power system follow current, so that their operation does not cause a system
short circuit.

The ground connection of the arrester should have low resistance, and it should be tied to the
station ground network to which the frames of the apparatus and connected as near as practicable
to the apparatus to be protected. The connection is usually made on the line side (John, 1996).

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5.0 CONCLUSION
In this research work, it has been established that lightning strokes can have direct or
indirect action on power lines and this is a major factor distrusting power outage in the power
sector. The results gathered on frequency of occurrence of direct lightning strikes has shown that
it is of higher magnitude during the raining season and this is manifested in the poor power
availability in the study area. This adverse effect of lightning on our electrical power system
network can be prevented or minimized if the utility can install a proper sensitive and highly
effective lightning arrester, surge diverter and overhead ground wire in every appropriate and
strategic areas of our power system networks so that whenever there is a lightning strike, these
devices can easily interrupt it, before it will cause any damage to the power system equipment.

REFERENCES
Anderson, J.G 1975. ―Lightning performance on transmission lines, in Transmission line
Reference book, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) pg. 478-492)
Battan, Louis J. (2002): ―Lightning leaders and return strokes‖. IEEE Transmission power
system on power delivery Vol. 6, No 2 pg. 228 -250
Chowdhuri, P & Gross,T 1970. Voltages induced on overhead multi-conductor lines by
lightning strokes IEEE proc. 116-561-564.
Christian, H.J. (2009): A lightning pioneer-characteristic of a storm. NASSA http://thunder.
Cokkindes, G.J. & A.P. Meliopoulous, A.P 1988. Transmission line modeling with explicit
grounding representation. Electric Power system Research pg. 109-119.
Drveniza, M.D 1999. ―Analysis of Lightning Induced voltages r overhead lines‖ IEEE
Transactions on power delivery Vol. 12, pg 5-16
Erickson, A.J & Senmem, D.V 1982. Lightning performance and overvoltage Surge Studies,
UIEE Proc. Vol. 129 PLC t 2 pg. 60-71.
Fabiyi, I. P 1999. Predicting Borehole Yield on Precambian Basement Complex and
Sedimentary Rocks in West Central Nigeria. Review of Growth and Change, pp. 713.
Golde G.H 1997. Lightning, Academic Press N.Y. pg. 276-331.
John, W 1996. ―Power generation, operation and control‖. New York, pg. 273-280.
Lucas, J.R 1995. ―Analysis of lightning induced voltages on overhead lines. IEEE Transactions
on power delivery vol. 4, No. 1, pg. 70-100.
Lucas, J.R 2001. ―High Voltage Engineering‖ IEEE Transactions u power delivery vol. 7, No 3,
pg. 35 - 50.
NESIS, 2015. Nigeria Electricity Supply and Installation Standards (NESIS) Regulations, 2015
pg 280-287
Oyeleye M.O 2019. Evaluation Of Substation‘s Transformer Earthing System, Feeder Panel
And Lightning Grounding: Case Study Of A University In Nigeria. Journal of
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Multidisciplinary Engineering Science Studies (JMESS) ISSN: 2458-925X Vol. 5 Issue

9.
PHYO, P.W 2014. Analysis of Transmission Line Protection System against from Lightning
Effects. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.09, pg: 1806-1809.
Punekar, G. S & Kandasamy C 2011. Indirect Effects of Lightning Discharges. Serbian Journal
of Electrical Engineering, 8(3), pp. 245-262.
Samir, K, Ivan M, Božidar F, Ivana D, Ivica P. 2018. Lightning caused overvoltages on power
transformers recorded by on-line transient overvoltage monitoring system, Journal of
Energy, vol. 68, Special Issue, p. 44–53
Sanketa, S. 2016. Lightning Phenomenon, Effects and Protection of Structures from Lightning
Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE) e-ISSN: 2278-1676,p-ISSN: 2320-
3331, Volume 11, Issue 3 Ver. I PP 44-50
Swati, A & Manoj K. 2014. Lightning phenomena and its effect on transmission line. Recent
Research in Science and Technology 2014, 6(1): 183-187 ISSN: 2076-5061 Available
Online: http://recent-science.com/
William, A.C & Wasyl J. K 1989. ―Lightning Surge response of ground electrodes‘ IEEE
Transactions on power delivery Vol. 4, No 2 pg. 2 -25

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DEVELOPMENT OF DIGITAL LOGIC TRAINER FOR LABORATORY

APPLICATION

Ademiloye, I. B 1, Adeoye,O. S2 and Adewale, A.S3

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti,
Ekiti State.
Abstract

Digital Trainer is a self-contained set of electronic circuits that can be interlinked by students to
create working circuits. Digital logic gate trainer has become increasingly popular in a wide
range of applications, teaching digital hardware theories and concepts in a practical way.
Logic gate section is aimed to perform basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR and NOT. The
purpose of this design work is to provide a method for students to test digital circuits with a
simple and inexpensive digital trainer which describes its design, development and application
of a digital trainer circuit prototyping system for students in their digital electronics courses.
The primary objective is to design a cheap, simple to use device that could be retained by
students, so that they can undertake digital experiments. The circuit is typically constructed from
discrete and integrated electronic components utilized based on standard circuit. The logic gate
integrated circuits were assembled on a separate board providing a direct link for the terminals
to the pin connector sockets that serves as input and output of the logic gates. The components
required in trainer board were chosen based on calculation and manufacturers specification.
The casing was made with synthetics and after fabrication and testing the trainer performed to
specification.

Keywords: Digital, Trainer, Logic, Experiment, Development, Circuit

1.0 Introduction:
Digital logic circuits form the basis of all digital hardware which plays a very prominent role in
most electronic devices used in industrial and domestic application. They are used to build
computer hardware, as well as many other types of products which are broadly classified as
digital hardware which bring about the Boolean logic algebra trainer which has become a
popular household name in a wide range of applications in teaching digital hardware theories and
concepts in a practical way. Digital Trainer is a self-contained set of electronic circuits that can
be interlinked by students to create working circuits. There are certain electronic chips (called
logic gates) that convert simple on and off conditions to create a third on or off condition. The
basic gates are AND, OR and NOT. Combinations of these simple gates in various
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configurations permit more complex logic or arithmetic operation. They are used to build
computer hardware, as well as many other types of products which are broadly classified as
digital hardware (Rizzoni, 2004). For most digital hardware products, it is necessary to design
and build some logic circuit from the scratch. Early computer systems were often ―hardwired‖
into the circuitry and this computer wiring technique determines what problem the computer
would solve (Bywater, 1981). A digital logic circuit comprises a network of logic gates. Each
logic gate performs a very simple function and more complex operations that are realized by
connecting gates together (Mano, 1979). A number of sophisticated modules exist for building a
variety of digital logic circuits. The technology used to build digital hardware has evolved
dramatically over the past four decades. The digital electronics training program is ideal for basic
and intermediate advance studies in digital electronics study. The courseware is the compilation
of the experiments from various good reference books version. Simulations are essential for
meeting many instructional needs (Cachman and Vermat 2003). They focus on the learning
environment without usurping control from the learner, offering unique learning opportunities in
nearly every subject area. As a result, simulations permit the attainment of learning goals which
are beyond traditional and other computer-based instruction methods (Tanenbaum, 1999). It is
very important to reduce the number of logic gates required to produce a given function in a
combinational logic circuit. This simplification is desirable for several reasons, such as economy
or cost, limitation of available power, and minimization of delay times by reduction of logic
levels.

Materials and Method

Number system and codes:
It is familiar with the number system in which count is up to ten numerals. So its base is 10 and
ten numerals 0.1.2...9 are used for expressing any arbitrary number. This number system is
popularly known as the decimal number system. For writing any number exceeding 9, an array
of numerals (digits) are used. Each position of numeral is assigned a well-defined meaning.
Decimal numbers are used to represent quantities outside the digital system.

Decimal number system:

The decimal number system, as already mentioned above has a base of 10 and is a position-value
system. The statement 'the decimal number system has a base of 10 which implies that it contains
ten unique symbols (or digits) i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

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Binary number system:

The binary number system is simply another way to count. It is less complicated than the
decimal system because it is composed of only two digits 0 and 1. Just as the decimal system
with its ten digits is a base-10 system; the binary system with its two digits is a base-2 system.

Octal number system:

The number system with base (or radix) eight is known as is the octal number system. Although
we can use any eight digits, it is customary to use the first eight decimal digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6, 7. There is neither 8 nor 9 in octal number code. These digits 0 through 7 have exactly the
same physical meaning as in decimal number system.

Logic Systems:
Logic systems depending upon the type of excitation employed are described below: DC Logic
(or Level Logic) System. In a voltage dc logic or level logic system, a bit is represented by one
of the two voltage levels (high or low). If the higher of the two voltages represents a 1 and the
lower voltage represents a 0; the system is called a positive logic system. On the other hand, if
the lower voltage represents a 0; we have a negative logic system.

Logic Gates:
The most basic elements of digital circuits are logic gates. The most basic types of electronic
circuit designed with active devices (such as diodes, transistors) and positive components (such
as resistors) which consists of two or more inputs and one output performing very basic logic
operation are known as the logic gates. Each gate is given several input signals to act upon. Its
output may be high (logic-1) or low (logic-0) with respect to the voltage levels. The output
depends upon the combination of high and low inputs and the type of gate used.

Basic Logic Gate:

Or Gate:
The OR gate performs logical addition, more commonly known as the OR function. An OR gate
has two input signals with only one output signal. In OR gate, output voltage is high if any or all
of the all of the input voltages are high.

AND Gate:
The AND gate implements the AND function. With the gate shown to the left, both inputs must
have logic 1 signals applied to them in order for the output to be a logic 1 With either input at
logic 0, the output will be held to logic 0.

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There is no limit to the number of inputs that may be applied to an AND function, so there is no
functional limit to the number of inputs an AND gate may have.

NOT Gate or Inverter:

The inverter is a little different from ‗AND‘ and ‗OR‘ gates in that it always has exactly one
input as well as one output. Whatever logical state is applied to the input, the opposite state will
appear at the output.The NOT function, as it is called, is necessary in many applications and
highly useful in others. A practical verbal application might be: The door is NOT locked = you
may enter. In the inverter symbol, the triangle actually denotes only an amplifier, which in digital
terms means that it "cleans up" the signal but does not change its logical sense.

Digital Logic Design:

A digital computer stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds in discrete steps from
one state to the next. The states of a digital computer typically involve binary digits which may
take the form of the presence or absence of magnetic markers in a storage medium, on-off
switches or relays. Digital Logic is the basis of electronic systems, such as computers and cell
phones. Digital Logic is rooted in binary code, a series of zeroes and ones each having an
opposite value.

Digital Logic Trainer (TTL) / Logic Trainer Board:

Digital Logic Trainer (TTL) / Logic Trainer Board based on 74 series has been designed
specifically to make the students familiar with the study of TTL ICs and verification of the truth
table of logic gates, flip-flops, Gated & Master Slave JK flip-flops, Schmitt Trigger, Expander,
Binary address, Counters, Shift registers, Multiplexer (Encoder), De-multiplexer (Decoder), 8
Bit D/A Converter and 8 Bit A/D Converter etc. Large area of bread board is provided on the
front panel for ICs (Crouch, 2003).

Logic Gates Circuit Trainer:

Digital Trainer is used for both elementary as well as advance training of Digital electronics and
for bread board digital circuits, AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, three state Buffer, RS
Latch, JK Flip Flop, Mono-stable Multi-vibrator and UP/ DOWN Counter. Practical experience
on this board carries great educative value for Science and Engineering Students (Ajao and
Onawola (2003).

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Method Used:
A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates that can
be used to create combinational logic. Each logic gate is designed to perform a function
of Boolean logic when acting on logic signals. A logic gate is generally created from one or more
electrically controlled switches, usually transistors but thermionic valves have seen historic use.
The output of a logic gate can, in turn, control or feed into more logic gates. Integrated
circuits consist of multiple transistors on one silicon chip, and are the least expensive way to
make large number of interconnected logic gates. Integrated circuits are usually designed by
engineers using electronic design automation software to perform some type of function.
Integrated circuits are usually interconnected on a printed circuit board which is a board which
holds electrical components, and connects them together with copper traces. The placement of
the chips and the actual wire connection on the PCB is shown on the template. Fig.1 shows
template PCB design for an IC gate. Fig.2 represents the design layouts on the board. Fig. 3 is
the representation of constructed digital logic board trainer.

Fig.1: Template PCB Design for an IC Gate

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Fig.2 :Design Layouts on the Board

Fig. 3: Constructed Digital Logic Board Trainer

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Testing and Result:

The OR Gate:
To investigate the OR gate, the output of this gate will be ―high‖ (1) if any of the inputs (first
input or the second input or . . .) are ―high‖ (1). The output of an OR gate goes ―low‖ (0) if and
only if all inputs are ―low‖ (0).

Experiment 1:
Title: Testing for OR gate
Procedure : A was connected to 25, 26 was connected to 27 as well and B was connected to
27and 28 was connected to 41. When A and B switches were "low" there was no voltage at 41,
when one of the A and B was high, 41 is "high" , when A and B was high, 41 is "high". The
result is as shown in table 1.

Fig.4: symbol for OR gate

TABLE 1: Truth Table for Two Input OR Gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Not Gate:
NOT gate is the type of gate that have only one input and one output, and the output is inverse of
is input, if input is "1" the output is "0".

Experiment 2:
Title : Testing for NOT gate
Procedure : A was connected to 1 and 2 was connected to 41, when input was high the 41 was
low , when the input was low the 41 was high. The result is as shown in table 2.

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Fig.5: Symbol NOT gate

Table 2: Truth Table for NOT Gate

A B
1 0
0 1

The AND Gate

One of the easiest multiple-input gates to understand is the AND gate, so-called because the
output of this gate will be ―high‖ (1) if and only if all inputs (first input and the second input and
. . .) are ―high‖ (1). If any input(s) is ―low‖ (0), the output is guaranteed to be in a ―low‖ state as
well. In case you might have been wondering, AND gates are made with more than three inputs,
but this is less common than the simple two-input variety.

Experiment 3:
Title: Testing for AND gate
Procedure : A was connected to 13, 14 was connected to 15 as well and B was connected to 14
and 16 was connected to 41. When A and B switches were low there was no voltage at 41,
when one of the A and B was high, 41 is low , when A and B high 41 high the result is as shown
in table 3

Fig.6: Symbol for AND gate

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TABLE 3: TRUTH TABLE FOR 2 INPUTS AND GATE

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Discussion
The effectiveness of the trainer was demonstrated by a couple of practical exercise. The results
of the experiment were functionally verified through the output of the imported trainer kit. The
performance of the imported type and locally made type are favorably comparable. The result
indicates that various composition of digital devices; combinational and sequential circuit could
be demonstrated experiment.

Conclusion
A low cost digital logic training module for the student‘s laboratory experiment was designed,
developed and packaged in a single module to minimize cost. It will also expose student to the
basic logic gates such as AND Gate, OR Gate, and NOT Gate. The output of the OR gate is high
if any of the input is high and the output is low if all input are low. The output of an AND Gates
is high only if all inputs are high and low, if even one of the input is low. The reliability of the
trainer module developed in terms of response and performance is at par with the state of the art.

Recommendation
Design like this serves as a means of acquiring the much-needed skills in empowering
undergraduates both theoretically and practically in order to prepare them to meet up with the
trend at which computer technology is advancing daily. Based on the tests carried out and the
results obtained, this Logic Trainer is hereby recommended for the teaching and learning of
digital hardware theories and concepts in practical classes of undergraduate students.

References
Ajao, A.O. and H.J. Onawola (2003) : Fundamentals of Computer Hardware System. (Revised
Edition). Ikeja-Lagos: Glory gate Publisher,
Bywater, R.E.H. ( 1981.): Hardware/Software Design of System London: Prentice Hall.
Mano, M.M. (1979.): Digital Logic and Computer Design. NS: Prentice- Hall.
Rizzoni, G. (2004): Principle and Application of Electrical Engineering (Revised Fourth
Edition). New York: Mcgraw-hill Companies,Inc.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Tanenbaum, A.S. (1999): Structured Computer Organization (4th Ed.). NS: Prentice Hall.
Texas instruments ‗The TTL logic data book information‘ TI Website
http://ww.ti.com/sc/docs/products/logic/techfam/ttl.html.
Crouch, Dennis (2007)."Written Description: CAFC Finds Prima Facie Rejection (Hyatt v.
Dudas (Fed. Cir. 2007))". Patently-O blog. Retrieved 2020-07-03.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ESTIMATED BILLING SYSTEMS

ON ELECTRICITY CONSUMERS IN ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE,
NIGERIA

Adeoye, O.S.1, Yusuf, B.M2 and Ademiloye, I.B3

[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Abstract
Most Nigerians have no access to electricity supply today due to insufficient power generation
which cannot meet the present estimated power demand of not less than 15,000 MW in the
country. A country that requires such power generation most times cannot even generate up to
4000 MW. It is indeed unfortunate that Nigeria that is acclaimed as the giant of Africa cannot
generate adequate power for the citizens whereas smaller nations in Africa with far less
population generate more power for their citizens. The distribution companies are seriously
deviating from the conditions guided by the law in respect of power supply to Consumers,
electricity charges and payments which this paper will explicitly look into. Due to constant
power failure being experienced by Consumers, the distribution companies have short changed
them by adopting a billing system through estimation rather than providing pre-paid meters at
affordable cost. The impacts of this estimated billing system on the electricity consumers were
examined by evaluating the parity between estimated billing system and the use of pre-paid
meters by electricity Consumers. Recommendations would be made in order to minimise the
impacts through the review of billing methods by making pre-paid meter available and the
existing laws as regards consumers and discos should be enforced by the government of federal
republic of Nigeria.

Keywords: Billing system, Consumers, Electricity access, Impact, Pre-paid meter

Introduction:
It is true that electricity supply is inadequate, the distributed energy to Consumers are confronted
with the following challenges ranging from meter by-pass, meter theft , illegal direct
connections, meter tampering to non-payment of electricity bills at the right time (Omotoso and
Adeoye, 2014). A country which requires power generation of 15,000 MW that cannot
adequately meet the estimated power demand of 13,160 MW of a population of 140,003,542
(Adeoye and Akinsanya, 2013). The power generation in Nigeria has gone far below 4,000 MW
with precisely 1327MW as the all time low power generation in the country due to many gas
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fired power plants that were shut down as a result of inadequate supply of gas
(premiumtimesng.com/news, 2015). 60 % of Nigerian citizens with an equivalence of 15.3
million households are not connected to the national grid thereby denying them access to
electricity (Ngadda, 2002; Adeoye and Oladimeji, 2016). Electrical power balance is the
mathematical difference between power generation and demand on the busses meaning that
Nigeria is characterized by power imbalance since the power demand is greater than power
generation (Adeoye, 2014). The prosperity of any nation depends on the constant supply of
electrical energy to the Citizens. America has a population of 6 % of the World‘ population but
consumes 30 % of the available electrical energy (Gupta, 2005). There are technical and non –
technical losses in power system. Technical losses deal with inefficient and poor maintenance of
power equipment. Non-technical losses are purely due to theft particularly when Consumers of
electricity are not paying the charges for the kWh utilised and this makes the distribution
companies to run their businesses at a loss (Adeoye and Ekejiuba, 2014). There is a link between
metering and tariff. Tariff means the schedule of rates or charges. It means the schedule or rates
framed for supply of electrical energy to various classes of Consumers. A simple tariff covers:
recovery of cost of capital investment in generating, transmitting, and distributing equipment;
recovery of cost of operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment; recovery of cost of
metering equipment, billing collection, collection costs and a satisfactory return on the total
capital investment (Gupta, 2005). The electricity billing system in Nigeria is classified into
analogue, estimated, digital types. The digital type is the one that depends on pre-paid meter
while the analogue type depends on the mobile meter readers that visits the installed analogue
meters to physically take the electrical energy consumed by the Consumers. Estimated billing
system is about the distribution Companies fix certain rate for the end users at the end of each
month. Consumers of electricity usually pay for the electricity that they did not use thereby
paying for the generating power that was not supplied by the distribution companies. DISCOS
incur huge loss in three ways through huge unpaid bills by the Consumers known as collection
loss, leakages of power due to poor, aged and insufficient generation, transmission and
distribution network as well as power infrastructure (technical loss), illegal consumption of
power they pay for (commercial loss) whose aggregate is about 50 % (Anyaehie, et al, 2018).
Estimated billing regime was put in place by National Electricity Regulatory Commission as part
of measures to reduce some of the aggregate technical, commercial, and collection losses borne
by the DISCOS and to serve as interim solution pending the widespread adoption of meters.
Order on the capping of estimated bills in Nigeria Electricity Supply Industry was issued on with
effective date from 20th February, 2020. This is to promote parity in the billing of metered and
unmetered electricity Consumers based on complaints about DISCOS issuing unrealistic
estimated bills (thislive.com/index-php/2020/03/03report retrieved on 21st July, 2020). NERC in
2008 introduced a pricing model called Multi Year Tariff Order (MYTO) as a framework for
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determining the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry (NESI) pricing structure. NESI is faced
with challenges from its inability to provide sufficient power to its Customers which has
hampered return on capital investment (Anosike et al, 2017). NESI is probably one of the most
inefficient in meeting the needs of its Customers globally (Iwayemi, 2008). Nigeria with a
population of 140 million generates power of less than 4000 MW and the per capita energy
consumption is 0.03 kW. Egypt has a population of 67.9 million with a power generation of
18,000 MW and per energy capita consumption of 0.27 kW while South Africa has a population
of 44.3 million, power generation of 45,000 MW and per capita energy consumption of 1.02 kW
(IEA Energy Statistics, 2007; Adeoye and Adeloye, A.A, 2018).

Impacts of Estimated Billing System:

The impacts of estimated and unmetered billing system are enumerated as:
(i) over-billing of Consumers and billing inaccuracies;
(ii) absence of service orientation to the Consumers;
(iii) collection of illegal money from the Customers by distribution companies;
(iv) illegal connection and stealing of power supply by Consumers;;
(v) inadequate power supply and metering system and
(vi) collection of disconnection or reconnection fees ( Anyaehie et al, 2018).

Benefits of Pre-paid Metering System:

The benefits of pre-paid metering system are:
(i) it aids budgeting;
(ii) it reduces bad debts and writes off arrears;
(iii) improves detection and management of outages;
(iv) accurate revenue are determined by distribution companies and
(v) contacts reduction between consumers and officials of distribution companies ( Anyaehie et
al, 2018).

Consumers Rights and Obligations:

The Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission is empowered by Electric Power Sector
Reform (ESPR) Act, 2005 is to ensure an efficiently managed electricity supply industry that
meets the yearnings of Nigerians for stable, adequate and safe electricity supply. To ensure
quality service delivery, it is pertinent that electricity customers know their rights as follows:
(i) all new electricity connections must be done strictly based on metering before connection;
(ii) all customers have a right to electricity supply in a safe and reliable manner;
(iii) all customers have a right to transparent electricity billing;
(iv) all customers have a right to a properly installed and functional meter;
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(v) all customers have a right to properly informed and educated on the electricity service;
(vi) all un-metered customers should be issued with electricity bills strictly based on NERC‘s
estimated billing methodology;
(vii) it is the Customers‘ rights to be notified in writing ahead of disconnection of electricity
service by the DISCO;
(viii) all Customers have a right to file complaints and to the prompt investigation of complaints;
(ix) all Customers have a right to be refunded when overbilled;
(x) all complaints on electricity supply and other billing issues are to be sent to the nearest
business unit of DISCO;
(xi) if a complaint is not properly addressed, Customers have a right to escalate the issue to the
NERC forum office;
(xii) customers have the right to appeal the decision of the NERC forum office by writing a
petition to the Commission;
(xiii) it is the Customers‘ right to contest any electricity bill;
(xiv) any un-metered Customer who is disputing his or her estimated bill has the right not to pay
the disputed bill but will pay only the last undisputed bills as the contested bill go through the
dispute resolution process of NERC;
(xv) it is not the responsibility of electricity Customers or Community to buy, replace or repair
electricity transformers, poles and related equipment used in the supply of electricity
(nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/consumers/consumers-rights-obligation retrieved on 21st July,
2020).

Objectives of Repealing Estimated Billing Method:

The objectives of repealing estimated billing method are:
(i) to protect un-metered R2 and C1 Customers from arbitrary billing as well as ensure they are
billed at rates comparable to what their metered counterparts are charged;
(ii) to completely eradicate arbitrary billing which basically entails charging electricity
customers exorbitant fees that are higher than actual consumption;
(iii) to fast-track the metering of un-metered R2 and C1 Customers;
(iv) to encourage DISCOS to expedite action on meter deployment under the meter asset
provider regulation of 2018; and
(v) it is aimed at reducing incidents of high collection losses in NESI (nairametrics.com/
2020/02/05 retrieved on 21st July, 2020).

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Table.1: Classification of Consumers’ Tariff

Consumers‘ Classification Description Remark
Residential
R1 Life line (50kWh) A consumer who uses his
R2 1-3 phase premises exclusively as a
R3 LV Maximum Demand residential house, flat or multi-
R4 HV Maximum Demand storey house where people
reside.
Commercial
C1 1-3 phase A consumer who uses his
C2 LV Maximum Demand premises for any purpose other
C3 HV Maximum Demand (11/33 than exclusively as a residence
kV) or as a factory for
manufacturing goods.
Industrial
D1 1-3 phase A consumer who uses his
D2 LV Maximum Demand premises for manufacturing
D3 HV Maximum Demand goods including welding and
HV Maximum Demand iron monger.
(11/33kV)
Special
A1 1-3 phase Consumers such as agriculture
A2 LV Maximum Demand that is agro allied enterprises
A3 HV Maximum Demand (11/33 involving processing is
kV) excluded) Water Boards,
religious houses, government
and teaching hospitals,
research institutes and
educational establishments.
Street lighting
S1 1-3 phase -
th
Source: Adeoye et al, 2015: Proceedings of 10 Engineering Forum, School of Engineering,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti.

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Materials and Method:

A simple analytical method was used to evaluate the parity between the use of pre-paid meters
and the estimated billing system imposed on the residential Consumers. 700 residential
Consumers in Omisanjana community of Ado-Ekiti were used as a case study and only 500
responded positively representing 71.43 % and these group of residential Consumers were not
only interviewed, their bills were sighted in order to collect the average energy consumption for
a period of one year. The remaining 200 residential Consumers were without electricity bills
representing 28.57 %. This was carried out via direct interview with the Consumers in
Omisanjana area of Ado-Ekiti from the consumption history from August, 2019 to July, 2020.
Simple analytical approach was used to estimate the parity between estimated billing approach
and when the same people are connected to pre-paid meters. The evaluated parity was carried out
through the use of Microsoft excel spreadsheet.

Discussion:
Table 1 shows the classification of tariffs for Consumers of electricity ranging from residential
(R1-R4), industrial (D1-D3), commercial (C1-C3), special (A1-A3) and streetlight (S1-S3). The
table defines each class of consumers‘ tariffs. Table 2 shows the evaluation of electricity charges
parity for a period of one year, that is, August, 2019 to July, 2020. The value added tax of 7.5
percent was used on the electricity consumption (kWh); fixed cost for each charge was put at
₦31.26 and multiplied by the energy consumption plus percentage VAT. The average value was
implemented on 500 Consumers. The prepaid cost of electricity for each Consumer per month
was averaged to be ₦3000 which was summed up to be ₦1500000 for 500 Consumers in a
month. The parity was evaluated to be ₦10967085 ($30046.81cent) in the period under
consideration. This is indeed a huge loss on the side of the Consumers in a time that the economy
of the world is depressed and this has negatively affected the wellbeing of the citizens who are
not gainfully employed or underemployed in Ado Ekiti metropolis with negative impacts on
business owners and the domestic activities in the area.

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Table.2: Evaluation of Electricity Charges Parity for a period of one year

Cons Current
umpt VAT Energy Bill Estimated energy Estimated Evaluate
ion(k @7.5 Charges / amount charges for 500 Prepaid meter d Parity
Month Wh) % month (₦) Consumers(₦) charge(₦) (₦)
August,
2019 167 391.53 5220.42 5611.95 2805975 1500000 1305975
septembe
r, 2019 108 253.21 3376.08 3629.29 1814645 1500000 314645
October,
2019 252 590.81 7877.52 8468.33 4234165 1500000 2734165
Novembe
r,2019 252 590.81 7877.52 8468.33 4234165 1500000 2734165
Decembe
r, 2019 108 253.21 3376.08 3629.29 1814645 1500000 314645
January,
2020 122 286.03 3813.72 4099.75 2049875 1500000 549875
February,
2020 167 391.53 5220.42 5611.95 2805975 1500000 1305975
March,
2020 79 185.22 2469.54 2654.76 1327380 1500000 -172620
April,
2020 79 185.22 2469.54 2654.76 1327380 1500000 -172620
May,
2020 192 450.14 6001.92 6452.06 3226030 1500000 1726030
June,
2020 99 232.11 3094.74 3326.85 1663425 1500000 163425
July,
2020 99 232.11 3094.74 3326.85 1663425 1500000 163425
1962.3
1724 6 26164.62 28126.98 28967085 18000000 10967085

Conclusion:
This paper has evaluated the parity between estimated billing systems being used for electricity
Consumers in an area of Ado-Ekiti as compared to when pre-paid meters are installed for the
same people to be ₦10967085 ($30046.81cent). The evaluated amount is huge which would
have been invested into the business of the people, education of their children or to cater for their
well being in terms of food, clothing and shelter. The NERC should ensure that some of the
Customers‘ rights are enforced by the EPSR Act of 2005 that stated that any form of overbilling
of the electricity users can be contested and refund of such amount to the electricity Consumers.

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Recommendation:
Since the parity between estimated bills and pre-paid meters is huge, the following
recommendations are suggested:
(1.) Government of Nigeria and Distribution Companies as well as NERC and other
electricity agencies should come to a round table and bridge the parity between
estimated bills and the use of pre-paid meters.
(2.) Electricity Customers should be made to know their rights through constant sensitization
by media houses.
(3.) EPSR Act 2005 which empowers NERC should be enforced to help common citizens to
adequately have access to electricity which must be paid for and this must be done by
providing pre-paid meters to every Consumer.
(4.) Any form of overbilling should be reversed and if payment had been done, it should be
refunded.
(5.) The distribution Companies should ensure constant power supply is made available
throughout the year for consumers.
(6.) Prepaid meters should be locally manufactured for easy accessibility.
(7.) Pre-paid meters should be connected in all consumers‘ residence.

References:
Adeoye, O.S and Akinsanya, O.A (2013): Evaluation of Power Demand Capacity for Socio-
Economic Development in Nigeria. SEEM Research and Development Journal, Vol. 2,
issue 1, pp.19-30.
Adeoye, O.S Oloniyo, O and Omotoso, G.S, (2015): Minimizing Revenue loss in power sector:
way out of economic challenges in Nigeria, Proceeding of 10th Engineering Forum,
School of Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, pp 19-24.
Adeoye, O.S and Oladimeji (2016): Assessment of Rural Electrification Level in Ekiti State,
South-West, Nigeria. IASET Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vol.1,
issue 1, pp.27-32.
Adeoye, O.S (2014): Estimation of Potential Load Demand of Local Govedrnmeent Areas of
Ekiti State, Nigeria. American Journal of Engineering Research, Vol.3, issue 6, pp.101-
106.
Adeoye, O.S and Adeloye, A.A (2018): Electrical Energy Access: A Viable Alternative for the
Alleviation of the Nigerian Economy. Research in Medical and Engineering Sciences,
Vol.5, issue 4, RMES.000618.2018.DOI:10.31031 / RMES.2018.05.000618, pp.1-5.
Adeoye, O.S and Ekejiuba, C.O (2014): Assessment of Line Losses and Methods of Reduction
of Selected Power Transmission Lines in Nigeria. International Journal of Novel
Research in Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol.1, issue 3, pp.54-63.

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Anyaehie, M.U, Uwadike, S.U, and Iwuamadi, O.C (2018): The Implication of Estimated Billing
System on Nigerian Electricity Consumers. American Journal of Engineering Research,
Vol.7, issue 4, pp.169-175.
Anosike, N.B, Dara, J.E, Ngwaka, U.C and Enemuoh, F.O (2017): Analysis of Nigerian
Electricity Generation Multi Year Tariff Order Pricing Model. Energy and Power
Engineering, Vol. 9, pp. 541-554.
Gupta (2005): Power System Analysis and Design. S.Chand and Company Ltd, Ram Nagar,
New Delhi-110055, pp.3.
Iwayemi, A (2008): Investment in Electricity Generation and Transmission in Nigeria: Issues
and Options. International Association of Energy Economics, First Quarters, pp. 37-42.
IEA Energy Statistics, 2007. nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/consumers/consumers-rights-
obligations retrieved on the 21st July, 2020.
Nairametric.com/2020/02/25-on–objectivesof–repealing-estimated-billing- methodology posted
on 25th February, 2020 retrieved on 21st July, 202
Ngadda (2002): Review of Federal Government Rural Electrification Programme:
Energizing Transformation in Nigeria, ICEED Press in Association with Federal
Ministry of Power and Steel, pp.118.
Omotoso, and Adeoye, O.S (2014): Evaluation of Power System Equipment Vandalisation in
Ado-Ekiti: The Effect on e-Technology and the Way Forward. Proceedings of the 9th
Engineering Forum, School of Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, VOL.9,
issue 1, pp.1-5.
Premiumtimesng.com, posted on 31/12/ 2015 retrieved on 22nd July, 2020.
Thislive.com/index.php/2020/03/03/report-lights-impacts-of-nerc-order-on-estimated-
billing/posted on 3rd March, 2020 retrieved on 21st July, 2020.

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ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY AND IMPACT ON

ENGINEERING STRUCTURES OF LAGOS SURFACE WELL WATER
IN LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA

Agbalajobi, S. A.1, Adeoti, K.2, and Jethro, M. A.3

1
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin
3
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering Technology, Kogi State
Polytechnic, Lokoja, Nigeria.
Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This research assessment of water quality and its impact on the effect of compressive strength for
engineering structure can be affected when they were produced with water of different qualities
and sources. The water collected was of different qualities and sources and presented as Lagos
surface well water and fresh (control) water. The chemical composition of these water qualities
ware analyzed while twenty-two cubes were produced at a ratio 1:2:4 using each water quality
type. The cubes were cured and crushed at 7 days and 14 days with the resulting compressive
strength range from 11.6 N/mm2 – 16.6 N/mm2 and 15.0 N/mm2 – 18.5 N/mm2 value at 7 days
and 14 days respectively. The value of fresh (control) water range 13.3 N/mm2 and 16.5 N/mm2
at 7 days and 14 days respectively. However, concrete cubes obtained with different qualities of
Lagos surface well water strength equal to or at least 87 percent of the strength of fresh
(control) water of concrete. . The compressive strengths of concrete cast with water at various
curing ages are shown generally that there is an increase in compressive strength of all concrete
cubes cast with mixing water from all the sampled sources with an increase in curing age from 7
days to 14 days.

Keywords: Compressive strength, Curing age, Chemical compositions, Concrete cubic samples,
Water quality

Introduction
In the construction industry, potable water is usually used since it is recommended by most
specifications and its chemical composition is known and well regulated. In the design codes, it
is recommended that the compressive strength of concrete cubes made of untried water not to be
less than 90% of cubes made with tap water (Taha et al., 2010). There are various sources of
non-fresh water that were previously tested for use in concrete mixtures. These include sea and

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alkali waters, mine and mineral waters, waters containing sewage and industrial wastes, and oily
and brackish waters from oil wells (Cebeci and Saatci, 1989; Mujahed, 1989; El-Nawawy and
Ahmad, 1991; Chini et al., 1999; Taha et al., 2005; Taha et al., 2010; Al-Jabri et al., 2010).
Water contributes an active part in imparting strength and durability to concrete. The role of
water is not only important at the mixing stage but also during curing. Impurities in water, which
may be either in the dissolved or suspended form, may interfere with the hydration of cement,
thus affecting the setting, hardening and strength development. It may also cause efflorescence
and leaching effects in set cement mortar/concrete. Concrete structures such as buildings,
bridges, flyovers, power plants and others are ideally required to be built with utmost care to
serve its intended purpose without any recurring expenditure on maintenance (Bapat, 2001). Due
to the different types of impurities that exist in each water types, it is difficult to draw a sound
conclusion concerning the use of non-fresh water in concrete mixtures. Neville (2000) reviewed
extensively the research literature on the use of wastewater in concrete, and concluded that much
work needs to be done on water use in concrete and that there is a need to review the existing
standards on water quality in light of the various types of cementitious materials and water-
reducing admixtures in use today. However, it is not so in real life scenario and often distress in
concrete is notified within few years of construction. The causes of distress can be attributed to
many factors, of which the important being the poor quality of construction, improper detailing
of reinforcement and not satisfying the requirements as specified in code of practices (Skalny
and Marchand, 1998). This research study was carried out in order to understand the water
quality impacts on structures and construction materials in Lagos surface well water, Nigeria.

Materials and Methods

Chemical Analysis
Total Hardness, TH
Standardize the (EDTA-, write in full first) titrant against standard calcium solution in according
to equation 1.
( )

Where: A is mL EDTA titrated for sample and B = mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1.00 mL EDTA
titrant

Calcium (Ca)
Determination of Calcium (Ca), using equation 2; where: A is mL titrant for sample and B and
mL of standard calcium solution taken for titration is

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Magnesium (Mg)
Get the values for Total Hardness and Ca Hardness determined by EDTA and calculate Mg as in
equation 3.
( )
Where: TH is Total Hardness, mg CaCO3

Potassium (K)
Determine potassium concentration of the sample using equation 4, or diluted sample, from the
curve, mgK/L is mgK/L from the calibration curve x Dilution: Where:

Sodium (Na)
Determine sodium concentration of the sample using equation 5, or diluted sample, from the
curve, mgNa/L is mgNa/L from the calibration curve x Dilution: Where:

Chloride (Cl)
Determine Chloride (Cl) by A blank of 0.2 to 0.3 mL is usual, according to equation 6.
( )

Where: A = mL titration for sample; B = mL titration for blank; and N = normality of AgNO3

Sulphate (SO4)
Determine turbidity of the standards using procedure as above and draw calibration curve
between turbidity and SO42- concentration, mg/L, using 7.

where X is concentration of sulphate from calibration curve

Alkalinity, Phenolphthalein (pH 8.3) and Total (pH 4.5)

Determine normality of sulphuric acid, using equation 8:

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Where: A is g Na2CO3 weighed into the 1L-flask for the Na2CO3standard (see a.); B is mL
Na2CO3 solution taken for standardisation titration and C is mL acid used in standardisation
titration.

Procedure for Phenolphthalein alkalinity

Determine Phenolphthalein alkalinity and record mL titrant used, using equation 9.

Where: A = mL titrant used to phenolphthalein end point; and N = normality of titrant. Note:
For turbid/coloured samples, titration can be performed using a pH meter to end point pH value
of 8.3

Total Alkalinity
Procedure for Total alkalinity
Determine the Total alkalinity by record total mL titrant used, according to equation 10.

Where: B = mL titrant used to bromocresol green end point and N = normality of titrant

Laboratory Testing Program for Concrete

Making Test Cubes from Fresh Concrete
This method describes the making of concrete test cubes for testing for compressive strength
using BS 1881: Part 108:1983. The test cubes have nominal sizes of 100mm and the maximum
size of aggregates 12mm was used. The mould of cast iron, with removable base plates, the
depth of the mould and the distance between the two pairs if opposite internal side faces is
nominal size 100mm. Steel compacting bar weighing 1.8 Kg, 380mm long and having a
ramming face of 16mm diameter was used.

Mixing
Air-dry the aggregates to be used and bring it to temperature, preferably about room temperature
of about 25°C. The mix ratio used in the production of all the cubes is 1:2:4. The batching was
done by weighting. The mixture were carried out on the floor with coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, cement and add water slowly, continue mixing until the concrete is uniform in
appearance, but not less than 2 minutes after all the materials have been mixed together.

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Moulding
The moulds were placed on a rigid horizontal surface, fill with concrete in layers of 33m deep
and compact each layer by the compacting bar, distribute the strokes evenly over the cross
section of the mould without penetrating previous layer significantly, use 25 strokes per layer for
100mm cube.

Curing
Cover the test cubes (in the moulds) with an impervious sheet and store them in a place free from
vibrations. The room shall have a relative humidity preferably of minimum 90% and a
temperature preferably about 25°C. After an initial curing period of 24 hours, make each cube so
that it can clearly be identified and remove it carefully from the mould. Submerge the curbs
immediately in water at a temperature preferably of about 25°C.

Concrete Cube Strength

This procedure describes the method for determining compressive strength of concrete cubes.
The concrete strength is normally tested at ages 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. But for this project, the
cube would be tested at ages of 7 and 14 days. The test specimens shall be made cured and store
in accordance with BS 1881 Part 116: 1983.

Testing Procedure
After curing, the following tests were carried out on the concrete specimens. Weigh each
specimen, check the nominal dimensions and take measure dimensions of each specimen,
determine the density of each specimen, carefully centre the cube on the lower platen and ensure
that the loads were applied to two opposite cast faces of the cube. Without shock, apply and
increase the load continuously until no greater load can be sustained. Record the maximum load
applied to the cube. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the cube face from checked nominal
dimensions or from measured dimensions. Calculate the compressive strength of each cube by
dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area. Express the result in N/mm2. Calculate
the average of the test results for the three specimens of the same size and dimension made from
the same sample of fresh concrete.

Results and Discussion

Chemical Analysis and Distribution
Table 1 shows that the cations occur in abundance order of Na> Mg>Ca>K with mean values
of 2340, 462.7, 338.10 and 122 Mg/L respectively. The anions are in the order of Cl>SO4>
HCO3>CO3 (Fig. 1).

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Table 1: Summary of the Chemical Constituents

SO4 Cl- HCO3 CO3 TH Ca Mg Na K TDS
Code (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
L1 2114.2 131.17 150 0.014 1600 42.05 380.14 2000 130 4978
L2 1763.1 542.39 532 0.05 1150 210.26 229.3 1740 160 5602
L3 2057.14 854.35 448 0.042 740 252.32 119 1850 170 6026
L4 914.29 180.8 450 0.042 580 210.26 90.22 1250 80 6431
L5 1021.43 92.17 460 0.043 600 210.26 95.1 950 60 5838
L6 920.24 118.76 340 0.032 1000 142.98 209.11 1140 50 5892
L7 1761.9 163.07 400 0.038 230 67.28 39.7 1540 40 4233
L8 196.43 39 220 0.021 530 109.34 102.64 350 10 2065
L9 621.43 47.86 220 0.021 420 134.57 69.65 610 20 2467
L10 472.62 136.48 360 0.034 550 201.85 84.95 1270 60 3232
L11 892.86 358.05 300 0.028 640 193.44 108.96 1490 100 4987
L12 195.24 56.72 500 0.047 960 260.73 170.62 610 30 2677
L13 669.05 74.45 300 0.028 650 109.34 131.92 780 70 3340
L14 1046.43 473.26 500 0.047 730 235.49 120.66 2130 90 5282
L15 986.9 127.62 400 0.038 500 176.62 78.9 800 110 3470
L16 1200.9 9734.57 400 0.038 9800 504.63 2268.07 8790 280 24370
L17 2096.43 10975.3 200 0.019 9200 588.74 2101.15 9300 370 25780
L18 73.81 3087.7 300 0.028 5400 336.42 1235.51 3140 120 8707
L19 2188.1 9114.2 300 0.028 8700 2649.31 1476.37 6310 430 25810
L20 701.19 47.86 310 0.029 710 126.16 142.46 740 60 2315
Min. 73.81 39.00 150.00 0.01 230.00 42.05 39.70 350.00 10.00 2065.0
Max. 2188.1 10975.32 532.00 0.05 9800.0 2649.31 2268.07 9300.0 430.00 25810.0
Mea 1094.7 1817.8 354.5 0.03 2234.5 338.10 462.7 2340 122.0 7675.1
Std 680.41 3578.2 108.8 0.010 3209 560.1 702.58 2631. 113.8 7787.1
Source: Laboratory Experiment (2019). *ppm = part per million, *TDS = Total Dissolved
Solid, *TH = Total Hardness

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10000
9000
8000
SO4 ppm
Concentration (ppm)

7000
Cl
6000
HCO3 ppm
5000
CO3 ppm
4000
Ca
3000
Mg
2000
Na ppm
1000
K
0
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9

L18
L10
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15
L16
L17

L19
L20
Locations

Fig. 1: Chemical Constituents for Surface Wells Water

Statistical Analysis
In the dendogram, hierarchical cluster analysis showed a total of two (2) clusters were
recognized to the level of clusters, with linkage distance less than 5. The principal component
analysis results showed four (4) components and the components account for more than 86% of
the variance, which is quite good and reliable upon identification the main sources of variation in
the hydrochemistry. PC 1: SO4 (0.8), Cl- (0.78), Na (0.885), K (0.75) and TH (0.9); PC 2: CO3
(0.6) and Ca (0.7),

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Results for the Physical Analysis of Lagos Surface Well Water

Results Weight of Cubes (Kg) Tests

Table 2: Results of the Weight of Cubes (Kg) for Lagos Surface Well Water
Locations Weight of Cubes (Kg)
7 days 14 days
Control 2.406 2.488
L1 2.407 2.411
L2 2.346 2.388
L3 2.402 2.449
L4 2.481 2.485
L5 2.521 2.509
L6 2.528 2.416
L7 2.465 2.493
L8 2.429 2.450
L9 2.461 2.472
L10 2.494 2.475
L11 2.478 2.462
L12 2.471 2.478
L13 2.466 2.476
L14 2.510 2.466
L15 2.360 2.363
L16 2.491 2.534
L17 2.472 2.493
L18 2.481 2.465
L19 2.528 2.346
L20 2.360 2.363

Source: Laboratory (2019)

Table 2 and Fig. 2 show the results of the weight of cube in Kg for location-cured blocks. The
value for the 7 days weight cube in clear water (control) was 2.406 Kg and 14 days was 2.488
Kg. The values for weight of cube in surface well water at 7 days range from 2.346 Kg – 2.528
Kg. The values for weight of cube at 14 days range from 2.346 Kg – 2.534 Kg. The concrete
sample (cube) cast with fresh water gained appreciates with age. Though, there was a slight
decrease in the strength but later on, the weight was recovered and the increase in weight became
steady due to different qualities of Lagos surface well water sample.

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2.55

2.5
Weight of Cubes (Kg)

2.45

2.4
Weight of Cubes (Kg) 7 days
2.35 Weight of Cubes (Kg) 14 days

2.3

2.25
L11

L18
L4
L1
L2
L3

L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10

L12
L13
L14
L15
L16
L17

L19
L20
Control

Location of Lagos Surface Well Water

Figure 2: Weight of Cubes (Kg) of Lagos Surface Well Water

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Compressive Strength of Lagos Surface Water

Table 3: Summary of Compressive Strength of Lagos Surface Well Water
Locations Curing Period in days/Compressive Strengths (N/mm2 )
7 days 14 days
Control 13.3 16.5
L1 12.0 15.2
L2 12.1 15.7
L3 11.1 14.5
L4 10.6 14.1
L5 11.4 14.5
L6 10.4 13.9
L7 12.1 15.1
L8 13.2 14.5
L9 10.8 13.9
L10 13.2 15.9
L11 11.3 14.7
L12 11.2 14.8
L13 10.3 13.6
L14 9.7 12.7
L15 14.4 14.9
L16 15.8 16.2
L17 13.9 14.8
L18 10.6 11.8
L19 10.4 11.8
L20 13.9 14.2

Source: Laboratory (2019)

Table 3 and Fig. 3 show the results of the compressive strength for concrete cubes cast and cured
in fresh water (control) at 7 days and 14 days was found 13.3 N/mm2 and 16.5 N/mm2
respectively. The values for the 7 days compressive strength range from 9.7 N/mm 2 – 15.8
N/mm2. The compressive strength values at 14 days range from 11.8 N/mm2 – 16.2 N/mm2. The
strength of concrete eventually increases due to the presence of salt content but its resultants
effect on structures will be alarming if proper care is not taken.

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18
16
Compressive Strength (mm2)

14
12
10
8
Curing Period in days 7
6
Curing Period in days 14
4
2
0
L9
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8

L10

L16
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15

L17
L18
L19
L20
Control

Location Lagos Surface Well Water

Figure 3: Compressive Strength of Lagos Surface Well Water

Conclusions
The result of the chemical analysis shows that the cations occur in abundance order of Na>
Mg>Ca>K with mean values of 2340, 462.7, 338.10 and 122 Mg/L respectively. The anions are
in the order of Cl>SO4> HCO3>CO3. The compressive strengths of concrete cast with water at
various curing ages are shown generally that there is an increase in compressive strength of all
concrete cubes cast with mixing water from all the sampled sources with an increase in curing
age from 7 days to 14 days. Compressive strength less or at least 80 percent of the strength of
reference specimen (control) made with fresh (clean) water for the concrete this may be due to
the presence of such elements as Na, K, Ca, Cl helped to increase the rate of hydration which
facilitated the early compressive strength increment but it later witnessed drastic reduction due to
their excessive quantities. However, the long term performance and durability of concrete made
from these water samples have not been ascertained. Also the effects of biological constituents,
turbidity and presence of E-coli may not be insignificant on compressive strength of concrete
especially on long-term. These are potential grounds for further studies to provide adequate
information on the suitability of stream water for concreting. With the result of this research, it is
recommended that the age of the concrete sample (cube) should attain strength in 21 days and 28
days respectively for further future study.

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Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the Department of Marine Science &Technology Laboratory, School
of Earth & Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State for the
Lagos surface well water samples test analysis. We also recognize the support of Civil
Engineering Department Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ilorin, Kwara State
for making the concrete cubes to test for compressive strength used for this study.

REFERENCES
Al-Jabri KS, Taha R and Al-Saidy AH (2010). Effect of Using Non-Fresh Water on the
Mechanical Properties of Cement Mortars and Concrete. Proceedings The Third
International fib Congress and PCI Annual Convention & Exhibition, May 29 –June 2,
Washington D. C., USA, pp. 34-37.
Bapat, J.D., (2001). ―GGBS/PSC for Concrete Structures with Corrosion Resistance‖. The
Master Builder, pp. 7-9.
BS 1881: Part 116 (1983). ―Method for Determination of Compressive Strength of
Concrete Cubes‖, London, British Standard Institution.
Cebeci, O.Z. and Saatci, A.M. (1989). ―Domestic Sewage as Mixing Water in Concrete‖
ACI Materials Journal, 86(5): 503-506
Chini AR, Muszyasti LC, and Ellis PS (1999). Recycling Process Water in Ready-mixed
Concrete
Corrosion. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan, pp.
31-33.
El-Nawawy OA, and Ahmad S (1991). Use of Treated Effluent in Concrete Mixing in an Arid
Climate, Cement and Concrete Composites. 13(2), pp. 137-141.
Mechanisms, Special Volume, The American Ceramic Society, pp. 19-22.
Mujahed FS (1989). Properties of Concrete Mixed with Red Sea Water and its Effects on Steel
Oil-Contaminated Water in Road Construction, Environmental and Engineering Geoscience. XI
(2), pp. 74-150.
Operations. Final Report Submitted to the Florida Department of Transportation, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL.
Proceedings International Engineering Conference on Hot Arid Regions (IECHAR 2010. March
1-2, Al-Ahsa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, pp. 127-132.
Skalny, J. and Marchand, J. (eds.), (1998). Materials Science of Concrete: Sulfate Attack
Taha R, Al-Harthy AS, and Al-Jabri KS (2010). Use of Production and Brackish Water in
Concrete.
Taha R, Al-Rawas A, Al-Oraimi ., Hassan H, and Al-Aghbari M (2005). The Use of Brackish
and

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COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF TWO PEDOTRANSFER

FUNCTIONS (PTF) FOR ESTIMATING SOIL SORPTIVITY

*Ajayi A. Stanley, Eriakha E. Collins and Ibrahim Rasheed

Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic

Auchi, Edo State

*Corresponding Author: +23408039714411

Email: [email protected]
Abstract
A comparison of empirical sorptivity values with the ones generated from Pedotransfer functions
(Rawls and Brook-Corey) was carried out in this study. The study area was restricted to
department of Agricultural Engineering experimental plot, Samaru, Zaria. The double ring
infiltrometer was used to obtain the cumulative infiltration of the soil at six points. The results of
statistical analysis at p < 0.01 showed that there is no significant difference between the
sorptivity factor from the Philip’s model and the one estimated by Rawls PTF but there was a
high significant difference between the sorptivity factor from the Philip’s model and the one
estimated by Brooks-Corey PTF. The Rawls PTF predicted sorptivity factor better that Brook-
Corey’s under this field condition. Soil spatial variability has an appreciable effect on
infiltration properties and hydraulic parameters that need to be evaluated in more detail.

Keywords: Sorptivity, Pedotransfer functions, Infiltration, Philip‘s equation, Moisture retention

1.0 Introduction
Sorptivity (S) is the ability of soil to absorb water due to capillary forces. Cumulative Infiltration
(I) is the total amount of water that enters into soil. Cumulative water infiltration and soil
sorptivity are two interrelated parameters. They affect the irrigation and drainage which means
that the complete knowledge of them is very important in order to solve environmental problems
(Angelaki et al., 2004). Many researchers have worked on infiltration of water and sorptivity of
soil and other porous materials. The first equation that was derived on cumulative infiltration
was the Green & Ampt (1911) equation. Later, Philip (1957), worked on the theory of
infiltration, assuming that the depth of water over the soil is zero or non-zero.

The knowledge on soil physical properties is essential for land use planning, water resources
management and development of water harvesting structures (Singh, 2000; Ungaro et al., 2005).
Hydraulic properties of soil aggregates such as hydraulic conductivity, infiltration, sorptivity and
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moisture retention affects water and solute movement in soil aggregates (Fasinmirin, 2012).
Wettability is one of the most important features of soils as it directly influences their physical,
mechanical, chemical, biological and fertility properties. Majority of soils, especially cultivated
ones are wettable, with rainwater appearing to infiltrate readily. A drop of water placed on the
surface of these soils can take seconds to hours to infiltrate, depending on the degree of soil
sorptivity. Compacted aggregates characterized with increased contribution of finer pores reduce
the accessibility of water for roots due to its availability only at more negative pore water
pressures (Fasinmirin, 2012). Apart from the obvious limitation of the amount of available water
from precipitation and freshwater reserves (aquifers, rivers etc.), greater drying of soils is making
them less able to retain water. Drying accentuates the movement of organic solutes to soil
surfaces and if critical water content is reached, a water repellent barrier can form that limits the
rate and capacity of soil. (Doerr et al., 2006). The aim of this study was to compare empirical
sorptivity values obtain with Philip‘s equation from field data with the ones generated by
Pedotransfer functions.

2.0 Materials and method

2.1 Study area and soil sampling
The study was carried out at the department of Agricultural Engineering experimental plot,
Samaru, which is latitude 11o 11‗N and longitude 07o 38‗E. A land area of 100m2 was divided
into six plots; twelve soil samples were collected at depths of 0 – 15cm and 15 – 30cm to be used
in determination of initial water content, soil bulk density and porosity. Core Samplers of 5cm
diameter and 6cm height were used to collect undisturbed soil samples, disturbed soil samples
was also collected in the field for soil particle size analysis determination. The double ring
infiltrometer with outer and inner ring 40cm and 30cm diameter respectively where used to
obtain the infiltration characteristics of the soil at six positions.

2.2 Sorptivity estimation from Philip’s Equation

In 1957 John Philip introduced the term sorptivity and showed that it can be determined from
horizontal infiltration where water flow expressed as:
√ ------Eq. [1]
1/2
Where S is sorptivity (cm/hr ), I, is the cumulative infiltration (cm) at time, t (hr). The
linear plot of cumulative infiltration (I) and the transformed time √ gives slope which is the
value of S (cm/hr1/2).

2.3 Sorptivity estimation from Pedotransfer functions

Pedotransfer functions (PTF) are predictive functions of certain soil properties using data from
soil surveys. PTFs add value to this basic information by translating them into estimates of other
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more laborious and expensively determined soil properties. Pedotransfer functions (PTFs) allow
translation of textural information into estimation and/or prediction of hydrologic properties
(Bouma and Finke 1993). Youngs (1964) formula was used to estimate sorptivity, with suction
head at the wetting front estimated from (Rawls 1992) and Brook-Corey (1964).
Young expressed sorptivity as:
( ) √ ( ) --------Eq. [2]
Where: Ø is the porosity of the soil
Өi is the initial volumetric moisture content of the soil
Sf = ψ = the soil‘s sunction at the wetting front
ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm/hr)

By Rawls (1992)
[

] -----------Eq. [3]
Where: C is % clay content
S is % sand content

By Brooks-Corey (1964)
------Eq. [4]

Where: where λ & hb are the Brooks-Corey pore-size distribution index and bubbling pressure
head (cm). These parameters are defined based on clay and sand %, and porosity (cm3 cm–3).
This was obtained from standard values from Maidment (1993) based on the soil‘s textural class.

2.4 Statistical Analysis

Sorptivity values from infiltration data and Pedotransfer functions were subjected to T-test at 1%
probability level using Microsoft excel2010 and the RMSE was used to determine the error of
prediction and the agreement between the Philip‘s sorptivity values and Pedotransfter function.


n
( X obs,i  X mo del,i ) 2
i 1
RMSE 
n --------Eq. [5]
where Xobs is observed values and Xmodel is modelled values.
The Smaller the value of RMSE the less the error conversely, the larger the value the more the
error in prediction.

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3.0 Result and discussion

3.1 Soil physical properties
The results of the soil analyses are shown in Table 1. The soil analysis results showed that soil
texture varied from Sandy clay-loam to Sandy loam but predominantly sandy clay loam. The
hydraulic conductivity varied from 1.06 – 2.25 for the entire field, the second point at depth of
15 – 30cm had the highest conductivity value; point 1 had the highest initial moisture content
and porosity value.

Table 1: The result of soil analysis

Point Depth(c USDA Tex %cla %sil %san T. Vol. MC Ks(cm/se
s m) class y t d Porosity % c)
sandy clay
1 0-15 loam 24 20 56 0.426 0.146 1.24
sandy clay
15-30 loam 20 20 60 0.389 0.135 2.02
2 0-15 sandy loam 22 18 60 0.396 0.125 2.02
sandy clay
15-30 loam 24 20 56 0.411 0.114 2.25
sandy clay
3 0-15 loam 26 14 60 0.475 0.106 1.06
15-30 sandy loam 23 15 62 0.491 0.098 2.24
sandy clay
4 0-15 loam 24 20 56 0.226 0.134 1.43
sandy clay
15-30 loam 20 20 60 0.289 0.110 1.86
5 0-15 sandy loam 22 18 60 0.396 0.125 2.00
sandy clay
15-30 loam 24 20 56 0.141 0.103 1.70
sandy clay
6 0-15 loam 26 14 60 0.275 0.106 2.01
15-30 sandy loam 23 15 62 0.291 0.090 1.12

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3.2 Infiltration data

Table 2: Cumulative infiltration and elapsed time for the six points
Cumulative infiltration(cm) at six points
Transformed
Time(hr) time √ (hr1/2) Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5 Point 6
0.05 0.22 1.80 1.60 1.80 1.40 1.30 2.00
0.08 0.29 3.30 2.60 2.50 2.30 1.90 3.00
0.17 0.41 3.80 3.60 3.00 4.00 3.40 4.50
0.33 0.58 4.80 6.10 4.20 5.60 5.40 7.00
0.50 0.71 6.30 7.60 5.90 6.90 6.40 8.50
0.75 0.87 7.90 9.10 7.20 8.70 8.10 10.50
1.00 1.00 8.90 12.10 8.20 9.70 9.90 12.60
1.50 1.22 10.40 14.60 10.40 12.20 12.00 14.60
2.00 1.41 12.40 16.10 11.80 14.30 13.10 16.10
2.50 1.58 13.90 17.70 14.40 15.80 14.60 18.10
3.00 1.73 15.30 19.50 15.50 17.10 16.50 19.10
3.50 1.87 16.30 20.50 16.40 18.10 17.90 20.30
4.00 2.00 16.80 20.90 17.20 18.40 18.90 20.80

25.00 y = 8.4779x + 0.3161

The graph of I vs t1/2 y = 11.373x - 0.4631
y = 9.0108x - 0.5151
Cumulative Infiltration(cm)

20.00 y = 9.8447x - 0.1755

y = 9.8505x - 0.5741
15.00 y = 10.79x + 0.5526

10.00
Point 1

5.00 Point 2
Point 3
0.00 Point 4
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 point 5
Transformed time(hr1/2)
Point 6

Figure 1: The linear plots of cumulative infiltration versus transformed time

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3.3 Comparison of estimated sorptivity values

Table 3: Estimated sorptivity values from Philip‘s model and Pedotransfer functions
Points Estimated Sorptivity Estimated Sorptivity Estimated Sorptivity
factor by Philip’s Model factor by PTF factor by PTF
Rawls Brooks-Corey
1 8.48 9.44 4.79
2 11.37 11.13 4.40
3 9.01 11.58 4.48
4 9.85 8.27 3.11
5 9.85 9.24 3.06
6 10.79 8.92 3.02

Table 4: Values of t-test and RMSE

No. of Obs Mean Variance Deg of Freedom Tcal Tcrit @ 0.01 RMSE
Rawls 6 9.76 1.698 10 0.186 3.169 1.525
BC 6 3.81 0.687 10 10.982 3.169 6.253

From Table 3 the sorptivity factor, in the Philip‘s model, varied from 8.48 to 11.37, that
of Rawls ranged from 8.92 to 11.58 which is close to Philip‘s model but a little higher and
Brooks-Corey‘s ranged from 3.02 to 4.79. From table 4, the statistical analysis at p < 0.01
showed that there are no significant differences between the sorptivity factor from the Philip‘s
model and the one estimated by Rawls PTF but there was a high significant difference between
the sorptivity factor from the Philip‘s model and the one estimated by Brooks-Corey PTF. The
value of the RMSE from Rawls is 1.525 and that of BC is 6.253 which are obviously larger than
that of Rawls. The result partially agrees with that obtained by Haghighi et al., (2010), they
evaluated infiltration characteristics and some parameters of infiltration models such as
sorptivity and final steady infiltration, they observed that the estimated sorptivity factor by
Philip‘s model was significantly different to those estimated by Rawls and BC PTFs and
suggested that the applicability of PTFs is limited to specific conditions.

Conclusion
The determined sorptivity factor is a variable parameter under field conditions, the
estimated values of sorptivity factor by Philip‘s model was significantly different for Brook-
Corey PTF but not different for Rawls PTF, this means Rawls PTF predicted sorptivity factor
better that Brook-Corey‘s under this field condition. Soil spatial variability has an appreciable
effect on infiltration properties and hydraulic parameters that need to be evaluated in more detail.
unsaturated porous materials‖
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References
Angelaki A., Sakellariou M., Tzimopoulos C. and Yannopoulos S. (2004). Estimation of
Sorptivity at a Sandy Soil Sample. Protection and Restoration of the Environment Vii –
Mykonos2004
Bouma J, Finke P A. (1993) ―Origin and nature of soil resource variability‖ Site-Specific
Management for Agricultural Systems. Madison, Wisconsin: ASA, CSSA, SSSA; 1993.
pp. 3–13.
Brooks R.H., Corey A.T., (1964) ―Hydraulic properties of porous media‖ Hydrology paper 3.
Colorado St Univ, Fort Collins, USA.
Doerr S.H., Shakesby R.A., Dekker L.W., Ritsema C.J. 2006. Occurrence prediction and
hydrological effects of water repellency amongst major soil and land-use types in a
humid temperate climate. European Journal of Soil Science, 57: 741–754.
Fasinmirin J. T. (2012) ―Determination of Water Repellency Index and Contact Angle of Soils of
Three Agro-Ecological Zones of Ondo State, Nigeria‖ Journal of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology (JAET), Volume 20 (No. 1) June, 2012.
Haghighi F., M. Gorji, M. Shorafa, F. Sarmadian and M. H. Mohammadi (2010) ―Evaluation of
some infiltration models and hydraulic parameters‖ Spanish Journal of Agricultural
Research 2010 8(1), 210-217
Maidment, D.R., (Editor in Chief), (1993), Handbook of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, 1424 pages.
(Translated into Chinese in 2002, and distributed there by www.sciencep.com).
Philip, John R (1957). "The theory of infiltration: 4. Sorptivity and algebraic infiltration
equations". Soil Science 84: 257–264.

Rawls W.J., (1992) Infiltration and soil water movement. In: Handbook of Hydrology, Chapter 5
(Maidment D.R.), McGraw-Hill. Inc, USA.

Singh A. K. (2000) Use of pedotransfer functions in crop growth simulations. J Water Manage.
2000;8:18–21.
Ungaro F, Calzolari C, Busoni E. (2005) ―Development of pedotransfer functions using a group
method of data handling for the soil of the Pianura Padano–Veneta region of North Italy:
water retention properties‖ Geoderma. 2005;124:293–317.

Youngs E.G., (1964) ―An infiltration method measuring the hydraulic conductivity of Jourrnal of
Soil Science 97, 307-311.

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DETERMINATION OF PROPAGATION PATH-LOSS FOR WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION NETWORK SERVICE IMPROVEMENT IN A
NIGERIAN HILLY ENVIRONMENT

John A. Onipe
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Kogi State Polytechnic, PMB 1101, Lokoja, Kogi State
[email protected], 08038571719
Abstract
Mobile communication is a major driver of Information and Communication Technology which
in turn drives the nation towards development. Proper planning of mobile network services is
therefore very important, especially in a hilly terrain, to mitigate the signal path losses caused
by irregular terrain and to ensure a satisfactory quality of service. Accurate path-loss
propagation model is an important tool for effective Radio Frequency (RF) planning. Therefore,
the model must be site-specific. In this research, path-loss measured from selected environments
at 3G frequency in the hilly Okene area of Kogi State, Nigeria, was compared with predictions
from different path-loss models (Free space, COST-231, Hata, Egli and ECC-33). The Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE) of the predicted path-loss was used to modify the original model to
develop new and accurate model for each environment. The New Models for the Urban and
Rural environments showed deviations (RMSE) of 10.25dB and 14.47dB respectively. These
show significant improvement over the original models. However, the Hata model RMSE of
13.27dB is found to be the least deviation model for the Suburban environment.

Keywords— Path-loss model, ICT, RF Planning, Network, Hilly, RMSE

Introduction
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is highly indispensable to development in
every sector of our national life. Its impacts on the economy, government, commerce, education,
market structure and the other sections of the society are enormous, especially in developing
nations like Nigeria in the 21st century (Oladimeji & Folayan, 2018; Roztocki et al., 2019). A
major instrument for ICT is wireless communication or GSM (General System for Mobile)
communication, which is the transfer of information (audio, video and data) in the form of
electromagnetic (EM) wave from the transmitter to the receiver (Onuu & Usanga, 2017). The
major providers of GSM services in Nigeria are the MTN, Globacom, Airtel and 9mobile. They
also provide internet services upon which the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) is predicated.

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Network Services in several places in Nigeria, especially the rural areas and irregular terrain
environments, are relatively poor (Tonga, 2017; Onipe et al., 2020). This problem impacts
adversely on the various sectors of the society and consequently hampers national development.
Mitigating this problem requires effective Radio Frequency (RF) Planning and management for
continuous satisfactory service delivery regardless of the type of environment - Urban, Suburban,
Rural, Flatland or Hilly. This helps to determine the suitable specifications of equipment, area of
coverage, appropriate location of Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and effective transmission
frequency assignment. Subsequently, RF Planning becomes a routine activity for detecting
degradation in network performance and optimizing the network for improved quality of service
(QoS) (Onipe et al., 2020).
One of the most effective RF Planning tool is the Propagation Path-loss Model. Path-loss (PL) is
the power losses experienced by EM waves traveling along the air interface (path) from the
transmitter (BTS) to the receiver (Orike et al., 2017). Factors responsible for these losses include
Free Space propagation, environmental effects (reflection, diffraction, scattering), topography,
multipath, vehicle penetration, refraction, environment types, terrain types, building types,
atmosphere and vegetation (Tarkaa et al., 2017).
Mathematically, Path-loss, PL, is given by,
PL (dB) = Pt(dB) – Pr(dB) (1)
where Pt and Pr are Transmitted power and Received power respectively.
A Path-loss model is a set of mathematical equations developed for path-loss prediction in
definite areas (Worgu et al., 2017). Depending on the method employed in its development, a
model may be described as stochastic (statistical) if series of random variables were used for its
development, deterministic if it is developed from physical laws of EM wave propagation and
empirical if developed from field measurements (Mollel & Kisangiri, 2014). Some of the path-
loss models used in literature all over the world is Okumura model, Hata model, Egli model,
COST-231 model, ECC-33 model and Standard University Interim (SUI) model. Each of them is
limited in terms of operating frequency range, environment type, distance range, BTS and mobile
Receiver antenna height ranges.

The aim of this study is to develop propagation models for predicting signal path-loss at mobile
network frequencies in the hilly environments of Okene in Kogi State of Nigeria. The area is
characterized by peculiar series of irregular mountains with poor mobile network performance in
many parts. Field measurements of MTN Network signals were used for the study because MTN
has a relatively wider coverage compared with the other Networks (Glo, Airtel and 9mobile)
present in Okene area. Although two network types, 2G (900MHz and 1800MHz) and 3G
(2100MHz), were present as at the time of this study, the work was limited to 3G (2100MHz)
only because it was the latest of the two technologies. 4G network is yet to be installed. Signal
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strength field measurements were used to calculate the field measured path-loss in three selected
environments in the area. The measured path-loss was compared with calculated path-loss from
selected models for degree of predictability. From thence, more accurate path-loss prediction
models were developed for those environments by modifying the existing models.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The problem that motivated this research is
discussed in Section II. Path-loss Prediction models used in this study are discussed in Section III
with a brief literature review of some related works. Section IV describes the Materials and
methods employed to achieve the objectives of this work. Section V is the Results analysis and
Discussion of the modeling process. The new models are then evaluated for performance analysis.
Lastly, Section VI is the Conclusion.
Problem Statement
The study area is a highly mountainous area and network signal reception is generally poor in
many parts. An accurate path-loss model for each of the environments in the area is important for
existing and intending network operators to carry out necessary proper planning, design,
management and optimization. The most recent published literature on path-loss models for
Okene area utilized field measurements from 9mobile network which does not have a wide spread
of BTS. MTN has a wider coverage in the area. Therefore, measurements of MTN signal strength
will be best for developing more accurate path-loss models for the environments.
Path-Loss Models
The path-loss models used in this study are discussed below.
Free Space Path-loss (PLF) is given in (Mohamed, 2018) as:
PLF (dB) = 32.44 + 20log10(f) + 20log10(d) (2)
where f is the propagation frequency in MHz and d is the transmitter-receiver separation in km.
Okumura model path-loss (PLOk) was expressed in (Orike et al., 2017) as:
PLOk (dB) = PLF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA
(3) where Amu(f,d) is the median attenuation relative to free space; G(hte) is the transmitter antenna
height gain; G(hre) is the receiver antenna height gain; GAREA is the gain due to environment type
obtainable from Okumura graph.
G(hte) = 20log (ht /200), 1000m > ht > 30m; (3a)
G(hre) = 10log(hr /3), hr ≤ 3m (3b)
G(hre) = 20log(hr /3), 10m > hr > 3m (3c)
f : 150MHz to 1920MHz; d: 1km to 100km; Transmit antenna height (hte): 30m to 1000m.
Hata Model Path-loss (or Okumura-Hata model) is based on Okumura data to provide a standard
empirical formula for path-loss calculation instead of Okumura graph (Onipe et al., 2020). Hata
Model path-loss (PLHATA) is given by
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PLH ATA(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log f – 13.82log ht – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d (4)
where a(hr) is a correction factor for effective mobile antenna height given by
For medium sized city, by
a(hr) = (1.1logf – 0.7)hr) – (1.56log f – 0.8)dB (4a)
For a large city,
a(hr) = 8.29(log 1.54 hr)2 – 1.1 dB (f ≤ 300 MHz) (4b)
2
a(hr) = 3.2(log 1.75 hr) – 4.97 dB (f ≥300 MHz) (4c)
COST-231-Hata model is an extension of Hata model to a frequency of 2GHz, and is given by:
PLCost231 (dB) = 46.3 + 33.9log f – 13.28log (ht) – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d + CM
(5)
Where CM = { (5a)

Egli path-loss model is given by Eichie et al., 2017:

PLegli (dB) = 76.3 – 20 log10 ht + 10 log10 hr + 40 log d + 20 log f (6)
The Electronic Communication Committee (ECC-33) path-loss model was an extrapolation of
the Okumura model for frequencies higher than 3GHz up to 3.5GHz and is given by (Worgu et
al., 2017) as:
PLECC33 = Afs + Abm – Gt – Gr (7)
Where the Free Space attenuation (dB), Afs = 92.4 + 20 log (d) + 20 log (f) (7a)
2
Basic median path loss (dB), Abm = 20.41 + 9.83log(d) + 7.894log(f) + 9.56[log(f)]
(7b)
2
Gt: = log(ht){13.958 + 5.8[log(d)] } (7c)
For medium cities, Gr = [42.57+13.7log(f)][log(hr) – 0.585] (7d)
For large city Gr = 0.759hr – 1.862 (7e)
Several works have been completed by various researchers on development of suitable path-
loss models for different environments. Hoomod et al. (2018) analyzed four propagation models
(Hata, ECC-33, Ericsson and COST-231) and compared with measured data in an urban and a
rural environment in Iraq. The results show that Hata and Ericsson models perform better in
predicting path-loss at 0.8GHz for the urban environment while the Hata model gives better
prediction in the rural environment. In their study on path-loss models optimization for a
mountainous area, Onipe et al. (2020), compared the predictability of five path-loss models for
the urban, suburban and rural environments in Okene in Kogi State of Nigeria. By using the
RMSE method, the authors developed optimized path-loss models for each of the environments
based on data collected from 9mobile 3G (2100MHz) network. Musefiu et al. (2017) compared
the performances of COST-231, Okumura-Hata and ECC-33 models in path-loss prediction for
Kazaure Town in Jigawa State of Nigeria. The models predictions were compared with the signal

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path-loss measurements from Etisalat, MTN, Glo and Airtel Networks at 900MHz. COST-231
model was found to perform better than the other two for all the Networks considered.

Materials and Method

Okene is a town in Okene Local Government Area (LGA) of Kogi State, North-Central Nigeria.
The LGA is located at latitude 7.55122 and longitude 6.23589 and t he altitude ranges from
384m to 496m. The area is generally a mountainous area with residential and commercial
buildings situated in-between mountains. The density of both human and vehicle traffic
decreases from urban to rural areas. The average BTS antenna height ranges from 30m to 40m
and average transmitting power is 40W. The selected areas for investigation were Okene town,
Okengwe and Agasa which are good representatives of the urban, suburban and rural
environments respectively. Radio frequency network analyzer (Cellmapper) was installed in a
smart phone (Itel P33 plus) to measure received signal strength in dBm, Cell ID and transmit
frequency in MHz. The installed GPS Tool application reads the location data and altitude of the
measurement points. The MTN 3G (2100MHz) network was used for the study because it has a
relatively wider coverage than the rest networks.

Data Collection and Analysis

Drive Test campaign was conducted to collect RSS data and the average values at various
distances from the serving BTS were recorded. The locations of the serving Cell Towers and the
various measurement points were recorded. The campaign was carried out in the months of
October and November, 2019.

Tx-Rx Separation calculations

The distance, d in km, between the BTS and the measurement points was computed using the
Haversine formula given as (Worgu et al., 2017):

d = 2r sin-1 (√ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )) (8)

where θ1 and θ2 are latitudes and φ1 and φ2 are longitudes of the Cell towers and the
measurement points respectively; r is the radius of the earth (= 6371km).

Measured and Calculated Path-loss

Measured Path-loss (PLm) is calculated from
PLm(dBm) = EIRPt(dBm) – Pr(dBm) (9)
where EIRPt is the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power of the transmitter and Pr is the received
signal power (Eichie et al., 2017).
Free Space, COST-231, Hata, Egli and ECC-33 models path-loss are predicted by equation 2,
equation 4, equation 5, equation 6 and equation 7 respectively.
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Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
The predictability of each model with respect to measured path-loss is determined by the MAPE
which is calculated by (Lin & Maw, 2018):
| ( ) ( )|
MAPE = *(∑ ( )) + *100% (10)
( )
The closeness of the calculated path-loss to the measured path-loss is determined by the RMSE
equation (Hoomod et al., 2018):
[ ( ) ( )]
RMSE = √∑ (11)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The variations of Received Signal Strength with distance are shown in Figures 1 to 3. The
irregular shape of the graph reflects the shadowing effect of hills and mountains in the
environment.
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
-10
Received Signal Strength (dBm)

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90

-100

Tx-Rx Distance (km)

Figure 1: Received Signal Strength variation with Distance for the Urban
Environment

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0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

-20
Received Signal Strength (dBm)

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
Tx-Rx Distance (km)

Figure 2: Received Signal Strength variation with Distance for the Suburban
Environment

0
Received Signal Strength (dBm)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
Tx-Rx Distance (km)

Figure 3: Received Signal Strength variation with Distance for the Rural
Environment

Figure 4 and 6 below shows the graphical representations of measured path loss compared with
calculated path-loss against distance.

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150

130
Path-loss (dBm)

110

90

70 PLm PLfspl
PLcost231 PLhata
50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Tx-Rx Distance (km)
Figure 4: Measured Path-loss compared with Calculated Path-loss for the Urban Environment

140

120
Path-loss (dBm)

100

80
PLm PLfspl
60 PLcost231 PLhata
PLegli Log. (PLm)
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Tx-Rx Distance (km)
Figure 5: Measured Path-loss compared with Calculated Path-loss for the Suburban
Environment

160

140
Path-loss (dBm)

120

100
PLm PLfspl
80 PLcost231 PLhata
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tx-Rx Distance (km)
Figure 6: Measured Path-loss compared with Calculated Path-loss for the Rural Environment

The predictability of the models for each environment is shown in Figures 7 to 9. The
predictability of ECC-33 model is excessively high for the three environments.

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140 140 132.64

120 107.16 120.04

Mean Absolute Percentage

Mean Absolute Percentage

120 120
100
Mean Absolute Percentage Error

100

Error(MAPE) %

Error(MAPE) %
100
80
80 80
60 60
60
MAPE) %

40 40 40
17.22 13.31
11.53 13.88 19.44 10.34 10.2 16.05 18.54 10.58
20 9.2 20 20 9.89

0 0 0

Figure 7: Predictability (MAPE) Figure 8: Predictability (MAPE) Figure 9: Predictability (MAPE) of

of Selected Models for Urban of Selected Models for Suburban Selected Models for Rural
Environment Environment Environment

MODIFICATION PROCESS
Table 1 shows the calculated RMSE of the reference models. The RMSE of ECC-33 model
shows over-prediction by that model. The Free Space model does not capture the contributions
of the other causes of path-loss. Therefore, both ECC-33 and Free Space were found unsuitable
for modification to develop accurate path-loss models for the area.
For each environment, the RMSE of each model was subtracted (or added) to the original model
equation to obtain a new model. The new model is used to predict new path-loss values. The
RMSE of the new model is compared with that of the original and with the RMSEs of the other
models. The model with the least deviation (RMSE) is confirmed to be the most accurate model
for that environment.
Table 1: RMSE of the Calculated Path-loss Before and After Modification
Environment Status Free COST- Hata Egli ECC-
Space 231(dB) (dB) (dB) 33
(dB) (dB)
Urban RMSE before 20.55 16.99 14.98 12.29 126.85
modification
RMSE after 10.25dB 10.43 13.03
modification
Suburban RMSE before 17.88 22.4 13.27 14.2 133.31
modification
RMSE after 13.45 16.21 19.53
modification
Rural RMSE before 24.65 24.35 14.72 14.53 161.78
modification
RMSE after 14.47 16.87 18.28
modification

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From Table 1, COST-231 gives the least RMSE of 10.25dB after modification by subtracting
16.99dB from the original equation (see equation 12). Therefore, the new model for the urban
environment is given by equation 13.
PLUrban (dB) = 46.3 + 33.9log f – 13.28log (ht) – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d – (16.99)
(12)
PLUrban (dB) = 29.31 + 33.9log f – 13.28log (ht) – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d
(13)
Figure 10 is the plot of the new Path-loss Model (PLUrban) compared to the Measured path-loss
for the urban area.
For the suburban environment, it can be seen from Table 1 that the least RMSE after
modification process was 13.45dB obtained from COST-231 model. However, this is still higher
than the RMSE of the unmodified Hata model (13.27dB). Therefore, the unadjusted Hata model
is more accurate for the suburban area and is given by Equation 14.
PLsuburban(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log f – 13.82log ht – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d
(14)

For the Rural environment, the modification process is shown in Equation 15 to yield the new
Path-loss model Equation 16. Figure 11 is the graphical comparison of the new model prediction
with the measured path-loss.
PLRural (dB) = 46.3 + 33.9log f – 13.28log (ht) – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d – (24.35)
(15)
PLRural (dB) = 21.95 + 33.9log f – 13.28log (ht) – a(hr) + (44.9 – 6.55log ht)log d
(16)
150
160
130
Path-loss (dBm)

140
110
Path-loss (dBm)

120
90
100
PLm
70 PLm
80 PLcost231
50 60
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 2 4 6
Tx-Rx Distance (km) Tx-Rx Distance (km)
Figure 10: Measured Path-loss compared with Figure 11: Measured Path-loss compared with
New Path-lossfor the Urban Environment New Path-loss for the Rural Environment

Generally, the graphical plots of the results shown in Figures 1 to 6 clearly indicate the effects of
mountains which are the major causes of path-loss in the area. Other contributing factors are the
BTS location, vehicle penetration in the urban area, trees in the rural area and buildings.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The research work was able to develop more accurate empirical path-loss propagation models for
planning and optimizing mobile communication networks for addressing the poor quality of
services in the hilly Okene environments. The New Models for Urban and Rural environments
have RMSEs of 10.25dB and 14.47dB respectively, while Hata model with RMSE of 13.27
remains the best for the suburban area. The deviations (RMSEs) of the developed models lie
within the acceptable range which is 1dB ≤ PL ≤ 20dB (Tonga, 2017). The new Path-loss
Models will be useful for Mobile Network providers for planning and optimization of their
services in Okene area of Kogi State, Nigeria.
For future works, it is recommended that the combined path-loss due to all the available
Networks at the same frequency should be employed for the optimization process in order to
obtain better representative models for the mountainous environment.

REFERENCES
Akujobi, E., Nosiri, O., & Lazarus, U. (2016). Path Loss Characterization of 3G Wireless Signal
for Urban and Suburban Environments in Port Harcourt City, Nigeria. International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) , 03 (03), 16-22.
Ebhota, V. C., Isabona, J., & Srivastava, V. M. (2018). Modelling, Simulation and Analysis of
Signal Pathloss for 4G Cellular Network Planning. Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences , 13 (7), 1907-1918.
Eichie, J. O., Oyedum, O. D., Ajewole, M. O., & Aibinu, A. M. (2017). Comparative analysis of
basic models and artificial neural network based model for path loss prediction. Progress
In Electromagnetics Research , 61, 133-146.
Hoomod, H. K., Al-Mejibli, I., & Jabboory, A. I. (2018). Analyzing Study of Path-loss
Propagation Models in Wireless Communications at 0.8GHz. IOP Conference Series:
Journal of Physics: Conf. Series 1003 .
Iblaze, A. E., Imoize, A. L., Ajose, S. O., John, S. N., Ndujiuba, C. U., & Idachaba, F. E. (2017).
An Empirical Propagation Model for Path Loss Prediction at 2100MHz in a Dense Urban
Environment. Indian Journal of Science and Technology , 10 (5), 1-9.
Inoize, A. L., & Oseni, A. I. (2019). Investigation and Path-loss Modeling of Fourth Generation
Long Term Evolution Network along Major Highways in Lagos, Nigeria. Ife Journal of
Science (IJS) , 21 (1).
Lin, K. Z., & Maw, M. M. (2018). Empirical Outdoor Propagation Model for Sub-Urban: A Case
Study Patheingyi Township in MANDALAY. 2018 Joint International Conference on
Science, Technology and Innovation, Mandalay by IEEE , 1-5.
Mohamed, I. (2018). Path-Loss Estimation for Wireless Cellular Networks Using Okumura/Hata
Model. Science Journal of Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing , 7 (1), 20-27.
Mollel, M. S., & Kisangiri, M. (2014). Comparison of Empirical Propagation Path Loss Models
for Mobile Communication. Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems , 5, 1-10.
Musefiu, A., Tonga, A. D., & Jafaru, I. (2017, March 23-24). Determination Of Path Loss Of
Gsm Signal In Kazaure Town. Proceedings of 99th The IIER International Conference .
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Okor, R. C., & Iwuji, P. C. (2019.). Investigation of GSM Signal Strength in Rural Communities
in the South-Eastern Region of Nigeria. European Scientific Journal , 15, 140-152.
Oladimeji, T. T., & Folayan, G. B. (2018). ICT and Its Impact on National Development In
Nigeria: An Overview. Research & Reviews: Journal of Engineering and Technology , 7
(1), 5-10.
Onipe, J. A., Alenoghena, C. O., Salawu, N., & Paulson, E. N. (2020). Optimal Propagation
Models for Path-loss Prediction in a Mountainous Environment at 2100MHz. 2020
International Conference in Mathematics, Computer Engineering and Computer Science
(ICMCECS) , 1-6.
Onuu, M. U., & Usanga, E. M. (2017). Path Loss Prediction for Some GSM Networks for Akwa-
Ibom State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Researches in Engineering: D Aerospace Science ,
17 (2).
Orike, S., Elechi, P., & Ekanem, I. A. (2017). Assessment and Modeling of GSM Signal
Propagation in Uyo, Nigeria. European Journal of Engineering Research and Science , 2
(11), 49-58.
Roztocki, N., Soja, P., & Weistro, H. R. (2019). The Role of Information and Communication
Technologies in Socio-economic Development: Towards a Multi-dimensional Framework.
Information Technology for Development , 25 (2), 171-183.
Shoewu, O., Salau, N. O., Ogunlewe, A. O., & Oborkhale, L. I. (2016). Path Loss Measurement
And Modeling For Lagos State G.S.M Environments. Review of Computer Engineering
Research , 3 (4), 69-81.
Tarkaa, N. S., Agbo, V. A., & Oglegba, S. O. (2017). Radio Propagation Path-loss Analysis for
an Operative GSM Network. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES)
, 6 (9), 53-67.
Tonga, D. A. (2017, December 24). Path Loss Propagation Model Prediction for GSM Mobile
Networks in Nigeria. First International Conference on Information Technology,
Communications and Computing (ICITCC 2017) .
Worgu, S., Ajumo, S. G., & Odu, N. N. (2017). Comparative Evaluation of the Pathloss
Prediction Performance Hata-Okumura Pathloss Model for Urban, Suburban and Rural
Areas. International Journal of Systems Science and Applied Mathematics , 2 (1), 42-50.

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Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

EFFECT OF SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT ON ELASTICITY OF

ZA5 SOLDER ALLOY

Adedayo A. V. 1,2
1
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria
2
Materials Science and Engineering Department, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
Zinc-Aluminum (ZA) alloys are important industrial alloys which are gaining widespread use for
many industrial applications due to their excellent castability and cutting machinability. Since
they were introduced in the early 1970s, various investigations have been carried out on this
family of engineering materials to broaden the scope of areas where they can be usefully
applied. While many investigations have been carried out on many of the ZA alloy materials,
only few studies have reported investigations on ZA5. Therefore, this study investigated elasticity
of ZA5 alloy. Elasticity of ZA5 solution heat treated were investigated. ZA5 alloy material was
prepared in the laboratory and cast into rods of 15 mm diameter and 200 mm length. A sample
of the cast rods was solution heat treated at 100ºC for 6 hours, while another untreated sample
which served as control was also prepared. The samples were evaluated for elongation on the
Universal testing machine. Results showed that ZA5 alloy material exhibits superplastic
behavior at low flow stress. Solution heat treatment performed on the alloy significantly modified
the structure of the alloy. In general, solution heat treatment of ZA5 alloy for 6 hours at 100oC
influenced the properties of the alloy material.
Keywords: Solutionizing, Tensile strength, Fracture energy, Elongation

1.0 Introduction
Solders are used in plumbing, electronics, and many other metalworks. Soldering provides
reasonably permanent but reversible connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems as
well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile
radiators. Through these means, lead can get leached into the environment. As a way to cub this,
regulations such as the European RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive) are
being introduced (UK Government, 2019). Also, efforts are being made to develop other solder
alloys with no lead content or with drastically reduced lead content. Of the Zinc-Aluminum (ZA)
family, only ZA8, ZA12, and ZA27 are well known, and their physical/ mechanical properties
well documented (Adedayo, 2019). Information on properties of ZA5 are scarce, and information
on properties of ZA5 solution heat treated at low temperatures is more scare. Considering
working conditions of most electronic devices, electronic devices can be inadvertently heated are
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exposed to high temperature by prolonged current flow due to continuous usage. Therefore,
information on the influence of temperature on microstructure stability, and change in
mechanical characteristics of bulk solder alloys is of practical importance (Seenappa and Karma,
2011). Particularly information on elasticity of ZA5 alloy will be very useful for design and
material selection for joining in electronic works. Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a
distorting influence and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is
removed (Landau and Lipshitz, 1970; Treloar, 1975 ; Sadd, 2005). This property is important in
electronic devices as it determines the extent to which a solder material can elongate without
electrical contact with other components in the device.

Therefore, this study seeks to generate information on elasticity of solutionized ZA5 solder alloy.
Generally, understanding mechanical properties of materials is very important (Roylance, 2001;
University of Cambridge, 2018; American Society for Metals, 1972) to provide knowledge
which is vital and useful for design and many other important engineering applications.

2.0 Materials and Experimental Procedure

The material used for the study is Zinc-Aluminum alloy (ZA5). This material was produced by
melting together and casting zinc and aluminum metals. About 9Kg of Zinc metal scrap was
melted in a lift-out crucible furnace, after which about 0.5Kg of Aluminum was dissolved in the
molten zinc metal. The molten metal alloy mixture produced was cast into rods of 15mm
diameter and 200mm length in sand molds. The quantitative elemental chemical analysis of the
cast rods was carried out with optical emission spectrometer. Result of the chemical analysis test
is presented in Table 1. Produced cast rods were machined into ASTM standard tensile test
pieces, on a lathe machine for tensile testing on the Universal Testing Machine. Two test pieces
were produced from the cast rods. One test piece served as control specimen, while the other test
piece was heat treated at a temperature of 100ºC for 6 hours, after which the sample was
removed and quickly quenched in water maintained at a temperature of 10ºC. Both rods were
then evaluated for elasticity on Universal Testing Machine. The result from the Universal
Testing Machine produced stress-strain graphs of the tested samples which were obtained for
further analysis.

Results and Discussion

The results of the study are presented in Table 1and Figures 1 to 4. Table 1 presents the results of
the elemental chemical analysis of the produced ZA5 alloy. Figures 1 and 3 show the stress-
strain curves for the untreated (control) sample and the solutionized sample respectively. The
microstructures of the control and the treated samples are presented in Figures 2 and 4
respectively.
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Table 1: Chemical composition of the ZA5 alloy

Mn Si Cu P Cr Ni V B Al Mg Na
Mean 0.13 0.12 1.47 <0.0005 0.005 0.12 0.002 0.0135 15.4104 0.0005 <0.0001
(Conc.
%)
Ca Ti Zr Fe Ag Zn Sn Sb Pb Co
Mean 0.0003 0.003 0.001 0.036 0.035 >79.0 0.002 - 3.74 0.004
(Conc.
%)

Figure 1: Stress-Strain curve for control sample

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500 µm

Figure 2: Microstructure of control sample

Figure 3: Stress-Strain curve for solutionized sample

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500 µm

Figure 4: Microstructure of solutionized sample

Table 1, the result of elemental chemical analysis shows that Zn (79 Conc.%) and Al (15
Conc.%) are the major elements in the alloy, with very low percentages of Pb (3 Conc. %).
Figures 1 and 3 present stress-strain curve (tensile test) results measured by the Universal testing
machine. The result shows that the curves are concave-up/J-type (Roylance, 2001; University of
Cambridge, 2018). For these types of stress-strain curves, Loading and unloading occurs along
the same curve, i.e. the loading is completely reversible and elastic (Robi et al., 2013). This
ensures that all the energy used in extending the system is returned once the load is removed.
These plots show that the ZA5 samples behave in such a way that they do not show any
significant plastic deformation, but fail while the deformation is still elastic.

For metals and other materials that have a significant straight line portion in their stress-strain
diagram, elastic limit is approximately equal to proportional limit. For materials that do not
exhibit a significant proportional limit, elastic limit is an arbitrary approximation of apparent
elastic limit (MIT, 2019), which is the arbitrary approximation of the elastic limit of materials
that do not have a significant straight line portion on a stress/strain diagram. It is equal to the
stress at which the rate of strain is 50% greater than at zero stress. It is the stress at the point of
tangency between the stress-elastic Hysteresis strain curve and the line having a slope, with
respect to the stress axis, 50% greater than the slope of the curve at the origin. For this study, the
tensile strains at break are 2.5 and 1.7 % for untreated and treated samples respectively.

Figures 2 and 4 present the micrographs of the samples. The microstructure of the solutionized
specimen contain fine and stable grain size of the aluminum-rich (α-phase) and zinc-rich (β-

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phase) terminal solid solutions superplastic microstructure formed during solution treatment of
the alloy at 100ºC (American Society for Metals, 1972). Superplastic states have been reported
to improve materials mechanical properties (Seenappa and Karma, 2011; American Society for
Metals, 1972). The presence of superplastic structure is confirmed in the micrograph of solution
heat treated sample presented in Figure 4.

Conclusion
The result of the study shows that the stress-strain curve for the ZA5 cast alloy samples is
concave-up/J-type. For these type of curves, loading and unloading occurs along the same curve,
and the loading is completely reversible and elastic. This ensures that all the energy used in
extending the system is returned once the load is removed. This implies that the material failed
while the deformation is still elastic. This alloy in the as cast and solution heat treated states;
exhibits superplastic condition, where low flow stresses brings about high elongation in the
material. By Solution heat treatment at 100ºC for 6 hours, properties of the ZA5 alloy can be
improved. In general, solution heat treatment of ZA5 alloy for 6 hours at 100C influenced the
properties of the alloy material.

References
Adedayo, A.V. (2019), Effects of 600 Microns Particles of Egg Shell on Elongation of Zinc-
Aluminum (ZA27) Alloy, 7th Annual Conference of School of Engineering Technology,
Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Edo State, 22nd to 24th May, 2019
American Society for Metals, (1972), Atlas of Microstructures of Industrial Alloys, Metal
Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 7; American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, pp. 337, 340
Landau, L. D & Lipshitz, E. M. (1970). Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., pp: 1–172.
MIT, (2019) Meaning of the parameters, Retrieved on September 7, 2019 from:
http://web.mit.edu/course/3/3.11/www/pset03/Definitions.pdf
Robi, K.; Jakob, N.; Matevz, K. & Matjaz, V. (2013) The Physiology of Sports Injuries and
Repair Processes, Current Issues in Sports and Exercise Medicine, Retrieved on January
21, 2020 from: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/5423477
Roylance, D. (2001) Stress-strain curves, Retrieved on August 1, 2019 from:
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-11-mechanics-of-
materials-fall-1999/modules/MIT3_11F99_ss.pdf
Sadd, M. H. (2005). Elasticity: Theory, Applications, and Numerics. Oxford: Elsevier.
ISBN 978-0-1237-4446-3.
Treloar, L. R. G. (1975). The Physics of Rubber Elasticity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-
0-1985-1355-1.

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UK Government (2019) Regulations: restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS) Guidance for

manufacturers, importers and distributors, Retrieved on December 8, 2019 from:
https://www.gov.uk/guidance/rohs-compliance-and-guidance
University of Cambridge, (2018) J-shaped Curves, Retrieved on August 3, 2019 from:
https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/bioelasticity/j-shaped-curves.php

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DETERMINATION OF LIBERATION SIZE OF AGBAJA IRON ORE

KOGI STATE NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

Ayoola J. O.1, Joseph O. F.2, Adino O. E.3 and Abayomi J. F. 4

1
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering, School of Engineering
Technology, Kogi State Polytechnic, Lokoja,Nigeria.
2,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering Technology, Kogi State
Polytechnic, Lokoja ,Nigeria.
Correspondence: +234 7031387408. [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This research work is focused on the Determination of Liberation Size of Agbaja iron ore deposit
in kogi state Nigeria. The techniques involved in the study were sample collection and
preparation, sieve analysis and chemical analysis of the field sample. The mesh of grind was
found to be 875 µm and the liberation size was established to be less than 250 µm sieve size
having the highest percentage of elemental iron composition of 36.59 and 35.91% iron content.
The study recommended further investigation on the separation of the iron ore using 250 µm and
other lesser sieve sizes for further upgrade of the ore.

Keywords: Comminution, Liberation size, Ore, Mesh of grind, Composition

I. INTRODUCTION
The enormous growth of industrialization from the eighteenth century onward led to dramatic
increases in the annual output of most mineral commodities, particularly metals. Iron is one of
the most common elements on earth. Nearly every structure put on by man contains at least a
little iron. It is also one of the oldest metals and was first fashioned into useful and ornamental
objects about 3,500 years ago (Lambert and Mark, 1988). Minerals by definition are natural
inorganic substances possessing definite chemical compositions and atomic structures. Many
minerals exhibit isomorphism, where substitution of atoms takes place without affecting the
atomic structure (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). Other minerals exhibit polymorphism; different
minerals having the same chemical composition but markedly different physical properties due
to a difference in crystal structures. One of the most important determining factors for
establishing Iron and steel plants is the availability of iron ore deposit with good geological,
mineralogical and metallurgical properties. There are two fundamental operations in mineral
processing namely; the release or liberation of the valuable minerals from their waste gangue

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minerals and separation of these valuables from the gangue, this latter process being known as
concentration. The liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue is accomplished by
comminution and one of the major objectives of comminution is the liberation of the valuable
minerals from the associated gangue minerals at the coarsest possible particle size. If such an aim
is achieved, then not only is energy saved by the reduction of the amount of fines produced but
any subsequent separation stages become easier and cheaper to operate.

Many researchers have tried to quantify degree of liberation with a view to predicting the
behaviour of particles in a separation process (Barbery, 1991). The first attempt at the
development of a model for the calculation of liberation was made by Gaudin (1939); King
(1982) developed an exact expression for the fraction of particles of a certain size that contained
less than a prescribed fraction of any particular mineral.

If high grade products are required then good liberation is essential in the process (Wills and
Atkinson, 1993). Iron as in the case of most minerals are finely disseminated and intimately
associated with gangues, which must be unlocked before separation can be undertaken. This is
achieved by comminution, in which the particle size of the ore is progressively reduced until the
particles of mineral can be separated by such methods as are available (Knecht, 1994).
Comminution in the mineral processing plant takes place as a sequence of crushing and grinding
processes carried out until the mineral and gangue are substantially produced as separate
particles (Flavel, 1978).

Crushing is the first mechanical stage in the process of comminution in which the main objective
is the liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue (Lewis et al, 1976). Crushing is
accomplished by compression of the ore against rigidly constrained motion path. This is
contrasted with grinding which is accomplished by abrasion and impact of the ore by the free
motion of unconnected media such as rods, balls or pebbles.

Grinding is the last stage in the process of comminution, in this stage the particles are reduced in
size by a combination of impact and abrasion, either dry or in suspension in water. It is
performed in rotating cylindrical steel vessels which contain a charge of loose crushing bodies.
(The grinding medium) which is free to move inside the mill, thus comminuting the ore particles.
According to the ways by which motion is imparted to the charge, grinding mills are generally
classified into two types: tumbling mills and stirred mills (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). Size
analysis of the various products after comminution of a concentrator constitutes a fundamental
part of laboratory testing procedure. It is of great importance in determining the quality of

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grinding and in establishing the degree of liberation of the values from the gangue of various
particle sizes (Barbery, 1972).
This is done, primarily to establish that particle size at which the various grains in an ore
happened to be free of each other, thus setting the stage for effective and efficient separation
process. This particular particle size is referred to as liberation size, which also should be at the
coarsest possible size to avoid energy waste through over grinding and hence saves a great deal
of cost.

II. LOCATIONAND GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

Agbaja is a locality of large iron ore deposit in Kogi State, North Central Nigeria. The iron ore
deposit is located on a plateau of latitude 7° 58‘58.7‖N and longitude 6° 38‘ 59.6‖E (Aluko etal.
2018) which is also 26.4 km from Lokoja the state capital. Agbaja iron ore is a channel iron ore
deposit (CID) located within the sub-horizontal to very shallow east dipping late cretaceous
Agbaja formation which is made up of an upper unit hosting ferruginous sandstone and
oolite/pisolite material (laterite unit) as shown in the geologic map of the study area in Fig. 1.

Fig 1. A geologic map of Nigeria showing the study area

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III. METHODOLODY
A. Sampling Method
Random sampling method was used to obtain bulk iron ore samples from agbaja deposit.
Lump sizes of the ore are collected from the face of the deposit at intervals of about 10 m apart.

B. Sample Preparation

The lump sizes of the ore collected were broken into sizes that can be fed into a laboratory size
jaw crusher using a sledge hammer. The samples were weighed for crushing and sieving and the
oversize produced was ground in a ball mill characterized to rotate at 60 r.p.m. Sieve analysis is
then carried out on the ground sample.

C. Mineralogical Composition

Scanning Electron Microscope SEM model JEOL 840 was used to analyze the sample for its
mineral constituent. All the samples were carbon coated in order to make the mineral surface
conductive and then mounted for analyses. Qualitative chemical analyses of minerals were
carried out using SEM/EDS to produce back scattered images (BSI). The result of the field
sample is shown in Table 1.

D. Sieve Analysis
Ten sets of sieves ranging from 2360 µm to 150 µm were used to carry out sieve analysis of the
crushed and ground ore sample. The mesh of the top sieve was loaded with 2.5 kg of the crushed
and ground ore and allowed to vibrate for 20 minutes. During the shaking, the undersize material
falls through successive sieves until it is retained on a sieve having apertures which were slightly
smaller than the diameter of the particles. After a successful operation each size fraction retained
on each sieve was collected weighed and value recorded.

IV. RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

A. Results Analysis

The results of various laboratory experiments carried out were analyzed and presented as
follows;

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Table 1. Elemental Composition of Field Sample

Element C O Al Si P Mn Fe Cu Ir
% Composition 3.61 52.50 3.94 2.70 1.28 0.07 35.48 0.07 0.35

Table 2. Result of Sieve Analysis of Crushed Ore Sample

Sieve Weight Weight Cumulative % Cumulative %
Sizes Retained Retained Weight Weight Passing
(µm) (g) (%) Retained
2360 1150.03 46.03 46.03 100.00
1700 331.46 13.26 59.29 53.97
850 458.55 18.35 77.64 40.71
600 156.21 6.25 83.89 22.36
425 110.60 4.42 88.31 16.11
300 76.48 3.06 91.37 11.69
250 36.70 1.46 92.83 8.63
180 47.88 1.91 94.74 7.17
150 23.68 0.94 95.68 5.26
-150 106.42 4.26 99.94 4.32

Table 3. Result of Sieve Analysis of Grinded Ore Sample

Sieve Weight Weight % Cumulative %Cumulative
Sizes Retained Retained (%) Weight Weight Passing
(µm) (g) Retained
2360 854.60 34.19 34.19 100.00
1700 401.69 16.07 50.26 65.81
850 285.16 11.40 61.66 49.74
600 189.82 7.59 69.25 38.34
425 150.79 6.00 75.25 30.75
300 131.51 5.26 80.51 24.75
250 112.05 4.48 84.99 19.49
180 124.78 4.99 89.98 15.01
150 91.06 3.64 93.62 10.02
-150 158.07 6.32 99.94 6.38

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120

100
% Cummulative Wgt. Passing

80

60

40

Cumulative % Weight Passing Crushed

20
Cumulative % Weight Passing Grinded

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sieve Size (µm)

Fig 2. Particle distribution curve for sieve analysis of crushed and ground ore

Table 4. Elemental Composition of Sieved Ore Sample

Sieve % Elemental Composition
Size C O Al Si P Mn Fe Cu Ir
(µm)
2360 3.02 50.11 3.75 2.33 1.02 0.09 25.41 0.08 0.33
1700 3.13 51.95 3.92 2.71 0.98 0.12 29.39 0.05 0.17
850 3.43 52.30 3.70 2.72 1.11 0.05 34.38 0.01 0.23
600 3.13 51.86 3.84 2.63 1.48 0.09 33.61 0.02 0.17
425 3.23 52.41 3.89 2.75 1.09 0.03 32.92 0.06 0.13
300 3.33 53.49 3.77 2.48 1.22 0.21 34.38 0.06 0.30
250 3.62 52.70 3.93 2.65 1.17 0.09 36.59 0.07 0.35
180 3.57 52.30 3.18 2.93 1.08 0.11 35.91 0.10 0.48
150 4.01 50.16 3.32 3.15 0.06 0.34 35.64 0.28 0.11
Pan 4.03 51.58 3.35 2.98 1.30 0.45 32.36 0.21 0.09

B. Discussion

The chemical analysis of the field sample was conducted on a scanning electron microscope
which produce the result in its elemental form indicated iron (Fe) to be the dominant metal in the
list of element detected with an elemental percent composition of 35.48 % which makes it a low
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grade iron ore deposit. There is also a significant amount of the phosphorus element present at
1.8 %. The presence of phosphorus in the ore makes it unique when compared to other iron ore
deposits found in Nigeria.

Tables 2 and 3 of sieve analysis show the performance of the communition process of crushing
and grinding. It can be observed from Table 3 that the smaller the aperture of the sieve, the lower
the weight % of the iron ore retained. The aperture range of 2360 μm has the most retained
weight% followed by 850 μm and then 1700 μm respectively. But the value of % weight retained
by the 2360 µm would reduce by the regrinding process and thereby increase the weight retained
by the lower size sieves.

The valuable quantity which can be determined from the distribution curve is the median size of
the sample which refers to the midpoint in the size distribution or 50 % passing or retained. The
value obtained from the distribution curve of crushing shows that the 50% passing size is about
1575 µm while it is about 875 µm in the grinding distribution curve. This implies that 50 % of
the particles sieved are finer than 1575 µm and 50 % is coarser than this size for crushing while
50 % of the particles sieved are finer than 875 µm and 50 % is coarser than this size for grinding.
Also the energy consumed to produce particles of 1575 µm is the same energy consumed to
reduce the particle size to about 875 µm.

The chemical analysis of the sample conducted on all the product of sieves is shown in Table 4.
The result of the compositional analysis in elemental form indicated that 250 µm, 180 µm and
150 µm contains the valuable mineral (Fe) in higher percentages of 36.59 %, 35.91 % and 35.64
% respectively. This result shows that more of the iron (Fe) particles are liberated at the ≤ 250
µm. Therefore, the comminution plant should be designed in closed circuit so as to liberate more
iron minerals from the coarse meshes of the particle series in Table 4.

V. CONCLUSION
In conclusion this research has established that the Agbaja iron ore is a low grade deposit
with 35.48 % Fe content in the field sample tested in a scanning electron microscope and also
confirms the iron ore to be a goethite mineral with the presence of 1.8 % phosphorus which
makes it unique amongst other iron ore deposits in Nigeria. The liberation size was determined
by sieve analysis to be 250 µm having the highest percent elemental composition of 36.59 %
with 50 % passing size in grinding at 875 µm.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to express my profound gratitude to Almighty God and my co-authors for the successful
work done on this research work thank you all.

REFERENCES
Aluko T. M., Kelechi L.N., Adeola A.A and Modupe O.A (2018): Health Risk Assessment of
Heavy Metals in Soil from the Iron Mines of Itakpe and Agbaja, Kogi State, Nigeria.
Pollution, 4(3): 527-538, Summer 2018DOI: 10.22059/poll.2018.243543.330Print ISSN:
2383-451X Online ISSN: 2383-4501Web Page: https://jpoll.ut.ac.ir, Email: [email protected]
Barbery, G. (1972): Derivation of a formula to estimate the mass of a sample for size analysis.
Trans. Inst. Min. Metall., 81 (784), Mar., C49-C51.
Barbery, G. (1991): Mineral Liberation, Les Editions GB, Quebec.
Bernhardt, C. (1994): Particle Size Analysis, Chapman & Hall, London.
Flavel, M.A (1978): Control of Crushing Circuits Will Reduce Capital and Operating Costs.
Mining Magazine Vol.207.
Gaudin, A.M. (1939): Principles of Mineral Dressing. McGraw-Hill, London.
King, R.P. (1982): The Prediction of Mineral Liberation from Mineralogical Textures, 14th
International Mineral Process Congress, paper VII-1, CIM, Toronto, Canada.
Knecht, J. (1994): High-pressure grinding rolls – a tool to optimize treatment of Refractory and
oxide gold ores, fifth mill operator‘s conference
Lambert, A.K and Mark, T.A, (1988): Spotlight on Iron and Steel. Rourke Enterprises, vol. 2 No
3, pp 43-48.
Lewis, F.M., Coburn, J.L., and Bhappu, R.B. (1976): Comminution: A Guide to Size-Reduction
System Design. Min. Engng., 28(Sept.), 29.
Wills B. A. and Atkinson, K. (1993): Some observations on the tract and Liberation of mineral
assemblies, minerals Engineering Vol.697
Wills B.A, Napier-Munn T.J (2006): Mineral Processing Technology: An Introduction to the
Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery. Elsevier Science &
Technology Books (7th edn). ISBN: 0750644508

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MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTION HEAT TREATED LM4

ALLOY

Adedayo A.V.1,2,
1
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria
2
Materials Science and Engineering Department, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
LM4 alloy is a general engineering alloy containing majorly Aluminum, Silicon and Copper as
the alloying elements. The alloy possesses good castability, low material cost and it is regularly
used for many engineering applications where its moderate mechanical properties are desirable.
While many investigations have been carried out on the alloy, only few studies have reported
investigations on mechanical behavior of LM4 alloy processed at low temperatures. Therefore,
this study investigated mechanical behavior of LM4 alloy material solution heat treated at
100ºC. LM4 alloy material was prepared in the laboratory and cast into rods of 15 mm diameter
and 200 mm length. A sample of the cast rods was solution heat treated at 100ºC for 24 hours,
while another untreated sample which served as control was also prepared. The samples were
evaluated for mechanical behaviours on a Universal testing machine. Results showed that the
solution heat treated LM4 alloy material exhibits superior mechanical behavior as compared to
the untreated LM4 material. Microstructure of the solution heat treated alloy show some
modified structure, however with decreased elongation. Solution heat treatment of LM4 alloy
material at 100ºC for 24 hours, can be used to improve the mechanical properties of the alloy
material. In general, solution heat treatment can induce a large number of submicroscopic
particles with non-equilibrium transition structure which may strain the matrix of the alloy
material to increase strength.

Keywords: Solutionizing, Tensile strength, Fracture energy, Elongation

1.0 Introduction
LM4 alloy is a general engineering alloy containing majorly Aluminum, Silicon and Copper as
the alloying elements. The range of elements in the alloy is given as: Al; 4.0-6.0Si; 2.0-4.0Cu;
0.15Mg; 0.8Fe; 0.-0.7Mn; 0.3Ni; 0.5Zn; 0.1Pb; 0.05Sn; 0.2Ti. Elements Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Pb, Sn
and Ti are considered impurity elements in the alloy (Adedayo, 2010; Chama, 1998; British
Standard, 1988). The alloy possesses good castability, low material cost and used as piston
alloy. It is also regularly used in junction boxes, gearboxes, tooling, gearboxes and electrical
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fittings where its moderate mechanical properties are desirable. LM4 is produced from the non-
heat treatable Al-Si alloy by addition of copper to make the alloy thermally treatable.
While the alloy have been noted to possess attractive good engineering properties, however,
various investigations have been carried out on the alloy to broaden the scope of areas where
they can be usefully applied. Particularly, research efforts have been made to study influence of
thixoprocessing on mechanical properties of LM4 (Adedayo, 2012), and the influence of
Zirconium oxides reinforcement on the mechanical properties of the alloy was carried out by
Ravichandra and Kumar, (2018). Koushik et al., (2019) investigated the effects of soda glass
reinforment on mechanical behavior of LM4; also Mannurkar and Raikar, (2015) studied dry
sliding wear behaviour of LM4 using Taguchi approach. They found out that increased
percentage of silicon in the alloy does not favour improved wear resistance. It was also
observed that heat treatment tempering process has significant effect on tribological
characteristics of the alloy.

Normally, LM4 is fully heat treated by heating for 6-16 hours at 505-520°C, and quenched in hot
water and heat for 6-18 hours at 150-170°C before air cooled (Norton Aluminum, 2012). While
the processing of LM4 by heat treating at 505-520°C for 6-16 hours and at 150-170°C for 6-18
hours is well documented, processing LM4 directly at temperatures below 150-170°C has not
been reported in the literature. Davies (1993) however suggested that heat treatments processing
for longer times at lower temperatures give higher peak strength values. Therefore, this present
study seeks to mechanically characterize solution heat treated LM4 alloy. The influence of
solution heat treatment at 100ºC for 24 hours on mechanical characteristics of the LM4 alloy is
investigated. Generally, understanding mechanical properties of materials is very important
(Roylance, 2001; University of Cambridge, 2018; Robi et al., 2013; Moffatt et al., 1964) to
provide knowledge which is vital and useful for design and many other important engineering
applications.

2.0 Materials and Method

The LM4 metallurgy alloy material used for the study was produced by melting together and
casting aluminum-silicon master alloy, aluminum – copper master alloy and aluminum scrap.
Two kilograms (2.25 kg) of Al-Si master alloy, 1.75 kg of Al-Cu master alloy were melted at a
temperature of 720˚C with 3 kg of aluminum scrap in a lift-out electric crucible furnace (see
Table 1). A total of 7 kg of LM4 was produced by casting into cylindrical rods of 15mm
diameter and 200mm length in sand molds. The quantitative chemical analysis of the essential
elements in the produced LM4 was carried out using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS) while the silicon content was determined by gravimetric analysis. Produced cast rods
were machined into rods of 10mm diameter, and a rod was solution heat treated at a temperature
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of 100ºC for 24 hours, after which the sample was removed from the furnace and quickly
quenched in water maintained at a temperature of 10ºC, before the rod was machined on a lathe
machine into ASTM standard tensile test pieces for evaluation of mechanical behavior on the
Universal Testing Machine. One rod was kept untreated, and was also machined into standard
tensile test piece to be evaluated for mechanical behavior. This untreated sample served as
control specimen. Both treated and untreated specimens were then evaluated for mechanical
behavior on Universal Testing Machine. The result from the Universal Testing Machine
produced the tensile strength, maximum fracture energy, Young‘s Modulus, and elongation
values of the tested samples. The stress-strain graphs of the tested samples were also produced
by the Universal Testing Machine, and these plots were obtained for further analysis. Micro-
examination of the samples by optical microscopy was also carried out.
Table 1: Proportion of materials charged for the production of LM4 alloy.
Material Weight
Kg %
Al-Si 2.25 32
Al-Cu 1.75 25
Al Scrap 3 43
Total 7 100

3.0 Results and Discussions

The results of the study are presented in Table 2; and Figures 1 to 8. Table 1 presents the results
of the elemental chemical analysis of the produced LM4 alloy. Figures 1 and 3 show the stress-
strain curves for the untreated and the treated samples respectively. The microstructures of the
untreated and the treated samples are presented in Figures 2 and 4 respectively. In Figures 5 to 8,
the test results for tensile strength, maximum fracture energy, Young‘s Modulus, and elongation
values are presented respectively.

Table 2 showed that the percentage of the major alloying elements in the prepared alloy
compared well with chemical composition of standard LM4 alloy. The stress-strain curve of the
untreated sample presented in Figure 1 showed type-S stress-strain curve (Roylance, 2001).
Ordinarily, materials with S-shaped stress-strain curves are particularly susceptible to elastic
instabilities (University of Cambridge, 2018). The S-type stress-strain curve indicates three
distinct regions of the stress/strain curve. These regions are: (1) the toe region, (2) the linear
region, and (3) the yield and failure/fracture region. For this curve, the toe region is about 67% of
the total deformation, and includes all areas where low flow stresses bring about relatively large
extensions. In this initial part of the curve, the material presents low stiffness to increasing load.

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Although toe region presents nonlinear stress/strain curve, because the slope of the toe region is
not linear, the material will return to its original length when unloaded, therefore this portion is
elastic and reversible and the slope of the curve represents an elastic modulus (Robi et al., 2013).
At about 0.0075 to 0.010 mm/mm, there is heel area within the toe region where there is onset of
increased stiffness to applied load. At 0.010mm/mm strain, the deformation enters the linear
region of the stress-strain curve. The linear region is about 17% of the entire deformation. The
region is an area of higher modulus indicating stiffer material. The tested material offered higher
stiffness to increased loading of the material. The stress strain curve presents a linear relationship
of the stress and strain in this region. This shows that the deformation in the region is elastic, and
the material will return to original shape/length when loading is removed. There is the onset of
yield and failure/fracture region at around 0.012 mm/mm strain where stress of about 60.92 MPa
was applied. The yield and failure/fracture region constitutes about 13% of the total deformation
before failure. The microstructure of the untreated sample reveals primary aluminum with some
strands of acicular silicon.

Table 2: Chemical composition of essential elements in the prepared alloy

Elements Average (wt%)

Si 5.80
Cu 3.83
Mg 0.41
Fe 0.23
Mn 0.02
Al Rest

Figure 1: Stress-Strain curve for untreated sample

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Figure 2: Microstructure of untreated sample

In Figure 3, the stress-strain curve of the treated sample is presented. Similarly the stress/strain
curve manifests the three distinct regions:: (1) the toe region, (2) the linear region, and (3) the
yield and failure/fracture region. In the treated sample, the toe is significantly reduced with the
absence of heel region. The toe is about 14.3% of the entire deformation before fracture.
Normally, the toe represents areas of low flow stress where low stresses bring about relatively
large extension. This shows that the tested material offered low stiffness to applied stress at this
stage.

Figure 3: Stress-Strain curve for treated sample

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Figure 4: Microstructure of treated sample

Comparing the toe regions of the untreated and the treated samples, this reveals that treated
material offered higher stiffness than the untreated material. This implies that the solution heat
treatment applied to the LM4 has improved the stiffness of the LM4 matrix. At other times,
during solution heat treatment, a large number of submicroscopic particles with non-equilibrum
transition structure may form (Moffatt et al., 1964). These particles strain the matrix so that they
may increase the strength of the matrix. Microstructure of the treated sample presented in Figure
4 revealed coarsening of precipitate, confirming formation of precipitates during solution heat
treatment. The results of tensile strength, maximum fracture energy, Young‘s Modulus, and
elongation values presented in Figures 5 to 8 show that the tensile strength fracture energy and
Young‘s modulus increased during the solution heat treatment, where as elongation decreased.
Elongation decreased because of the straining of the matrix of the treated LM4 by formation of
precipitates during the solution heat treatment.

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Tensile strength (MPa)

Figure 5: Tensile strength values for the samples

Fracture energy (J)

Figure 6: Fracture energy values for the samples

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Youngs Modulus (MPa)

Figure 7: Youngs Modulus values for the samples

Elongation (%)

Figure 8: Percentage elongation values for the samples

Conclusion
The result of the investigation showed that LM4 alloy material solution heat treated has
improved strength of about 145MPa. The fracture energy and Young‘s Modulus values for the
treated alloy are equally improved to values of 0.198 J and 24788 MPa respectively during
solution heat treatment. The alloy in as cast condition can be solution heat treated for improved
mechanical performance. Generally, solution heat treatment can induce a large number of

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submicroscopic particles with non-equilibrium transition structure which may strain the matrix
of the alloy material to increase strength.

References
Adedayo, A.V. (2010) Effects of Thermomechanical Treatments on the Mechanical Properties of
Cast AlSiCu alloy (LM4), MSc Thesis, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Adedayo, A.V. (2012) Investigation of Properties of Thixoprocessed LM4, Journal of Minerals
& Materials Characterization & Engineering, 11(1),107-115
British Standard (1988): http://www.britishstandard/BS 1490:1988/
Chama, C.C. (1998) Journal of Materials Science Letters, Vol.17, No.21, pp1857
Davies, J. R. (1993) ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, ASM
International, ISBN: 978-0-87170-496-2
Koushik P K ; Ramya C R ; Mahanthesh, M. R. & Jain, S.P (2019) Investigation on Mechanical
Behavior of LM4 Alloys Reinforced with Soda Glass; International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology , 7 (7), 1-6
Mannurkar, N.W. & Raikar, P.U. (2015) Investigation of Dry Sliding Wear Behaviour of LM4
(Al - Si5Cu3)-T6/LM6 (Al-Si12)-M using Taguchi Approach, International Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology, 2(4), 66-74
Moffat, W.G; Pearsall, G.W.; Wulff J., (1964) The structure and properties of materials,
Norton Aluminum, (2012) LM4 (EN 1706 AC-45200) - Aluminum Casting Alloy, Retrieved on
January 18, 2020 from: http://www.nortal.co.uk/LM4/
Ravichandra, P.S. & Kumar, V. (2018) Study Of Mechanical Properties Of LM-4
Reinforcement With ZrO2 For Structural Application; Journal of Engineering Research
and Application; 8(10) , 54-60
Robi, K.; Jakob, N.; Matevz, K. & Matjaz, V. (2013) The Physiology of Sports Injuries and
Repair Processes, Current Issues in Sports and Exercise Medicine, Retrieved on January
21, 2020 from: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/5423477
Roylance, D. (2001) Stress-strain curves, Retrieved on August 1, 2019 from :
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-11-mechanics-of-
materials-fall-1999/modules/MIT3_11F99_ss.pdf
Structure, Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane, pp. 79, 183,184,
University of Cambridge, (2018) J- shaped Curves. Retrieved on August 3, 2019 from:
https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/bioelasticity/j-shaped-curves.php

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE HUSK FILLED LOW DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE WASTE
1
Inegbedion, F., 1 Igbonazobi, L. C. 1Imasuen A. O. and 1 Eboreime A. E.
Department of Polymer Technology, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi. Edo State
*Corresponding Author: [email protected], Phone No.: 07038274039

ABSTRACT
Low density polyethylene wastes have been found littered on the streets of most communities and
states in Nigeria and rice husk constitute environmental nuisance. This research is aimed at
producing a composite of low density polyethylene waste and rice husk and analyzing its
mechanical properties. The composites were produced by compression moulding technique.
Various mix ratios of 4:0, 3:1 and 2:2 of low density polyethylene waste to rice husk was used.
Increasing the amount of reinforcement improve the strength and stiffness of the composites but
decreases the impact strength. It was observed that as the filler volume increases, the water
absorption rate of the composites increases. The chemical compatibility test showed that the
composite is unaffected by some food materials. SEM micrographs of the composites showed
void, smooth and fracture features. The LDPE have irregular small flakes on the surface.

Keywords: Rice husk, Composites, Polyethylene waste, Mechanical properties

INTRODUCTION
A composite material refers to a combination of two or more materials comprising of at least two
phase bonded together to produce a material with improved properties. One of these phases is a
continuous phase (matrix) while the other is a dispersed phase (reinforcement). The properties of
composites are a function of the properties of the constituent phase, their relative amount and the
geometry of the dispersed phase (Bledzki and Gassan, 1999). Various composite materials may
be formulated, targeting increase in mechanical properties such as hardness, stiffness, tensile
strength and water absorption. Investigations on polymer-based composite materials have opened
new routes for polymer formulation and allowed the production of new composites with optimal
properties for specific applications (Karnani et al., 1997, George et al., 2001). A number of
natural occurring fillers and fibers used in composites have been studied over the years, these
include wood fillers (Bledzki and Faruk 2004, Justin and Walter, 2005), wheat straw, almond
husk, rice husk ash, pineapple leaf, coconut fibers, cocoa pod etc (Ismail et al., 2001, Mishra et
al., 2002). A lot of waste materials are found littered in most places around the country; some of
them are polyethylene sachets and agricultural waste. Pure water sachet forms a major eyesore

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on virtually all streets of the rural and even the urban areas. These waste are usually in very large
amounts, among these are the rice husk.
Agricultural waste occurs in various forms, for example, rice husk, sawdust, coconut
shell, palm kernel shell (Kenry et al., 2008). The wide use of plastic products in various
applications has greatly increased due to their unique properties which include mechanical
properties, resistance to chemical attack and corrosion, ease of processing and recycling, cost
effectiveness, light weight and others. However these properties are affected by many factors
such as stress, temperature and environment when they are exposed to services. In fact this led to
vehement objection of plastics in some specific applications. The attempt to overcome these
obstacles led to incorporation of fillers (inorganic and organic) into plastics with a view to
obtaining composites whose constituents act to tackle these challenges thereby making plastics
more reliable during use or processing.
Generally, the composite properties are influenced by many factors such as filler
characteristics, filler content and interfacial adhesion and dispersion due to the combination of
more than one material (Danyadi et al., 2009).
It has been discovered over the years that efforts made to prevent indiscriminate littering
of the environment with polymeric and agricultural waste has been inefficient as these polymeric
wastes such as LDPE can be seen littered in most streets in Nigeria. These calls for more effort
into the provision of a permanent solution to the problem of polymeric waste disposal in the
country. Hence the motivation of this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample Preparation
Low density polyethylene waste (Pure water sachets) were collected from waste sites, washed,
shredded and granulated. The rice husk was collected from a local rice mill in Auchi, Nigeria.
The samples were washed, sun dried for 48 hours to remove excess moisture, grinded and sieved
to particle size of 75 micron.

Compounding of Polymer Composites

The composites were prepared by compression moulding technique. The LDPE was heated and
melted at 180OC. The mixing of the filler particles with the molten polymer was carried out at a
temperature of 180OC and pressure of 40kg/cm2 for 10minutes. The procedure was repeated for
various amounts of filler reinforcement composites with varying mix ratios of 4:0 3:1 2:2 of low
density polyethylene waste and rice husk.

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Mechanical Properties Test

Impact test was carried out in accordance with ASTM D5420, water absorption test was done
according to ASTM D471 and chemical compatibility test which evaluate the resistance of
plastics to chemical reagents was carried out according to ASTM D543, ASTM D2299.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) characterization was done using JEOL-JSM 7600F.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

SEM Analysis

a. b.

c.
Fig.1: SEM micrographs of composites (a) 0% (b) 25% (c) 50%
Fig. 1 shows micrographs of the surfaces of composites sample using SEM. The analysis clearly
showed differences in the microstructure of the composites produced by varying the rice husk
particle content. The micrographs of the composites surfaces showed void, smooth and fracture
features. The LDPE have irregular small flakes on the surface.

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Mechanical Properties
Table 1: Mechanical Properties
Composite Water absorption (%) Impact strength (J/m2)
composition (%)
0 0.80 266
25 2.80 270
50 3.97 262

4.5
4
3.5
Water absorption %

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 25 50
Filler volume ratio

Fig. 2: Water absorption test

272
270
Impact strenght J/m2

268
266
264
262
260
258
0 25 50
Filler volume ratio

Fig. 3: Impact strength test

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The water absorption test results are shown in Fig 2. It is clear from this figure that the
composites absorb water. It was observed that as the filler volume increases, the water absorption
rate of the composites increases. Hence composite with 50% rice husk absorbs more water than
the others.

The impact strength shows an increase as the filler volume ratio increases to 25% and gradually
decreases at 50%, Fig 3. As the rice husk filler particle content increases, the composite becomes
stiffer. It is evident that as the particle content is increased beyond 50% reinforcement, the
particles may not interact with the polymer matrix and the interfacial adhesion that is responsible
for the composite stiffness and strength would be much lower.

Chemical Compatibility
The composite of PE/Rice husk was used to produce cutting board for domestic use. Chemical
compatibility of two samples were carried out to ascertain the resistance of the composite cutting
board to food materials such as blood, butter, oil, potato, yam, tomatoes, onion, pepper and
vegetable. The composite with 50% rice husk was unaffected by butter and potato.

Table 2: Chemical compatibility test

STAIN 0% RICE HUSK 50% RICE HUSK
Blood Considerable Considerable
Butter Considerable Unaffected
Oil Considerable Considerable
Potato Considerable Unaffected
Yam Unaffected Unaffected
Tomatoes Superficial Superficial
Onion Considerable Considerable
Pepper Unaffected Unaffected
Vegetable (Leaf) Considerable Considerable
Vegetable (Carrot) Unaffected Unaffected

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Plate 1: Cutting boards made from Polyethylene waste/Rice husk composite

Conclusion
This work examines rice husk as reinforcing filler in Low density polyethylene (LDPE). The rice
husk has good strength and modulus coupled with good adhesion and uniform dispersion into the
matrix. Morphological studies revealed that there is a good dispersion of the filler into the
polymer matrix. The composite fabrication of cutting board shows a cutting board that has
strength and is unaffected by some food materials. LDPE/rice husk composite is therefore a
suitable material for the production of cutting board for domestic use.

References
Bledzki A. K. and Faruk O. (2004), Wood Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Composite:
Compression and Injection Moulding Process. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 43(3):871-88.
Bledzki A. K. and Gassan J. (1999), Composites Reinforced with Cellulose Based Fibers.
Progress in Polymer Science. 24, 221-274
Danyadi L., Moczo J. and Pukanszky B. (2009), Effect of various surface modifications of wood
flour on the properties of PP/Wood composites. Composites: Part A, 41: 199-206.
George J., Sreekala M. S. and Thomas S. A. (2001), Review on interface modification and
characterization of natural fiber reinforced plastic composites. Polymer Engineering and
Science. 41:1471-1485.
Ismail H., Mega L. and Abdul-Khalil H. P. S. (2001), Effect of a Silane coupling agent on the
properties of white rice husk ash polypropylene/Natural rubber composite. Polymer
International. 50(5):606-611.
Justin R. B. and Walter F. S. (2005), Polyethylene Reinforced with Keratin Fibres obtained from
chicken feathers. Compos. Sci. and Technol. 65:173-181.

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Karnani R., Krishnan M. and Narayan R. (1997), Biofiber reinforced polypropylene composites.
Polymer Engineering and Science. 37:476-483.
Kenry M., Vazquez A. and Dominguez V. A. (2008), Agro-sources wastes used in Polymer
Industries. Journal of Plastic Engineering, vol 1(4):27
Mishra S., Hamzah H., Murshidi J. A. and Deraman M. (2002), Chemical Modification on
Lignocellulosic Polymeric Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch for Advance Material. Advances
in Polymer Tech. 20(4):289-295.

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Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

INFLUENCE OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON CORROSION

INVASIVENESS OF CARBON STEEL IN PEPPER FLUIDS

Adedayo A. V. 1,2,
1
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria
2
Materials Science and Engineering Department, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
This study investigated the influence of surface roughness on corrosion invasiveness of carbon
steel in Long Pepper and Scotch Bonnet Pepper fluids. The objective of the study is to know how
roughness of the surface of carbon steel influence spread of corrosion on carbon steel in pepper
fluids. Steel plates of 3 x 5 mm were prepared with surface roughness of P36, P50 and P100. The
steel plates prepared with the degree of surface roughness were then immersed in long pepper
and scotch bonnet pepper fluids. A set of the immersed samples were then removed every 5 days.
The corrosion spread on the samples were then evaluated with quantitative microscopy. The
result of the study showed that local concentration of solution, ability of active ions to overcome
barriers created by peaks and valleys of the surface roughness, and mobility of active ions, all
influenced the rate of corrosion spread.
Keywords: Pepper processing, Pepper fluids, Surface roughness, Corrosion spread

Introduction
Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable
form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually
metals and alloys) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment
(Loughrey, 2018).. In the most common use of the word, corrosion means electrochemical
oxidation of metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfates. Corrosion degrades the
useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance and permeability to
liquids and gases. Corrosion is a widespread problem affecting every aspect of human endeavor.
Rusting, the formation of iron oxides is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion.
This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal, and results in a
distinctive orange colouration.. Steels are widely used in many agro-allied and food processing
plant where the steel materials are directly in contact with the food materials being processed. By
being in contact with the processed food materials, it can happen that biologically toxic corrosion
products can get leached (Randall, 2017) into the processed food. Generally, corrosion control
treatment is necessary to prevent deterioration of metallic products and to reduce leaching of
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toxic corroded substances in processing plants particularly in food processing plants, such as
pepper grinding. One way to control corrosion rate is by control of the degree of surface
roughness (Lee et al., 2012; Sasaki and Burstein, 1996; Suter et al., 2005; Sharland, 1987) of the
metallic products used in food processing. In this present study, investigation is made on the
effect of degree of surface roughness on corrosion invasiveness of steel in pepper fluid.
Generally, information on effects of degrees of surface roughness on rate of corrosion spread is
scarce. Therefore, information on the influence of surface roughness on corrosion invasiveness
of steel is of practical importance, and herein the rationale for the study is identified.

Materials and Experimental Procedure

The study material is mild steel plates cut into dimension of 3mm by 5mm for immersion by
suspension in pepper fluids for corrosion invasiveness evaluation. Chemical composition of the
mild steel plate is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Chemical Composition of steel plate used

Element C Si S P Mn Ni Cr Mo V Fe

Percentage 0.16 0.18 0.06 0.03 0.64 0.10 0.12 0.01 0.001 98.25

The obtained mild steel plates were then prepared to have different degrees of surface roughness
by grinding the surfaces of obtained steel samples with grinders having grit sizes of P36, P50,
P100. The mild steel plates prepared with different surface roughness were then immersed in two
different types of pepper fluids. The pepper fluids used were obtained by squeezing fluids out of
scotch bonnet pepper and long pepper. The prepared steel plates were immersed in the pepper
fluids, and a set of the immersed plates were removed after every 5 days. The corrosion
invasiveness on the plates were evaluated by quantitative microscopy.

Results and Discussions

The results of the study are presented in Table 2 and Figures 1 to 8. Table 2 presents the
variation of corrosion invasiveness in pepper fluids. Long pepper and scotch bonnet pepper
fluids respectively, while Figures 1 to 6 present the micrographs of the samples after they were
removed from their respective fluid environments. Figures 7 and 8, show the variations of
corrosion invasiveness in long pepper and scotch bonnet pepper fluids respectively. The results
show that the corrosion spread increased generally with number of days of exposure.

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Table 2: Variation of corrosion invasiveness in pepper fluids

Fluid Surface Days of Percentage Area Corrosion
Environment roughness exposure Invaded (%)
Long Pepper P36 5 days 0.25
Long Pepper P36 10 days 0.5
Long Pepper P36 15 days 0.6
Long Pepper P50 5 days 0.05
Long Pepper P50 10 days 0.4
Long Pepper P50 15 days 1
Long Pepper P100 5 days 0.5
Long Pepper P100 10 days 2.5
Long Pepper P100 15 days 12.5
Scotch Bonnet P36 5 days 0.5
Scotch Bonnet P36 10 days 0.5
Scotch Bonnet P36 15 days 13
Scotch Bonnet P50 5 days 0.54
Scotch Bonnet P50 10 days 5.4
Scotch Bonnet P50 15 days 16
Scotch Bonnet P100 5 days 3
Scotch Bonnet P100 10 days 4
Scotch Bonnet P100 15 days 5.4

Figure 1 : Microstructures of P36 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Long Pepper fluid

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Figure 2 : Microstructures of P50 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Long Pepper fluid

Figure 3: Microstructures of P100 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Long Pepper fluid

Figure 4: Microstructures of P36 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Scotch Bonnet Pepper fluid

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Figure 5: Microstructures of P50 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Scotch Bonnet Pepper fluid

Figure 6 : Microstructures of P50 Surface Roughness Samples: (a) after 5 days (b) after 10 days
and (c) after 15 days of immersion in Scotch Bonnet Pepper fluid

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Percentage area invaded (%)

P36
P50
P100

Time of exposure (Days)

Figure 7: Variation of corrosion invasiveness in long pepper fluid

Percentage area invaded (%)

P36
P50
P100

Time of exposure (Days)

Figure 8: Variation of corrosion invasiveness in Scotch Bonnet pepper fluid

In Figure 7, the graph showed that corrosion spread on the steel plate with P100 surface
roughness had the highest corrosion spread, while the corrosion spread on the steel plates with

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surface roughness of P50 and P36 are much lower. Normally, local concentration of a solution
can be influenced by the geometry of surface‘s peaks and valleys. This in turn, can affect the
diffusion of active ions during corrosion process. Corrosion resistance is closely related to the
distribution of the valleys on the surface. The significant influence of the valleys on corrosion
resistance is related to the depth of the valleys which affects the diffusion of active ions during
corrosion (Lee et al., 2012; Sasaki and Burstein, 1996; Suter et al., 2005; Sharland, 1987 ). Steel
plates with surface roughness P50 and P36 exhibit better resistance due to the depth of the
valleys created by P50 and P36 surface roughness which affect diffusion of active ions.
Figure 8 shows that in scotch bonnet pepper fluid, corrosion was most invasive on the P50
surface roughness steel plate followed by P36 surface roughness steel plate. P100 surface
roughness steel plate had the least corrosion invasiveness. For this situation, both local
concentration of solution and rate of diffusion of active ions interacted synergistically to promote
corrosion in scotch bonnet fluid.

Conclusion
The study has shown that corrosion spread increased with number of days of exposure of the
sample subjected to corrosion in Long pepper and scotch bonnet pepper fluids. Also, the study
has shown that local concentration of solution, ability of active ions to overcome barriers created
by peaks and valleys of the surface roughness and mobility of active ions, all influenced the rate
of corrosion spread.

References
Lee, S. M., Lee, W. G., Kim, Y. H., & Jang, H., (2012), "Surface roughness and the corrosion
resistance of 21Cr ferritic stainless steel," Corrosion Science, 63(0), 404-409.
Loughrey K. (2018) Answer to: What is corrosion on Quora, Retrieved on 29th November, 2018
from: https://www.quora.com/What-is-corrosion
Randall, S. ( 2017) Importance of corrosion control; NSF Municipal Water Matters, June 2017
Issue, pp. 10 -11
Sasaki, K. & Burstein, G.T. (1996), "The generation of surface roughness during slurry erosion-
corrosion and its effect on the pitting potential," Corrosion Science, 38(12), 2111-2120.
Sharland, S. M., (1987), "A review of the theoretical modelling of crevice and pitting
corrosion,"Corrosion Science, 27(3), 289-323.
Suter, T., Müller, Y., Schmutz, P., & von Trzebiatowski, O., (2005), "Microelectrochemical
Studies of Pit Initiation on High Purity and Ultra High Purity Aluminum," Advanced
Engineering Materials, 7(5), 339–348.

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INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF RICE HUSK AS A PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF FINE SAND IN LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Olorunfemi K.O. and Naallah A.

Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
[email protected],
08146105390, 08052352621,
[email protected]
08060315230
ABSTRACT
The suitability of rice husk as a partial replacement of fine sand in concrete was investigated by
substituting it proportions of weight for fine aggregate in the production of a light weight
concrete. Physical properties of rice husk and fine aggregate were determined. Concrete cubes
of 150 x 150 x 150mm were cast at nominal mix ratio of 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 with water cement ratio
of 0.5. Replacement were carried out in 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% and 50% proportion of rice husk.
The effects of rice husk on the workability of fresh concrete were determined by the slump test.
Average compressive strengths values of the concrete were evaluated at 7, 14 and 28 days with
0%, 5%, 15%, 25% and 50% replacement levels. The average compressive strength of concrete
with partial replacement of rice husk at 5% with mix ratio 1:2:4 for 28 days has the highest
average compressive strength of 12.0 N/mm2 , and for mix ratio 1:3:6 the average compressive
strength for 5% has the highest average compressive strength of 11.5N/mm2 for 28 days curing.
The replacement value of 5% for mix ratio 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 with a value of 12.0N/mm2 and
11.5N/mm2 satisfy the requirement for the production of light weight concrete which could be
used where low stress concrete is required.

Keyword: Aggregate, Concrete, Compressive Strength, Rice Husk, Workability

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rice husk is one of the major agricultural wastes. It is fibrous material containing cellulose as the
major constituent. Rice husk are the coating seeds of grains of rice. The husk protects the seed
during the growing season, since it is formed from hard material including opaline, silica and
lignin. The husk is mostly indigestible to humans. (Endang, 1995).. Winnowing is used to
separate the rice from husk; this is a process of putting the whole rice into a pan, and throwing it
into the air while the wind blows. The light husks are blown away while the heavy rice fall back
into the pan. Later pestle and simple machine called a rice pounder were developed to remove
husk. Most rice (Oryza Sativa) varieties are composed of roughly 20% rice husk, 11% bran layer
and 20% starchy, also referred to as the total milled rice. The by product in rice milling are rice
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husk. During the milling process, the hucks are removed from the raw grain to reveal whole
brown rice, which may then sometime be milled further to removed the bran later, resulting in
white rice. The large amount of silica freely obtained from the sources, provides an abundant
and alternative of silica for many user such as for the synthesis of zeolite, to generate heat or
electric power (Kapulatal, 1982). Rice husk contain high amount of silicon dioxide which is an
essential component in concrete.

On the other hand industrial waste have continued to increase due to continued demand of
resources used by human dumping or disposal of refuse causing environmental and health
problems. Therefore recycling of waste material is great potential in concrete industry.
The commitment to crop farming by many Nigeria rural community dwellers have increased
agricultural waste in large quantities, which are generated in various rural communities all over
Nigeria. There is a need to further investigate the suitability of using Nigeria agricultural by -
product as possible fine sand as replacement in concrete. The successful utilization of rice husk
ash (RHA) as pozzolanic materials would add commercial value to waste products encouraging
massive cultivation of the crops for various uses.

Obande (1995) stated that an aggregate is a material in a granular or particle form such as (sand
or gravel) added to class of material known as binder (cement, hydraulic line, bitumen) to
produce a solid mass when added. Aggregate are cheaper than cement and maximum economy is
obtained when aggregate is incorporated in concrete work. According to Reynolds (1972)
aggregate also improve the volume, stability and durability of the resulting concrete.

Aggregates are classified according to the size of the particle in them. These include rounded,
irregular and angular. Fine aggregate are those aggregate that largely pass through 4.75mm sieve
are referred to as sands. The current edition of BS 882 1992, uses the term ―sand‖ in preference
to ―fine‖ which is reserved for material such as silt or clay, fine aggregate used in concrete,
enhance building power by providing gritty surface for contact with cement and brick or blocks.
They are readily available in most location. The standard sources of sand are banks of rivers.

Concrete Mixes
Goel (2007) reported that concrete mixes have been classified into various grades by the Indian
standard institution as given in the Table 2.1. M5 grades of concrete may be used for lean
concrete bases and single foundation of masonry walls and the mixes need not be designed while
grade lower than M15 should not be used in reinforced concrete. Most commonly use concrete
mix for beams, slab, column, frame structure, wall and footing is M15, higher mixes than M15
are used for water tanks, shell folded places grid structure and heavily loaded structure. The
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mixed proportion should be selected to ensure that the workability of fresh concrete is suitable
for conditions of handling and placing so that after compaction, it surrounds all reinforcement
and completely fill the formworks. When concrete is hardened, it should have the required
strength, durability and surface finishes.

Table 1: Grade designation

Grade Designation Specified Characteristics
compressive strength at 28
days (N/mm2)
M5 5
M10 10
M15 15
M20 20
M25 25
M30 30
M35 35
M40 40
Source: T.R Nalk (2008)

The determination of proportion of cement, aggregate and water to obtain, the desired strength
shall be made as follow:
i. By designing the concrete mix
ii. By adopting the concrete mix
size ranges and to determine quantitatively the mass of particles in each range. These data are
combined to determine the particle size distribution (gradation).

2.0 MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

2.1 Materials and method
The following materials were used; Rice Husks procured from Ojagboro Area, Ilorin,
Kwara State Nigeria. The rice husk ash (RHA) was free of impurities such as organic matter,
debris and dirt, commercially obtained ordinary Portland cement, fine aggregate from Oyun
River, coarse aggregate (unwashed gravel) from Panada .
The following equipment were used; steel mould of 150mmx150mmx150mm,hydraulic
crushing machine, hammer etc..
Various tests were carried out on the constituent materials according to relevant standard. The
grading test were carried out on the aggregate according to BS 882:1992 &ASTMC 33-
92a,specific gravity test according to ASTMC 127-93 which specify majority of natural
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aggregate to be 2.6- 2.7. Impact valve test according to BS812: part 3: 1975 which should not
excess 45% and for concrete wearing surface not to exceed 30% . The result are presented in
Tables 2-5.

2.2 PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE CUBE

2.2.1 Batching of Materials
The materials were batched by absolute volume equation.

………………………….... equation (i)

Where
Ww = weight of water, Wc = weight of cement, W1 = Weight of sand,
W2 = Weight of Granite, S.Gc = Specific gravity of cement (3.1), S.G1 = Specific gravity of
sand(2.6),S.G2 = Specific gravity of granite(2.65) Density of water = 1000g/m3

2.2.2 PREPERATION OF CUBES

For nominal concrete mix proportion with maximum aggregate size of 19mm, the volume of
concrete required for 3 moulds of sizes 150x150x150(mm)
No of steel mould = 3 moulds
Volume of mould = 150 x 150 x 150 = 3375000mm2

Now 3 x 0.003375 = 0.010125m3

Factor of safety or shrinkage value 1.3
Therefore, the total volume of concrete for 3 moulds =0.010125 x 1.3 = 0.013mm

2.2.3 MATERIAL CONTENT

For nominal concrete mix proportion, 1:2:4 concrete, water-cement ratio of 0.5
Cement (C) = 1
Fine aggregate (FA) = 2
Coarse aggregate (CA) = 4
Water/cement ratio (W/c) = 0.5

……equation (ii)

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C=

Weight of cement = 316.91kg/m3

Weight of water = 0.5c = 0.5 x 316.91 = 158.45kg/ m3
Weight of fine aggregate = 2c = 2 x 316.91 = 633.82kg/ m3
Weight of coarse aggregate = 4c = 4 x 316.91 1267.64 kg/ m3

Weight of cement = 316.9 x 0.0131625 = 4.17kg

Weight of fine aggregate = 633.82 x 0.0131625 = 8.34kg
Weight of coarse aggregate = 1267. 64 x 0.0131625 = 16.68kg
Weight of water/cement ratio = 158.45 x 0.0131625 = 2.09 litres

2.2.4 REPLACEMENT OF RICE HUSK WITH FINE SAND

At 0%, the weight of rice husk replacement,

At 5%

At 15%

At 25%

Ditto for 1:3:6 Concrete

2.2.5 MIXING AND CASTING OF CONCRETE CUBES

The mixing was does manually using trowel and shovel. The concrete cubes were cast in
nominal mix proportion for 1: 2: 4 and 1:3:6 with water cement ratios of 0.5.
The cubes were cast with aggregates from various borrow pits the combination of fine and
coarse aggregate .The cubes were cured for 7, 14, & 28 days as appropriate.

2.2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The cubes were cured and crushed by the load applied by a hydraulic pressing machine.
The maximum failure load for each cubes was taken and the average compressive strength of the
cubes were determined and presented in Table 11 and 12.

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3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the laboratory works carried out, the result of the sieve analysis, specific gravity,
Water absorption capacity carried out on the fine sand, granite and rice Husk (RH) to ascertain
its grading as used for the purpose of this study is presented on Table 2-4.

Table 2: Result of sieve analysis of the Granite

S/N Sieve mm Mass retained % mass Cumulative Cumulative
retained % retained % passing
01 45.0 - - - -
02 22.4 1501 30.28 30.28 69.72
03 19.0 968 19.53 49.81 50.19
04 13.2 1580 31.87 81..68 18.32
05 9.5 539 10.87 92.55 7.45
06 4.75 256 5.16 97.71 2.29
07 707um 71 1.43 99.14 0.86
08 Pan 42 0.82 99.99 0.01
551.16

Fineness modulus =
Fs =5.5

Table 3: Result of sieve analysis of the Rice husk (RH)

S/N Sieve Size Mass retained %mass Cumulative Cumulative
mm retained % retained % passing
01 10 - - - 100
02 6.7 - - - 100
03 5.00 - - - 100
04 4.75 402 18.65 18.65 81.35
05 2.36 886 41.11 59.76 40.24
06 710um 485 22.51 82.27 17.73
07 Pan 382 17.73 100 0
260.68

Fineness modulus =
Fs = 2.6

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Table 4: Result of sieve analysis of the fine sand

S/N Sieve Size mm Mass retained %mass Cumulative Cumulative
retained % retained % passing
01 10 - - - 100
02 6.7 - - - 100
03 5.00 356 7.98 7.98 92.02
04 4.75 389 8.72 16.7 83.30
05 2.36 500 11.21 27.91 72.09
06 1.18 488 10.94 38.85 61.15
07 710um 2260 50.67 89.52 10.48
08 Pan 471 10.56 100.08 0.08
280.96

Fine modulus =
Fs = 2.8

Table 5: Result of Specific gravity of fine sand

S/N Sample No. Sample 1 Sample 2
1 Weight of empty bottle 1476 1477
2 Weight of bottle + dry sample 4500 4498
3 Weight of bottle + dry sample +water 6800 6796
4 Weight of bottle + water 5425 5426
5 Specific gravity 1.83 1.82
6 Average specific gravity 1.83

Table 6: Result of the specific gravity of the rice husk ash

S/N Sample No. Sample 1 Sample 2
1 Weight of empty bottle 1476 1477
2 Weight of bottle + dry sample 1946 1949
3 Weight of bottle + dry sample + water 5522 5523
4 Weight of bottle + water 5426 5426
5 Specific gravity 1.26 1.25
6 Average specific gravity 1.26

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Table 7: Result of specific gravity of the granite.

S/N Sample No. 1 2
1 Weight of empty bottle 1476 1477
2 Weight of bottle + dry sample 3940 3942
3 Weight of bottle + dry sample + water 6927 6931
4 Weight of bottle + water 5426 5426
5 Specific gravity 2.56 2.55
6 Average specific gravity 2.56

Table 8:Water absorption capacity for Granite

No. Weight (g) Value
1 Weight of sample (Wb) 700g
2 Weight of saturation surface dry sample (Ws) 745g
3 Water absorption capacity (%) 6.04g

The water absorption capacity for Granite is 6.4%

Table 9: Water absorption capacity for fine sand

No. Weight (g) Value
1 Weight of sample (Wb) 600g
2 Weight of saturation surface dry sample (Ws) 661g
3 Water absorption capacity (%) 9.23g
The water absorption capacity for fine sand is 10.2%

Table 10: Water absorption capacity for Rice husk ash

No. Weight (g) Value
1 Weight of sample (Wb) 300g
2 Weight of saturation surface dry sample (Ws) 850g
3 Water absorption capacity (%) 64.71g
The water absorption capacity for Rice husk 64.71%

The result of The slump test of the wet concrete and compressive strength of harden concrete at
different ages is presented on Table 3.10-3.11, and fig 3.1

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70

60

50

40
slump test for 1:2:4
30 slump test for 1:3:6

20

10

0
0% 5% 10% 25% 50%

Figure 1: Variation of slump test result for mix ratio 1:2:4 and 1:3:6

Table 11: Compressive strength of the Concrete cubes at different % replacement of fine
aggregate with rice husk with mix ratio of 1:2:4.
S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average
2 3
0% N/mm kg/m weight strength Compressive
3 2
KN/m (N/mm ) strength
1 293 2542 25 13.0 13.6
2 7 days 323 2563 25 14.3
1 300 2477 24 13.3 13.0
2 14 days 285 2444 23 12.7
1 410 2436 24 18.2 17.8
2 28 days 390 2424 24 17.3

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1 200 2522 25 8.9 8.5

2 7 days 180 2556 25 8.0
1 ]5% 280 2387 23 12.4 10.0
2 14 days 170 2484 24 7.6
1 320 2430 24 14.2 12.0
2 28 days 210 2474 24 9.3

1 190 2193 23 8.4 7.6

2 7 days 150 2228 22 6.7
1 15% 195 2344 23 8.6 8.0
2 14 days 150 2314 23 6.7
1 280 2414 24 12.1 9.8
2 28 days 160 2425 24 7.1

S/N Age 25% Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 180 2201 22 8.0 6.9
2 7 days 130 2169 21 5.8
1 190 2255 22 8.4 7.6
2 14 days 150 2237 22 6.7
1 200 2509 25 8.9 8.3
2 28 days 170 2474 24 7.6

S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 160 2331 23 7.1 5.9
2 7 days 50% 108 2299 23 4.8
1 170 2109 21 7.6 6.0
2 14 days 100 2168 21 4.4
1 180 2434 24 8.0 7.0
2 28 days 110 2465 24 5.3

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Table 12: Compressive strength of the Concrete cubes at different % replacement of fine
aggregate with rice husk with mix ratio of 1:3:6.
S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average
N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
3 2
KN/m (N/mm ) strength
1 310 2379 23 13.8 13.5
2 7 days 0% 295 2270 22 13.1
1 320 2446 24 12.2 14.0
2 14 days 310 2218 24 13.8
1 400 2169 22 17.8 17.4
2 28 days 380 2059 21 16.9

S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 197 2177 21 8.7 8.1
2 7 days 5% 170 1853 18 7.5
1 270 2368 23 12.0 9.6
2 14 days 160 2259 22 7.1
1 310 2177 21 13.8 11.5
2 28 days 205 1874 18 9.1

S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 8.0 2379 23 8.0 7.1
2 7 days 15% 6.2 2407 24 6.2
1 12.0 2326 23 12.0 9.4
2 14 days 6.7 2329 19 6.7
1 12.9 2162 21 12.9 10.5
2 28 days 8.0 1872 18 8.0

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S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 170 2198 22 7.6 6.5
2 7 days 120 2169 21 5.3
1 25% 175 2260 22 7.8 6.6
2 14 days 120 1874 18 5.3
1 190 2267 22 8.4 8.0
2 28 days 150 2148 21 6.6

S/N Age Load Density Unit Compressive Average

N/mm2 kg/m3 weight strength Compressive
KN/m3 (N/mm2) strength
1 45 2123 21 1.82 2.6
2 7 days 50% 35 2148 21 1.6
1 45 2043 20 2.0 2.8
2 14 days 35 2169 21 1.6
1 90 2206 22 4.0 4.2
2 28 days 100 2229 22 4.4

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20

18
Average compressive strength N/mm2

0% 1:2:4
16 5% 1:2:4
14 15% 1:2:4
12 25% 1:2:4

10 50% 1:2:4

8 0% 1:3:6
5% 1:3:6
6
15% 1:3:6
4
25% 1:3:6
2
50% 1:3:6
0
7 days 14 days 28 days

Curing Age
Fig 2: Variation of compressive strength at different percentage replacement of rice hucks with
mix ratio 1:2:4 & 1:3:6
4.1 Discussion of Results
From the laboratory test carried out, it was observed that nearly one hundred percent
(100%) of soil sample passed through 4.75 sieve size for both fine sand and rice husk. The
fineness modulus for fine sand rice husks is 2.8 and 2.6 respectively while the coefficient of the
sample is greater than four (4) hence it conforms to the AASHTO soil classification which says
that ―when D10/D60 is greater than four (4) then the soil is well graded‖. The specific gravity of
has the highest of 5.5. Rice husk has the highest water absorption capacity of 183.3%.
The slump of the normal aggregate concrete was found to be 65mm for mix ratio 1:2:4
and 62mm for mix ratio 1:3:6

It was observed that from the compressive strength test of the cubes, that compressive strength
increases with the curing ages ; 7, 14 and 28 days at all replacement level, 0% 5%, 15%, 25%,
50%, for mix ratio 1:2:4 and 1:3:6. But decreases with the increase in the % replacement with
rice husks.

5.1 Conclusion
From the outcome from the study, the following conclusion was drawn.
i. The value obtained for physical properties of rice husk ash i.e fine modulus for rice husk
ash (RHS) is 2.6 and Fine sand is 2.8, as shown on the table 3 and 4, fall within the range

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specified for a light weight fine aggregate. This conforms that rice husk ash can be used as
substitute for fine aggregate in the production of concrete.
ii. Workability of concrete strength increase with curing age and decrease with increase in
the percentage of rice husk (RH)
iii. The densities and average compressive strength of the concrete decrease in the properties
of rice husk as percentage replacement level for the mix ratio 1:2:4 and 1:3:6.
iv. The water requirement increase in percentage of rice husk replacement
v Rice husk (RH) is a pozolanic and is therefore suitable for the production of concrete.

5.0 Recommendation
i. The use of rice husk ash as fine aggregate in the production of light weight concrete
should be adopted by the construction industry so as to reduce the effect of this agricultural
waste acting as an agent of environmental pollution.
ii. Further investigation on potentials of rice husk ash concrete in other environment should
be carried out since it is readily available
iii. Concrete contain rice husk could be used in non loaded bearing panels (partition wall)
where structural strength is not of importance.

REFERENCES
Amick, J.A. (1982); The use of Rice Husk (RH), Rice Husk Ash (RHA), in the production of
zeolites. www.amazon.com
Avallone & Baumsiter (1997); Concrete ant its component. Jugae Cairo, Egypt.
Bouzouba, N., and Founier, B., (2001). ― Concrete incorporation Rice Husk Ash; Compressive
strength and chloride penetrability‖, Materials Technology Laboratory CANMET
Department of Natural Resources Canada PP. 1 – 16.
Columna, V.B. (1974). The Effect of Rice Husk (RH) in cement and concrete mixes, Asian
Institute of Technology
Dao Van Dong, P.D. (2008); Effect of Rice Husk on Properties of High strength Concrete. The
3rd ACF International conference, 422-449
Ezeji S.O. (1986); Building Construction by T.P, Enugu, Nigeria.
Gardi, K.O. (1973); Indigenious Africa Architecture, Van Nostrand Reynol company New York.
HMSO, (1988); Design of normal Concrete Design Mixes, Department of Environmental,
Indonesia.
Kapaul et al (1998); The use of Rice Husk (RH), Rice Husk Ash (RHA), in the Mckay (1970)
Building construction Longman Group Ltd. London.
Nash W.G (1975); Brick work Two 5th Edit by Nash publishers, New York City.
Neville, A.M. (1972); Properties of concrete, john Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.
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Obande M.O. (1989); Block laying and concreting, Longman Group Ltd, London.
Orchard D.F. (1979); Concrete Technology, Wiley and sons Inc., New York.
Ramezanian A.A Pour, M.M (2009); The effect of Rice Husk Ash on mechanical properties and
durability of sustainable concrete, International Journal of Civil Engineering Vol. 7, No
2, 83.91.
Reynolds, D.A. (1972); Building Construction by Gawen. Houston Texas
Warren, J.O. (1996); Curing mass concrete. www.answers.comon.
Seeley, K.O. (1995); Building Technology, Longman, New York.
Syal I.C. & A.K Goel (2007); Reinforced Concrete Design, Ram Naiga, New Delhi.

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PRELIMINARY HYDROGEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION OF

IVIUKWE COMMUNITY IN AGENEBODE, USING ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY METHOD
1
Ikhimealo J.O, 2Egbhatheye, J. A., and 3Suleman L. Z.
2,3
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic
Auchi.
Email: [email protected] [email protected]. sulemanladan33@gmailcom.
ABSTRACT

Preliminary hydro-geophysical techniques involve using Electrical Resistivity method to

investigate the groundwater potentials of Iviukwe community in Agenebode Edo State. The area
is underlain by sediments of cretaceous, tertiary and quaternary ages. Which form the upper part
of the Anambra basin with local geology predominantly sandstone (Ajali sandstone) four vertical
electrical sounding (VES) were carried out scattered across the area using the schlumberger
electrode array configuration, with current electrode separation (AB) varying from 1 to 200m.
The interpretation of the VES data was done using computer aided software. This assisted in the
characterization of the subsurface into three to five geo-electric and the aquifer unit was
delineated. This layers are categorized into the topsoil, sandy- clay, clayey sand and sandstone.
The aquifer is inferred in the sandstone and the clayey sand area, which is between 180 to 200m
in all the locations. The thickness of the aquifer varies for different VES location in the area with
an average of 8meters. On the basis of geo-electric parameter, the area is said to have variable
depth to water table. Generally, the study area is good in groundwater only if the depth of 180 –
200meters is reached.

Keywords: Aquifer, Sandstone, Groundwater, Cretaceous, Basin

INTRODUCTION
Lack of adequate water supply has been a persistent problem to the people of Iviukwe
community Agenebode in Etsako East Local Government Area of Edo State. Despite the fact
that Agenebode town is located close to the bank of River Niger, the problem of portable water
supply still persists in all the surrounding communities in Agenebode the head quarter of Etsako
East Local Government Area. Rainwater harvester, streams, and lakes has been the major source
of water supply to this area, due to the high demand of water; the rainwater harvester can only
last for maximum of five to six month depending on the number of people in each household.
And the streams get dried up at the peak of the dry season due to lowering of the water table.

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Therefore, the need for adequate and portable water supply to the area prompted for geological,
geophysical, and Hydro-geological investigation of the area, using electrical resistivity method.
To unravel the mystery out of groundwater, a detailed geophysical and hydro-geological
understanding of the aquifer types, its spatial location is paramount in order to characterize the
hydric zones in an area. To avoid drilling wells in unfavourable locations, a reliable method is
required for assessing ground formation before drilling takes place. This may ensure that a
prospective productive well is sited where the aquifer is of adequate thickness and probably good
quality (Zaafran, 1981).

Water occurs naturally as moisture in the upper part of the soil profile (atmosphere) as dew, on
the earth‘s surface as streams, rivers, oceans, lakes, springs etc. and beneath the earth‘s surface
as groundwater. Although it is believed that the greater percentage of the earth‘s surface is
composed of water from either, the seas, oceans, rivers, streams, ponds, springs or otherwise, yet
none of these surface water sources is as much less vulnerable to contamination as groundwater
(MacDonald et al., 2005). The amount of freshwater available for human use is less than 0.08%
of all the water on the planet (BBC Sci./Tech. News, 2000). For this obvious reason,
groundwater is recommended for its natural microbiological quality for most uses. Due to its
scarcity, water related diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and guinea worm infestations are
found in many parts of the world. These infestations are as a result of lack of boreholes which
led people to depend solely on ponds and other existing surface water. Although, groundwater is
less contaminated than surface waters, pollution of this major water supply has become an
increasing concern in industrialized nations (Microsoft® Encarta®, 2009).

The importance of this study are numerous in the sense that it aims at providing a lasting solution
to problem of water scarcity in the study area by finding and providing information about
groundwater potential of the study area, the depth to water table, and also, encouraging the
people of the area to go into drilling of borehole in order to quality water for consumption.

Study Area
Iviukwe is one of the community around Agenebode town the headquarter of Etsako East Local
Government Area which is a water side town located by the banks of the River Niger in Edo
state and the traditional capital of Wappa Wanno Kingdom. It is bounded by longitudes (60
3414011 E to 60 351 451E) and latitudes (70 51 5511 N to 70 612411N). The area (25km East from
Auchi) is accessed through the Auchi -Agenebode Road.

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Figure 1: Map of the study area showing access roads and VES point.

Field procedures

The period for the field work was between February and march when the ground was
considerably dry. This ensured good current conduction between the earth and the electrodes.
The electrical resistivity measurements were taken along approximately straight roads and
footpaths but some of VES points fall within bushy area. This was usually done during lopping.
At looping stage, different resistance readings were taken at the same current electrode
separation. The essence of looping is to permit the detection of near surface in-homogeneities.
He also established communication contact between the instrument controller and the two rear
men especially when they are very far from spread centre.

Geophysical Data Acquisition Using Electrical Resistivity Method.

Most of the electrical resistivity techniques require injection of electrical currents into the
subsurface via a pair of electrodes planted on the ground. By measuring the resulting variations
in electrical potential at other pairs of planted electrodes, it is possible to determine the variations
in resistivity (Dobrin, 1988; Alile et al., 2011)
Three (3) vertical electrical soundings (VES) readings were acquired. After the field survey, the
measured field data–Resistance (R) in (ohms) was converted to apparent resistivity (ῥa) in ohm-
meters using the formula:
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ῥa = πL2 / 2L (∆V⁄1)
Where,
L = AB/2 (m)
I = MN/2 (m)
∆V/I = Resistance (Ω)
πL2 /2L = Geometric factor (K)
AB = Current electrode spacing (m)
MN = Potential electrode spacing (m)
The apparent resistivity values obtained from the formula above were plotted against half current
electrode spacing on a log-log graph sheet to get the sounding curves which were represented as
VES curves. These VES curves were processed using computer simulation programs called
―IP12win‖ The accuracy of the curve and models generated in this work relied mostly on
automated iterative technique.

Geophysical Data Interpretation Techniques

The geophysical data generated in the field were interpreted using a combination of computer
iterative program and curve matching techniques. The computer program provides the user with
the tools for interpreting DC Resistivity sounding data in terms of layer earth model. The
interpretation technique is an automatic iterative procedure in which the calculated data are
compared with the actual data and the resistivity model is updated based on the difference
between the observed and calculated data. The procedure is continued until the calculated data
match the actual data to a pre-defined error level. This will generate geologically reasonable
layer structured models that will agree with available geological information.
Zohdy, (1989) had pointed out that Layering obtained by resistivity method cannot be strictly
taken to imply changes in lithology; rather it is based on the electrical properties of the layers.
The interpreted data will be presented graphically as VES curves with the resistivity values of
each station, thicknesses of the aquifer, and depth of each horizontal layer at each location
studied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Plots of Apparent Resistivity Versus Current Electrode Separation (AB/2) were generated. The
VES curves showing the field resistivity, calculated resistivity and thickness of the subsurface
layers in the area are presented below (Figs.2-4)

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THE PLOTS OF THE APPARENT RESISTIVITY VERSUS ELECTRODE SPACING

AS ANALYSED USING IPI2WIN SOFT WARE

Figure 2. Typical depth sounding curve showing synthetic curve and pseudo cross-section for
VES 1

Figure 3. Typical depth sounding curve showing synthetic curve and pseudo cross-section for
VES 2

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Figure 4. Typical depth sounding curve showing synthetic curve and pseudo cross-section for
VES 3

Interpretations of Results
From the above curves (Fig.2) VES1 can be reduced to a minimum of four layers, and the the
interpretation for the various layer is as follows:
The ascending steeply slope correspond with topsoil at about 1 to 1.5m thick, with high
resistivity which is believed to be material from the Nsukka formation capping the Ajali
formation. The second layer correspond to poorly compacted, weathered and ferrugenisation red
earth material still from the Nuskka formation about 8-10m thick, and the third layer is a
consolidated sandstone about 5m-10m thick from the Ajali sandstone. The forth layer is the
saturated clayey sand located at about 180m and above still within the Ajali sandstone. From the
geology of the area and from literature review Ajali sandstone is the main aquiferous unit for the
area, and the above interpretation of the field curve one above match with the geology of the
area, therefore VES1 can be recommended for drilling for a productive borehole and the depth
should be minimum of 180m and maximum of 250m for a productive borehole.

VES 2 as shown in (Fig. 3) above, has a minimum of four layers as: lateritic topsoil about 1-
2m thick, the second layer with high apparent resistivity correspond to a ferrugenised compacted
lateritic soil from the Nuskka formation, which is about 5m thick. The third layer islikely to be
the Ajali sandstone comprising the unsaturated sandstone of about 20m thick, the partially
saturated sandstone at about 80 to 100m, and the fully saturated sandstone from 180m and above.
From the literature review, it was reviewed that the thickness of the Ajali formation varies with
an average thickness of 300m, and therefore the depth to watertable in the area varies with few

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meters in different location. For a productive borehole in this location, the depth should not be
less than 150m.
VES 3 with anscending and a gently descending steeply slope indicating the order of resistivity
as shown in ( Fig. 4) above, shows a minimum of three major layers matched with interpretation
for VES 2 above. The only difference here is that the high resistivity topsoil is underlain by
sandy clay/ shale material likely to be from Imo shale of about 5-7m thick. and unsaturated
sand, and the saturated sandstone (where the aquifer is located), corresponding to a depth of 190-
200m and above.

Conclusion
The aquifer units in Iviukwe in Agenebode of the Anambra basin have been delineated using
the Vertical Electrical Sounding survey technique.
The aquifer units in the study area consists of partially saturated sandstone and saturated
sandstone units corresponding to the third layer in some VES locations, and fourth and fifth in
some geo-electric layers of the VES curves respectively. These layers occur at mean depths of
170meters and above. It is therefore recommended that the minimum depth for successful
borehole yields in the study area should be about 180meters and above

REFERENCE

Alile, M. O, Jegede, S.I. and Ehigiator, O. M., (2008). Underground water exploration using
electrical resistivity method in Edo State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Earth Sciences.
Vol.1, pp 38-43.

BBC Sci/Tech News (2000). Water arithmetic ―doesn‘t add up‖ – Report of the World
Commission on Water for 21ist Century.

Dobrin, M. B., (1988). Introduction to geophysical prospecting (4th edition). Mc.Graw Hill Inc.
New York, USA p. 629

MacDonald, A., Davies, J., Calow, R., and Chilto, J. (2005). Developing groundwater, A guide
for rural water supply. www.itdgppublishing.org.uk. pp. 1- 358.

MacDonald, A., Davies, J., and Dochartagh, B. E. O. (2002). Simple methods for assessing
groundwater resources in low permeability areas of Africa. British Geological Survey
Commissioned Report, CR/01/168N.

Microsoft Encarata, (2009). Groundwater, Redmond, W.A Microsoft Corporation

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Zaafran, Z. M., (1981). The use of a new resistivity space display technique in groundwater
investigation. Geo-exploration Vol. 18, No. 4. pp. 247 – 258.

Zhody, A. R. (1989). A new method for the automatic interpretation of Schlumberger and
Wenner sounding curves. Geophysics Vol. 54 (2) pp. 245-257.

Zhody, A. A. R. (1976). Application of surface geophysics (Electrical methods to groundwater

investigations) In Techniques for water resources investigations in the United States
Geological Survey, Book 2, Section D, pp. 5-55.

Zohdy, A. R., Eaton, G. P. and Mabey, D. R. (1974). Application of surface geophysics to

groundwater investigation. In Techniques for water resources investigations. United
States Geological Survey papers. 123pp.

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TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: A TOOL FOR NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

Umoru Jude and Adamu Bala

Department of Basic Sciences, School of General Studies, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi
Correspondence: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Nigeria as a country is faced with so many challenging problems presently which can be
addressed by Technology Education. Technology Education (TE) as a tool for the growth and
development of Nigeria economy is the focal point of this paper. This paper examined the current
state of technology in Nigeria. It also highlighted the benefits of technology education in Nigeria
such as self-reliance, self-employment, agricultural innovation etc using simple percentage and
the hindrances to technology education in Nigeria were also enumerated including poor funding,
inadequate security, inadequate training facilities and lack of professional development.
Keywords: Education, Technology, Economy, Development and Nation.

INTRODUCTION
Education is a process whereby knowledge, skills, attitudes, culture, norms and behaviour are
acquired for the overall development of people. Education is the backbone of the nation
economy and technical development, (Ughamadu, 2008) as cited by Idiaghe and Okoh (2010).
He went further to state that every citizen needs education for his or her survival and for the
development of the nation.

Technology education (TE) is the study of the purposeful application of knowledge, skills and
experiences in using resources to create or add value to products and systems to meet human
needs. TE is clearly seen as a form of education for the development of industry as well as
practical skills (Schultz, 1996). It is an integral part of capacity building in a productive-
economy (Chukwuyekere, 2000). According to International Technology Education Society
(ITEA) (2000), technology education is the study of technology in which students ―learn about
the processes and knowledge related to technology. Technology Education is also defined by
Federal Ministry of Education (2004) as ―that aspect of education which leads to the acquisition
of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge‖.

Silvius and Bahn (1976) stated that technology education is defined to bring about industrial
development which in turn is a key player in economic development. This means that the world
of industries is the source of instructional content for technology education programme.
Galbraith (1985) defined technology as systematic application of scientific and other organized
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knowledge to practical tasks. Technology therefore encompasses scientific knowledge that must
be possessed by man. Take for instance, the use of sophisticated gadgetries and computerized
equipment has made life easier and comfortable.

Nigeria is yet to emerge as a leading nation in the global scene of technology education inspite of
all the benefits of technology. A lot is yet to be done individually or collectively to really
encourage Nigerians to technology as part of their culture and not as an alien to it (Usoro and
Edu, 1997).

It is the desire of every nation including Nigeria to develope technologically and to be self
sufficient and reliant. To achieve this, nations must make good use of technology education as a
tool for national development. According to Adebayo (2008), the minimum Gross National
Income (GNI) per capital of the high income economies which Nigeria intends to join is at least
USD 10,680 in the current rating. This established a need for rapid economic development which
technology education can easily address if given a priority.

For developing countries, access to technology can have many benefits – one such improvement
being the boost of nation‘s economy. Other ways that technology is helping economies in
developing countries include growth of new business and advancing communication.
An issue that developing countries must not bypass is prioritizing technology innovation,
not just adapting to technology. Another issue is that the distribution of technology needs must
be equal across a country.

Current State of Technology Education in Nigeria

The philosophy behind technology education is that the learner will be self-reliant in the society
at the face of unemployment as seen in Nigeria or be employed in the industry. Students learn
best by doing. TE trains different classes of manpower needed for the development of the nation.

In Nigeria, technology education has been criticized on the ground that it has not been able to
produce practically competent graduates who are equipped with problem solving abilities. The
major reason is poor and inadequate training facilities and equipment in the institution. In this
situation of limited or no-equipment, students are short changed in the acquisition of
technological skills. This ugly situation drew the attention of Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004)
to the implications of poor technology training outfit.

Nigeria is currently faced with some challenging problems such as insufficient energy and power
supply, inadequate security, lack of good transport system, bribery and corruption, kidnapping to
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mention some which technology education can go a long way to address if given adequate and
proper attention by government at all levels.

Benefits of Technology Education

The benefits developing nations can derive from prioritizing technology education
include:
 Self employment
 Reduction of cost of production
 Reduction of level of poverty
 Agricultural innovation
 Increase in Gross Domestic Products (GDP)
 Economic growth and development
 High rate of literacy

Hindrances to Technology Education in Nigeria

1. Resistance to Change: Teachers and school leaders often set technological expectation
as outside the scope of their job descriptions. ―They are comfortable with the status quo‖.
2. Professional Development: Lack of adequate ongoing professional development for
teachers who are required to integrate new technologies into their classrooms yet are
unprepared or unable to understand new technologies.
3. Inadequate Training Facilities: TE has been going through unrealistic growth in
Nigeria. One of the resounding aspects is the area of inadequate training facilities that it
has been encountering. According to Kalat (2007), the training facilities are the working
instrument that assists the acquisition of skills.
4. Inadequate Funding: Technology education requires high level of funding since it
requires several equipment, machines, and tools for its programme. Anything less than
the required funding will make it non-effective. Funding of technology education is a big
challenge in Nigeria.
5. Poor Policy Implementation: Education policy implementers take little or no account of
implementing policies that relate to technology education (Aina and Beecoft, 1992).
6. Societal Misconception: In Nigeria, technology education has a very low awareness.
The reason for this is the misconception and poor image generated around it. People had
this misconception that it is for the less intelligent and the inferiors in the society.

Research Questions
1. What are the benefits of technology education to Nigeria?
2. What are the factors affecting technology education in Nigeria?
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Materials and Method

The study is a survey type. The survey covered Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi. The population of the
study comprises of staff and students of the Polytechnic. A total number of one-hundred (100)
respondents were sampled using random probability sampling technique, a combination of both
teaching staff and students.

The instrument used for this research was questionnaire, designed by the researcher. The
instrument was distributed to two professional colleagues for content and items validation.
Observations made were incorporated to provide the final tem item questionnaire.

A reliability co-efficient of 0.63 was obtained, following the test-retest administration of the
instrument. On the basis of these values, it was assumed that the instrument adopted possessed
adequate reliability.

A total of one-hundred (100) questionnaires administered were retrieved. Descriptive statistical

method was then adopted for the analysis of data, frequency count and percentage were used to
analyze the research questions.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the research was to investigate the role of technology education in national
development. Specifically, the study sought to find out the:
- Benefits of technology education to Nigeria.
- Challenges or hindrances to technology development in Nigeria.

Result and Discussion

Table 1: Responses of staff and students towards benefits of technology education to Nigeria
S/N Items Suitable Yes (%) No (%)
1 Self Employment 100 (100) -
2 Self Sufficient and Reliant 84 (84) 16 (16)
3 Reduction in Poverty Level 92 (92) 08 (8)
4 Industrial Development 76 (76) 24 (24)
5 Reduction in Cost of Production 62 (62) 38 (38)
6 Agricultural Innovation 56 (56) 44 (44)
7 Increase in Gross Domestic Products (GNP) 91 (91) 09 (9)
8 High Rate of Literacy 53 (53) 47 (47)
9 Economic Growth and Development 92 (92) 08 (8)
10 Capacity Building 73 (73) 27 (27)
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In table 1, notable assessments were made on various items. The entire respondents indicated
that technological education results to self employment of individuals, a great benefit to Nigeria.

For item 2, eighty-four (84%) of the respondents indicated that technology education can make
Nigeria a self-reliant nation, while 16% of the respondents said no to it.

For item 3, 4 and 5 items, 92%, 76% and 62% of respondents indicated that reduction in poverty
level, industrial development and reduction in cost of production respectively are benefits of
technology development to Nigeria, while 8%, 24% and 38% of respondents opposed item 3, 4
and 5 respectively.

For item 6, 7 and 8, 56%, 91% and 53% of the respondents indicated that agricultural innovation,
increasing GDP and high rate of illiteracy through technology education is a benefit to Nigeria
whereas 44%, 09% and 47% of the respondents objected to the items.

For item 9 and 10, 92% and 73% of the respondents respectively indicated that economic growth
and development and capacity building through technology education are benefit to Nigeria,
while 8% and 27% of respondents said no to the items.

Table 2: Responses of Staff and Students on factors affecting technology education in Nigeria
S/N Items Suitable Yes (%) No (%)
1 Resistance to Change 58 (58) 42 (42)
2 Inadequate Training Facilities 100 (100) -
3 Lack of Professional Development 86 (86) 14 (14)
4 Inadequate Funding 96 (96) 96 (96)
5 Poor Policy Implementation 63 (63) 37 (37)
6 Societal Misconception 59 (59) 41 (41)
7 Failures of Personalized Learning 36 (36) 64 (64)
8 Kids will know more than my attitude 83 (83) 17 (17)
9 Inadequate Security 78 (78) 22 (22)
10 Lack of Hardware and Guidance of use them 33 (33) 67 (67)
In table 2, majority of respondents indicated the factors that hinder technology education in
Nigeria. The responses as indicated is for either ―Yes‖ or ―No‖ as the case might be. Such factors
include resistance to change, inadequate training facilities, professional development, inadequate
funding, poor policy implementation, societal misconception and kids will know more than me
attitude and inadequate security.
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Conclusion
It has been discussed in this paper that technology education is a tool for national development.
It was found that self employment, self reliance, reduction in poverty level, industrial
development, reduction in cost of production, agricultural innovation, increase in GNP, high rate
of literacy, economic growth and development and capacity building are benefits of technology
education to Nigeria.
It was also found that the hindrances to or factors affecting technology education in Nigeria
include resistance to change, inadequate training facilities, lack of professional development,
inadequate funding, poor policy implementation, societal misconception and kids will know
more than me attitude.

References
Adebayo, J. (2008). Problem of Technological Development. Punch Newspaper, May 25, 20
(1993), 13.
Aina, O. and Beecroft, G. A. (1992). Towards Adequate Supply of Quality Technical
Manpowers. Education and Development, 1(12), 18-23.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy of Education, 4th Edition, Lagos.
Government Press.
Galbraith, J. R. (1985). The New Industrial Stale. Boston: Houghton Mittlin Company.
Idiagbe, J. E. & Ekoh, E. (2010). Analysis of Female Attitude towards Information Technology
(ICT) Education Nigerian Universities for Sustainable Development. Benin Journal of
General Studies, 2(2).
International Technology Education Association (ITEA) (2000). Standards for Technological
Literacy; Content for the Study of Technology. Executive Summary. Boston: Va, P242.
Kalat, I. K. (2009). Technical and Vocational Education Facilities. A Care of Concern in the
Education Reform Agenda. A Paper Presented at the 20th National Conference of
National Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT), Kaduna.
Schultz, D. P. (1996). Psychology and Industry Today. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Usoro, H. S. and Edu, D. O. (1997). The Illusion of Transfer of Technology. Journal of Research
on General Studies, 3(1), 17-223.

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THE STATE OF INTELLIGENT BUILDING FCILITIES AND ITS

EFFECT ON PROPERTY VALUES IN BENIN CITY

Dedegu Uduimoh Irumhi

Department of Estate Management,
Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi.
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
A building incorporating the latest technologies and automatically controlled to function could
be considered as intelligent. The role of the emerging technologies remains undeniable; aspects
like the responsiveness or the adaptability of buildings towards the changing needs of the built
environment becomes crucial. This paper investigates the state of intelligent building facilities
and its impact on on property values in Benin city. The paper gave a review of intelligent
facilities of intelligent buildings, their functions and benefits to property owners, investors and
occupiers. The study assessed 25 commercial and administrative buildings in the central
business district of Benin City. The result of the analysis suggest that intelligent building
facilities were in a good condition due to adequate maintenance and management by owners and
investors. The paper also found out that those building with intelligent building facilities exhibit
higher property values than conventional buildings.

Key words: Intelligent buildings, Intelligent facilities, Property values.

1.0 Introduction
Intelligent buildings have been noted to reduce building construction costs, reduce labour costs
and life cycle costs as well as improved property values. Intelligent buildings strongly resemble
machines, because of their mechanical, electrical and computing components. A building cannot
adjust to the environment without some measure of intelligence. A building cannot be intelligent
by itself but needs some human help to give it some artificial intelligence (Iwuagwu & Iwuagwu,
2014).

An intelligent building is in essence one that integrates disparate building systems such as
lighting, HVAC, safety, security, power management, shared network, voice and data
communication, etc. to effectively manage resources in a coordinated mode and provide
significant high performance benefits. An ideal intelligent building should provide a dynamic
and responsive infrastructure using technology so as to optimize processes, comfort, flexibility,
effectiveness, energy efficiency, costs and environmental benefits (Gadakari, Mushatat, &

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Newman, 2014). The Intelligent Building Institute (IBI) has proposed that ―an intelligent
building is one that provides a productive and cost-effective environment through optimization
of its four basic elements; structure, systems, services and management, and the inter-
relationship between them‖. Intelligent buildings are diverse in nature and employ many
different techniques to enhance productivity and drive down cost. Most of them share a set of
characteristics that set them apart from other buildings (Albert & Wia, 1990).
(Atkin, 1988) comprehensively highlighted the attributes that an intelligent building should
possess as follows;
 ―Buildings should ‗know‘ what is happening inside and immediately outside.
 Buildings should ‗decide‘ the most efficient way of providing a convenient, comfortable and
productive environment for the occupants.
 Buildings should ‗respond quickly to occupants‘ requests‖.

The business value of intelligent buildings could be assessed from three aspects. The first aspect
is the purpose of the intelligent building development, which is to create value, which manifests
in increased productivity, optimized assets utilization, incremental and new revenues, enabling
business models etc. the second aspect is the building‘s performance. Intelligent buildings
produce high quality performance, reduced operating costs, centralized operations and
maintenance, energy use efficiency etc. while the third aspect is the experience of owners,
operators and occupiers/ tenants of such buildings. Intelligent building create identity, attract
retain tenants, quests and workforce. It also significantly increases real estate values such as
rental values and capital values. There have been few studies attempted to measure the price
effects of intelligent buildings. Studies that have identified higher rents and improved returns
based on the views and experiences of expert profession still require empirical verification
(Fuerst & Mcallister, 2009). While recognizing the centrality of pricing to adoption, recent
reviews of the literatures have found little convincing research that identified a certification
premium (Berry, 2007). Nelson (2007) examined the performance differences between
intelligent buildings and conventional buildings using a number of criteria. Drawing upon a
CoStar data base, the study compared intelligent buildings with a vastly larger sample of
conventional buildings in the CoStar database. While acknowledging the significant differences
between the sample and the wider population, it found that intelligent buildings tended to be
newer, owner occupied or single tenanted, concentrated geographically and more in the office
sector. Recognizing that it did not control for these differences, the study identified lower
vacancy rates and higher rents in intelligent buildings.

Intelligent building features cover a wide range of services and facilities namely security
systems, heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), voice and data communication,
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elevator systems, life safety/ fire systems, lighting, internet protocol video surveillance/CCTV
and energy management. When intelligent building facilities is adequately provided and
efficiently managed, productive and profitable land uses are usually attracted towards such area.
These land uses compete with less productive uses through better rent offers. The competition
for location and accommodation with good intelligent building facility usually result in increased
land and housing values, either sales or rental values (Hervey, 1994).
It is evident that a myriad of factors such as prevailing economic condition, government
legislation and policies, availability and the state of intelligent building facilities come into play
to influence property values. In carrying out this study, all other factors were assumed constant
while intelligent building facilities was isolated and examined in relation to property values.
This study therefore highlights and evaluates the state of intelligent building facilities in Benin
and its effects on property values. To achieve this, the following steps shall be taken.
 Identify the types and state of intelligent building facility available in the study area.
 Examine the problems associated with the provision and maintenance of intelligent building
facilities in the study area.
 Examine the effects of intelligent buildings facilities on property values

It is hoped that this study will assist the planning authorities, cooperate bodies, government at
different levels and individuals in mapping out master plan/ proposals for intelligent building
development. In addition, the study will render meaningful assistance in the development of
strategies for estate layout that will promote urban environmental quality thereby enhancing
property values in the area of study.

2.0 Intelligent Building Features and Functions

Intelligent building features are complementary to a set of common goals: increasing energy
efficiency and reducing operating costs in other to increase net rental incomes and asset values
(Valhouli, 2010). Valhouli (2010) further asserted that intelligent building features enhances the
performance of intelligent buildings by enabling systems to interact with each other, to respond
to changes in the environment and to track performance in real time.
The following are some of the intelligent building features and their functions;

2.1 Life Safety and Security System

This aspect of intelligence is very important, as it deals with the protection of life and property.
Life safety and security systems (LSS system) ensures safety and security of occupants in terms
of fire prevention/detection/control, crime prevention and also serves as a means of monitoring
the use of the building (Continental Automated Building Association, 2008). The LSS can be
categorized into two; fire prevention and crime prevention devices.
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i. Fire prevention devices

Fire prevention devices play a very vital role in ensuring safety to the lives and property of
occupants. Their principal function is the ability to detect the outbreak of fire rapidly and
safeguard lives and properties, without error (Ohba, 2012). Fire must be detected in its early
stages and its existence, notified to be extinguished early. Some common fire prevention devices
include;
• Smoke detectors: these are sensors, installed on or near the ceilings in every room at a
maximum spacing of 5.1metres centers. These sensors have the ability to detect when a
combustible substance such as smoke, reaches a predetermined density. The smoke detectors are
part of an automatic fire alarm system, allowing immediate notification of the central control unit
when high density of smoke is detected. Proper effective measures can be taken thereafter (Ohba,
2012).
• Fire alarms: Buildings stand a greater risk of loss when they are unoccupied in the case of
fire outbreaks. Fire alarms, like smoke detectors are also placed on or near the ceiling at adequate
spacing. They are also incorporated in the automatic fire prevention system. When heat is
produced due to the presence of fire in a building, it alerts the central control unit, which in
response triggers water sprinklers or drenches to extinguish fire (Olarinoye, 2004).
Smoke detectors and fire alarms are however installed as early warning devices in cases of fire
hazards, to allow occupants evacuate safely, and enable fire fighters to extinguish fire in time
(Samuel, 2013).
ii. Crime prevention devices
Crime prevention in buildings is achieved by integration of some systems which include;
• Card access control: This method employs the use of magnetic cards, used to control
access into a building. These cards determine who opens and closes which doors. Card access
control is most commonly used in hotels and other public commercial buildings all over the
world, and even in Nigeria. In addition to security, it is used in high technology offices to log the
coming and closing times of workers. This way, overtime are calculated automatically added into
the pay slip of workers. It also serves as a way to monitor who is within a building at any certain
time of the day (Adejimi, 2005).
 Closed circuit television (CCTV): this aspect of intelligence is also common in public
buildings. It is one of the simplest forms of ensuring security in buildings. The CCTV
systems are installed in areas that require continuous monitoring. Cameras are placed such
that one camera detects information which another in incapable of capturing. The cameras
then relay information to a computer, which then displays the different areas being captured,
all on one screen. This way, monitoring of all cameras can be done at the same time (Smith,
2010).

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 Biometric sensors: These sensors use biological identification means, to allow users access a
building. The biological information, e.g. fingerprints, retina scan, full-body scan, etc. of the
users allowed are stored in a database. When a request for access is made, the database is
queried and allows access into the building if there is a match (Samuel, 2013).
 Intrusion alarms: These are devices invented to detect burgling in buildings. When any
unauthorized entry of opening of doors or windows occurs, the device notifies the central
control unit, which then triggers the alarms (Olarinoye, 2004). Passive infrared sensors or
ultrasonic systems used as occupancy sensors can also be used as intrusion alarms (Energy
Design Resource, 2007).

2.2 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

The principal objective of the HVAC system is to provide a comfortable and satisfactory thermal
environment for building occupants, which has great impact on their outputs as Samuel (2013)
states. HVAC systems consume a great percentage of the overall power supply of buildings
(about 25%). HVAC systems are generally controlled by building automation systems that can
permit individual occupants to adjust workspace temperatures ( within prescribed limits),
monitor temperatures and adjust according to a usage profile, adjust humidity, temperature and
air flow speeds, use either variable air volume or constant volume air distribution designs. The
former allows greater individual control and adjust indoor air quality based on room occupancy
and building standard. HVAC generate significant cost savings through peak load monitoring
and balancing; improve employee environment and productivity and increase equipment
longevity and lower operational costs through proper cooling in data center spaces.

2.3 Lighting
Control of lighting can be done in various ways, the most common method being the use of the
on/off switch in most buildings. This method lighting control is manual and therefore wastes
energy as the lights are left on even when they are not needed. Intelligent buildings however,
employ the use of automatic lighting control systems. Automatic lighting control might be in
form of simply turning the lights on or off (automatically) according to presence or absence of
occupants, or by other processes that don‘t involve switching the lights off. For example, lights
could be dimmed when a room is not occupied, or alternate light points could be switched off to
reduce total consumption (Ahmed, 2009). The following are methods employed in achieving
automatic light control;
i. Occupancy recognition: This method is used in intermittently occupied spaces. If functions
by automatically switching on the light when occupants are present, and turning off when
the occupants vacate the room. Recognition devices use two principal technologies to
operate:
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 Ultrasonic systems: they transmit inaudible audio to a receiver. Any movement alters the
transmitted sound waves and is recognized by the receiver causing it to initiate a control
action.
 Passive infrared sensors: these use pyro electric detectors to sense radiation emitted by
people, which is transmitted to the detector, which then triggers a control event (Energy
Design Resources, 2010).
ii. Scheduling: in this method, a schedule of lighting is prepared and fed to the BAS. The
illumination in given areas are activated, deactivated or adjusted according to the
predetermined schedule.
iii. Daylight harvesting: this is a means whereby daylight entering the building is harnessed
for usage. Sensors are strategically positioned to determine ambient lighting levels. The
information is relayed to the central controlling unit, which then triggers the activating and
deactivating, dimming or adjusting (Energy Design Resources, 2010).

2.4 Elevator System

Intelligent building systems can provide occupants with improved elevators services. Elevator
control can be quite complex, particularly with multiple elevator groupings and incorporating
traffic patterns into the system. Some elevators may be shut down for part of the day to conserve
energy. Current designs frequently include communication within the elevators to permit the use
of access control cards and closed circuit surveillance is becoming widespread. An effective
access control system can permit dynamic changes to user privileges‘ so that for example, certain
floor may not be accessible even with an approved access control card, unless they are already
people occupying that floor.
Elevators can save energy by slowing down or stopping when detectors indicate no traffic. This
approach to energy savings also benefit the mechanical components that need not run
continuously. Elevator systems minimize break downs through ongoing monitoring, improve
security and tenant protection and improve communication through on board flat screen
technology.

2.5 Voice and Data Communication

This feature integrates voice, video and data communication. It improves business operations
with a more reliable and faster network. It equally reduces down time and increases productivity
voice and data communication capabilities are integral to the effective operation of a building
and its occupants. In an intelligent building, data communication is vital to the integration of all
other automated building systems e.g. lighting, energy management and HVAC. Generally‖data‖
in the context of ―voice and data‖, refers only to end-user data, such as e-mail, internet and
database access. Voice and data in building communications includes voices services e.g.
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telephones, voice-mail and intercoms, building systems, e.g. paging, elevator music and kiosks;
video and audio conferencing, local and wide area networks, e-mail, internet access data base
access, ability to access building services remotely, e.g, when working from home; and
television systems.
Voice and communication provides business operations with a more reliable faster network,
reduce downtime and increase productivity and generate improved profitability through
increased productivity.

2.6 Benefits of Intelligent Buildings

i. Environment
The major benefit of rapid evolution of information technology has been the development of
systems that can measure, evaluate and respond to change. This has influenced development in
the way our physical environment in designed, in particularly the building.

ii. Cost Saving

The intelligent buildings recognizes that the true cost of a building is not simple its cost of
construction, it must include operating and maintenance cost over the structure‘s life span.
Intelligent buildings yield cost reductions (through sharing of equipment by many users) in all of
their areas by optimizing automated control, communication and management systems. They
also guard against repair costs, employee time/productivity loss and revenue loss. For example,
when doors and windows shutter close and open on the approach of a human being, change of
weather and wind movement respectively, they are free from handling and banging that
precipitate repair cost.

iii. Energy Saving

With the increase and awareness of energy use concerns, and the advances in cost-effective
technologies, energy efficiency is fast becoming part of real estate management, facilities
management and operations strategy. For lighting, energy saving can be up to 75% of the
original circuit load, which represents 5% of the total consumption of the residential and
commercial sectors. Energy saving potential from water heating, cooling or hot water production
can be up to 10% which represent up to 7% of the energy consumption of residential and
commercial sector.

iv. Green House Gas Benefits

Green house gas emission reductions correlate to reduction in energy use. Intelligent buildings
contribute to the reduction in energy use, in commercial, industrial, institutional and residential
sectors.
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v. Intelligent City
The idea of shaping Nigerian cities with intelligent buildings is linked to broader dream of
intelligent cities. When every building in a city is intelligent, then the city is intelligent. An
intelligent city is where the city infrastructure is managed more intelligently through an effective
and appropriate technology. In this regards, intelligent buildings are not just stand alone entities,
but interconnected hubs within the city wide infrastructure. The natural consequence of this is
the development of cities within cities with smaller ecosystems comprising a tightly integrated
network of buildings that better enable the management and optimization of systems and
resources.

This will give rise to an entirely different set of drivers that make intelligent buildings an
economic and business necessity. Perhaps the most important business driver is the ability to
reduce cost, optimize manpower utilization and improve service level through aggregation,
service integration and process automation.
Intelligent building technologies will allow problems to be solved well in advance of today‘s
capacity. The world is growing predominantly urban with over half of the world population
living in cities. The application of intelligent building will help to improve the quality of life and
productivity of the country.

vi. Caring Homes

One of the prospects in intelligent building is the caring homes. Caring homes execute a lot of
physical actions which could be automatic or under remote control. A frail elderly or disabled
person who wants to remain independent in their homes is good users of caring homes. The
building will gather information on impending hazards, using voice or other modalities of
negotiating and will summon help if need be.

3.0 Methodology
The location selected for this study is the central business district of Benin City where there is
high concentration of buildings with intelligent building features/facilities. The building selected
were commercial and administrative buildings with a minimum of four floors, hotels and
departmental stores. However, there was a limitation in collection of data from intelligent
buildings. This was as a result of the scarcity of intelligent buildings and the noncooperation of
some of the operators of the existing ones. Data analysis was based on the 21 questionnaire
returned out of 25 administered randomly to respondents in Benin. The study employed primary
sources of data collection. The primary source of data collection include face to face interview
using and administering questionnaires, using the simple random sampling technique in order to
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have a representative sampling of respondents. The statistical analytical tool used include simple
frequency distribution, percentages and weighted mean scores. The weighted mean score be
determining using
WMS= 5n5 +4n4+3n3=2n2=1n1
N
N5= strongly agreed, N4= Agreed, N3=Undecided, N2=Disagreed, N1=strongly disagreed

4.0 Data analysis and Discussion

Table 1: Assessment of the state or condition of facilities provided
Facilities Very good. Good Fair Poor Non
Freq. % of Freq. % of Freq. % of Freq. % of existence
resp. resp. resp. resp. Freq. % of
resp.
Video surveillance 09 (42.86) 09 (42.86) 02 (9.52) 01 (4.76) 00 (00)
camera / CCTV
Lighting 07 (33.33) 10 (47.62) 04 (19.05) 00 (00) 00 (00)
Fire system 05 (23.81) 11 (52.38) 03 (14.29) 02 (9.52) 00 (00)
Heat, ventilation and 11 (52.38) 08 (38.1) 02 (9.52) 00 (00) 00 (00)
Air conditioning
(HVAC)
Elevator system 08 (38.1) 02 (9.52) 02 (9.52) 00 (00) 09 (42.85)
Voice and data 11 (52.38) 06 (28.57) 04 (19.05) 00 (00) 00 (00)
communication
Source: field survey 2020.

From table 1 above, one major facility that stand out, as being efficiently managed is voice and
data communication, voted very good by52.38% of the total respondents the result can be
ascribed to the improvement of telecommunication operators in Nigeria. Other facilities assessed
as being very good are heat, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and video surveillance
camera. The reason for this may not be unconnected with provision and management of the
facilities by the owners. The table shows that elevator systems and fire systems are performing
poorly or not even in existence at all in some areas within the study areas.

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Table 2: Maintenance culture

Level of Maintenance Response Percentage (%)
Excellent 07 33.33
Adequate 10 47.62
Not adequate 02 9.52
Poor Maintenance 02 9.52
No Maintenance 00 00
Total 21 100
Source: field survey, 2020.

Table 2 depicts that 47.62% or (10 out of 21) of the respondents says the maintenance of
intelligent building facilities was adequate, 33.33% or (7 out of 21) voted for excellent
maintenance of facilities while 9.52% or (2 out of 21) of the respondents voted for poor
maintenance. No respondent voted for no maintenance. It can then be reasonably concluded that
majority of the respondents are convinced that there is adequate maintenance for intelligent
building facilities.

Table 3: Rankings showing the problems associated with intelligent building facilities in Benin
City.
S/N Problems SA A U D SD Weighted Ranking
Mean score
1 High cost of acquiring facilities 11 05 04 1 00 4.23 1st
2 High cost of providing security for 08 03 03 04 03 3.42 3rd
facilities
3 High cost of maintenance 10 04 06 01 00 4.09 2nd
4 Inadequate technical personnel to 06 03 04 05 03 3.19 4th
carry out repairs/maintenance
5 Cost of providing electricity to 09 03 04 03 02 3.67 5th
power facilities
6 Unavailability of broken parts of 05 04 04 03 05 3.05 6th
facilities
7 Cost of installation of facilities 03 03 04 10 01 2.86 7th
Source: field survey, 2020.

From table 3 above, presentation shows that cost of acquiring facilities was ranked the highest
with 4.23 weighted mean score followed by cost of maintenance, cost of providing electricity,
cost of securing facilities with 4.09, and 3.42 respectively. The least ranked were cost of
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installation, unavailability of broken parts and inadequate technical personnel to carry out
repairs. It can reasonably be concluded that despite the myriad of problems associated with
intelligent building facilities, cost of acquisition and maintenance including cost of providing
electricity are notable.

Table 4: Effect of intelligent building facilities on property values

Level of Maintenance Response Percentage (%)
Very high effect 13 62
Significant effect 07 33.33
Low effect 01 4.76
No effect 00 00
Total 21 100
Source: field survey, 2020.

From table 4 above, most of the respondents with 62% or (13 out of 21) confirm the assertion
that the effect of intelligent buildings on property values is very high while disagreed.it can then
be reasonably concluded that both rental and capital values are enhanced with the presence of
intelligent building facilities installed in buildings.

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

Recommendation
In view of the foregoing, there is the need for an efficient management of intelligent building
facilities to bring about reduction of operational cost, improvement of productivity, higher net
income and lower void rates in building. It is anticipated that better informed developers,
investors and occupiers will shift towards more environmentally responsible production,
investment and use. Real property investors should make effort to allocate more capital to
intelligent buildings development to create rental differences between conventional buildings and
intelligent buildings.

Conclusion
The main focus of this study was to ascertain the state of intelligent building facilities and its
effect on property values. The result from the findings shows that intelligent building facilities
were in a very good condition due to better management and maintenance by owners of facilities.
Also, all intelligent building facilities result in increased property values. Despite the problems
associated with the provision and maintenance of intelligent building facilities, It is generally
accepted that there are benefits associated with intelligent buildings. For occupiers, there will
often be reductions in operational cost associated with occupying the buildings, improvement in
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productivity of the occupiers business and image benefits of the occupier. For investors, there
may be higher net operating incomes.

References
Adejimi, A. (2005). Intelligent buildings and relevance of design professionals in the global age.
Globalization, Culture and the Nigerian Built Environment, 142-146.
Ahmed, M. G. (2009). Intelligent buildings: Challenges and benefits of implementation in
Nigeria. Unpublished terminal essay (Bsc), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Albert, T., & Wia, L. C. (1990). Intelligent building systems. New York: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Atkin, B. (1988). Intelligent buildings: Applications of IT and building automation to high
technology construction projects. In B. Atkin, Progress toward Intelligent Building.
London: Unicom Seminars Limited.
Berry, T. (2007). Towards a green building and infrastructure investment fund: A review of
challenges and opportunity. Compass resources management.
CABA, (2002). Technology road map for intelligent Buildings. Continental automated buildings
society, 1-66.
Continental Automated Building Association. (2008). Journal on a meeting held.
Energy Design Resource. (2007). Design brief: Smart buildings. Retrieved 10th June, 2015, from
http://www.edn.com.
Energy Design Resources. (2010). Design brief: Energy management systems. Retrieved 25th
June, 2015, from http://www.edn.com.
Faluerst, F., & McAllister, P. (2009). New evidence on green building rent and price premium.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Real estate society, CA April 3,
2009. 1-30.
Gadakari, T., Mushatat, S., & Newman, R. (2014). Intelligent buildings: Key to achieving total
sustainability in the built environment. Journal of Engineering, Project and Production
Management, 2-16.
Iwuagwu, U. B., & Iwuagwu, M. C. (2014). Adopting intelligent buildings in Nigeria: The hopes
and fears. 2nd International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and
Technology, 160-163.
Nelson, A. (2007). The greening of US. Investment real estate market fundamentals, prospect
and opportunities. RREEF Research report No. 57
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Ohba, R. (2012). Intelligent sensor technology.

Olarinoye, O. (2004). Intelligent buildings: Its benefits and challenges. Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria: Unpublished project (Bsc).
Samuel, H. N. (2013). Assessment of intelligent building and its prospects in Zaria. Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria: Unpublished project (Bsc).
Smith, T. (2010). Advantages and disadvantages of smart buildings. www.edu.com.

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EFFECT OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) WASTE ON THE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURES

Yusuf O. K.1; Shehu S. A.2; Adeniran-Bakare S. M.3 and Alhassan A.1

1
Civil Engineering Department, Kogi State Polytechnic, Lokoja. [email protected],
08064432088
2
Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering Department, Kogi State Polytechnic, Lokoja.
3
Civil Engineering Department, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos,

ABSTRACT
The tendency of building materials in concrete to be exposed to fire hazard during their service
life in structures has prompted researchers to check the effects of using Expanded Polystyrene
(EPS) waste as alternative building materials in concretes at elevated temperatures. The study is
to investigates the effects on the Compressive strength of concrete containing Expanded
Polystyrene (EPS) waste as partial replacement for coarse aggregates at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30,
35, 40, 45, and 50% exposed to temperatures of 28, 200, 400, 600, and 800℃ respectively for a
duration of 2 hours each. After 28 days curing period, the compressive strength at room
temperature (28℃) decreases as EPS content increases; at 200℃ and 400℃, the compressive
strength was observed to have increased at 5, 10 and 15% EPS content, while at 600℃ and
800℃, the compressive strength decreases as compared to the one without EPS at each stipulated
temperature. This shows that the amount of EPS influences the Compressive Strength properties
of hardened concrete at various temperatures.

Key Words: Compressive strength; Elevated temperatures; Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) waste.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The high demands for concrete in construction industries has led to the increased in demand for
construction materials most especially aggregates, thereby making these construction materials
to become scarce day by day. To keep developmental activities moving and also to curtail the
issue of cost, researchers and engineers have started looking towards the use of alternative
building materials in construction (Thomas, et al., 2014).

For sustainability and re-usability, so many agricultural wastes product has been used to replace
aggregates of concrete. With greater knowledge and insulation concerns, more material have also

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been used including expanded clay, expanded glass, Aluminium, Polypropylene and expanded
polystyrene (EPS) (Kuhail and Shihada, 2003).

Since it is well established that the mechanical properties of concrete in general are adversely
affected by thermal exposure (Phan, 1996) and human safety in case of fire is one major
consideration in the design of buildings, it is extremely necessary to have a complete knowledge
about the behaviour of all construction materials before using them in structural elements
(Morsy, et al. 2010).

The research intends to investigate the possibility of utilizing Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), a
waste material from packaging industries which creates a disposal problem due to its non-
biodegradable nature as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete under high thermal
exposure.

Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is a lightweight cellular plastics material consisting of fine

spherical shaped particles which are comprised of about 98% air and 2% polystyrene. It has a
closed cell structure and cannot absorb water. It has good sound and thermal insulation
characteristics (Thomas, et al. 2014). Therefore, understanding the new knowledge and structural
performance of EPS material in concrete at elevated temperatures becomes necessary.

The result of Kaya and Kar, (2014) who investigated on thermal and mechanical properties of
concrete with EPS waste by using hot wire method having magnitude and sensitivity of 0.02 –
10Wm-1K-1 and ±5% on its scale respectively for measuring the thermal conductivity of the
sample shows that as EPS increases, the thermal conductivity, water absorption, density of the
samples and tensile strength values decreases.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The test for assessing the quality of various materials which includes fine aggregates and coarse
aggregate, Cement, Expanded Polystyrene waste and water that are used for the preparation of
test concrete were conducted.

2.1 Materials
The ingredients of concrete were River sand as fine aggregate which had a specific gravity of
2.52, crushed granite stones as coarse aggregate with maximum size of 19mm, Dangote ordinary
Portland cement, water and Expanded Polystyrene, which was obtained from the landfill within
the samaru campus A.B.U Zaria, was shredded to smaller sizes (5-6) mm. Plate I and Plate II,
shows the EPS as a waste in landfill and its shredded sizes respectively.
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Plate I: A waste form of EPS Plate II: A Shredded EPS

2.2 Methodology
The mix design used for preparing the concrete was based on an absolute volume method given
by Neville (2003). A mix ratio of 1:2:4, water-cement ratio of 0.5 and characteristic strength of
25N/mm2 (Grade 25 concrete) was used for the concrete mix design.
The proportion of concrete mix in kg/m3 was,
W : C : FA : CA
162 : 323 : 646 : 1292
This concrete mix proportion was taken as the control mix while the EPS based concrete is
obtained by partially replacing coarse aggregate with different dosages of EPS waste
volumetrically.
Cubes of 150mm size for compressive strength evaluation. The specimen were cured in water for
28days, taken for furnace test and then tested. For every mix, 15 cubes were prepared for
compression tests: 3 numbers each for room temperature, 200℃, 400℃, 600℃ and 800℃
considering eleven (11) levels of replacement of aggregates, i.e., 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40,
45 and 50%.

2.3 Tests on EPS based concretes

2.3.1 Fire Test
The fire test was carried out on the hardened concrete samples for exposure time of 2
hours each using a furnace at Industrial Development centre in Zaria, in accordance with
ASTM E119-16:2000 as shown in Plate III.

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Plate III: Loading of samples in the furnace

2.3.3 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending
to reduce size, which was carried out on the hardened concrete samples for both
containing EPS and control mixes (0% EPS) at various temperature exposure in
accordance with BS 1881-116; 1983 after 28 days curing period.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Compressive strength results of the various tests conducted on both control and EPS
concrete mixes in hardened states are discussed and evaluated.
3.1 Compressive Strength Tests
Compression testing of the cube specimens was carried out in a Universal Testing
Machine. The Ultimate load at which specimen failed was noted down for each
specimen. The results of compression test are shown in Fig. 1.
It was observed that at 00C (room temperature), the compressive strength of the cubes
decreases as the EPS percentage increases, while at 200℃ and 400℃, increment of
(25.75, 25.19, 24.59) N/mm2 and (25.41, 25.01, 21.45) N/mm2 was observed for (5, 10,
15)% EPS content respectively as compared to 0% EPS content, which was 24.00N/mm2
and 20.00N/mm2 respectively. Further addition of EPS above 15% caused decreased in
the strength. At 6000C and 8000C, a drastic decreased in strength was observed as the
EPS content increases. It can be observed that the designed target strength of 25N/mm2
was still achievable at 4000C temperature and at 10% EPS content.

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30

Compressive Strength 𝑓cu (N/mm²) 0% EPS

25
5% EPS
20 10% EPS
15% EPS
15 20% EPS
25% EPS
10 30% EPS
35% EPS
5
40% EPS
45% EPS
0
0 200 400 600 800 50% EPS

Temp. ℃

Fig. 1: Compressive strength variation of temperature at various EPS percentage

The following were deduced from the compressive strength;

a. The decrease with an increase in EPS content at room temperature can be attributed to
increase in the voids as compared to the 0% EPS content.
b. The increment from 5% to 15% EPS content at 200℃ and 400℃ can be attributed to low
movement of heat in air, since EPS contained a closed cells materials containing 98% air
and 2% of polystyrene to transfer the heat.
c. The drastic reduction in strength at 600℃ and 800℃ is attributed to high exposure of heat
on the concrete which melts off the EPS in it, has been stated by European Manufacturer
of EPS (EUMEPS), EPS starts to melt at 1000C.

4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were drawn from the study.
1. An increase in the EPS content in concrete mixes reduces the compressive strength
at room temperature.
2. At 4000C, EPS content not exceeding 30% can still produce a concrete strength for
structural application, which must not be less than 17MPa as specified by American
Concrete Institute (ACI, 2003), while above this values, it can be used as non-
structural application like partition walls , wall panels etc.

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3. The presence of EPS in concrete up to 4000C helps to absorb heat in it closed cells
thereby reducing the rate of dehydration in concrete.
4. The presence of EPS has no effect in concrete when exposed to temperatures from
above 4000C.
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 213R (2003), Guide for structural lightweight aggregate concrete, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills.
ASTM E119-16, (2000), ―Standard test methods for fire Tests of building construction and
materials‖. ASTM International, WestConshohocken, Pa, USA.
BS 1881-116:1983, ―Methods of testing compressive strength of concrete‖, British Standards
Institution, London.
BS 1881-118:1983, ―Methods of testing flexural strength of concrete‖, British Standards
Institution, London.
Kaya, B.A., and Kar, F., (2014), ―Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Concretes with
Styropor‖. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, Vol.2, pp.310-.315.
Kuhail Z., and Shihada S. (2003), ―Mechanical Properties of Polystyrene-Lightweight Concrete‖,
Journal of the Islamic University of Gaza, Vol 11, No.2, Pp. 93-114.
Morsy M. S., Alsayed S. H. and Aqel M., (2010), ―effect of elevated temperature on mechanical
properties and microstructure of silica flour concrete‖ International Journal of Civil &
Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS Vol.10 No:01
Neville, A.M., (2003). ―Properties of Concrete,‖ John Wiley & Son, London pp 1803-1807
Phan L.T (1996). ―Fire Performance of High-Strength Concrete: A Repair of the State-of-the-
Art‖, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
Thomas .T., Rajendra .P., Katta .V. and Subhash .C.Y. (2014), ―Partial replacement of coarse
aggregates by Expanded Polystyrene beads in Concrete,‖ International Journal of
Research in Engineering and Technology. Vol.03, No.1, pp 238-241.

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PLASTIC INTERLOCKING TILES AS ALTERNATIVES TO

CONVENTIONAL BRICK TILES
1
Ajani, J.O., 2Adesina, A.S. and 3Adegbite, D.A.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin
2,3
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
1
[email protected]; +234806664883; [email protected]; +2348055863351

ABSTRACT
Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the
"Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy. Thus, recycling aims at environmental
sustainability by substituting raw material inputs into and redirecting waste outputs out of the
economic system. Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard,
metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable
waste such as food or garden waste is also considered recycling. Materials to be recycled are
either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and
reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. These are based on adopting new
technology in plastic industry, traditional performance index of plastic industry, plastic debris
and steps to support and to enable policy makers to develop plastic industry. In this study,
composite floor tile was produced from through the melting of water sachets, bottles and saw
dusts or sand. Other materials include charcoal and lubricating oil. The materials required for
this research work were sourced locally.

Keywords: Plastic waste, Recycling, Saw dust, Bottles, Interlock.

1 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria has been facing environmental waste problems, especially solid waste. For more than
two decades, the amount of plastic waste littering the streets of Nigeria has been a crucial
environmental problem. There is no a proper way of collecting plastic waste and the people are
not educated as to the problems generated by plastic wastes in the environment. The plastic
waste generated throughout Nigeria brings to the table how to effectively manage these plastic
wastes to save the environment from its already existing problems. The problem of organic solid
wastes management is not big issue as compared to plastic wastes since organic solid waste is
biodegradable. However, the non-biodegradable nature of plastic waste poses a big problem
since the plastic waste can stay in the environment for a quiet long period of time causing all
sorts of problems (Abota, 2012). Most of the studies have focused on some aspects of plastic
industry like Environmental impact of plastic shopping bags, risk faced by plastic industry,
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1.1 Plastic Waste and Development

Plastic is defined as synthetic or semi-synthetic materials which are polymeric and are composed
of large molecules of organic substances known as monomers. The large molecules that are
formed during a process known as polymerization are known as polymers (Temitope, et al.,
2015).

The major divisions of plastics are thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics
are the form of plastics that do not undergo chemical changes in their composition when
subjected to heat and can be remoulded into another shape even after solidification.
Thermosetting on the other hand are non-recycled polymers which undergo an irreversible
chemical changes when subjected to heat, they melt and take a shape once after which they
cannot be moulded into another shape. The role of plastics in human lives cannot be over
emphasized ranging from use as household appliances, packaging materials, potable water and
beverage containers, kitchen utensils, furniture, toys, automobile parts, polythene bags etc. Great
attention is given to the use of plastics due to their generally being light, cheap and durability in
nature and this account for their preference over other materials (Temitope, et. el, 2015).

History of Plastics
The development of plastics is regarded as one of the major technical achievement of the
twentieth century by mankind. Since, the development of the plastic, it has been considered as
the cheapest materials used in place of other materials such as metal, wood and glass. The quest
for plastic products in our everyday life necessitated for new development to improve the quality
and the strength of plastic. As the plastic material have some unique properties comparable to
other materials in regards to ability of forming into any desirable shapes, resistance to moisture,
resistance to tensile stress etc. The discovery of plastic started long ago. It was in the late 1850s
when the first synthetic plastic was made by an English inventor called Alexander Parkesine.
This achievement was showcased in 1862 at Great International Exhibition in London. It was
named after Parkesine and this organic material was obtained from cellulose. Alexander
Parkesine observed that when the material was heated and cooled down it retained its shape.
Between1930-1934, witness the massive development of the most common thermoplastics used
today by manufacturing industries. These common thermoplastics for example are polystyrene,
polyvinyl chloride, polyolefins and polymethyl methacrylate. The development of plastics did
not ceased at that time rather lead to continuous research into plastics till date (Abota, 2012).
Plastic is a type of synthetic or non-synthetic polymer, similar in many ways to natural resins
found in trees and other plants. Polymers can be defined as any of various complex organic
compounds produced by polymerization, capable of being molded, extruded, cast into various
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shapes and films or drawn into filaments and can then be used for manufacturing textile fibers.
There are two ways that plastics can be grouped depending on their chemical and physical
properties. Plastic can be either thermosets or thermoplastics. With the thermosets, they are
plastic that are harden by chemical cross-linking reaction involving polymer molecules. The
chemical properties of thermosets breaks down upon heating and thus weaken the bonds between
the polymers molecules. This weaken of the bonds is irreversible. On the part of thermoplastics,
they are softening by heating and harden upon cooling. There is no chemical bonding between
the polymer molecules as in the case of thermosets. Thermoplastics take their shape back when
heated and allow cooling. Thus the process is reversible (Abota, 2012).

1.2 Types Of Plastics

There several types of plastics being produced by plastics manufacturing companies around the
world including the traditional plastics and modified plastics. In the developing countries,
however, the traditional plastics are manufactured for use. In this study, the writer is focusing on
the following five plastics, PET, PE, PVC, PS and PP. These plastics are used in our daily lives
such as food packing, storage containers, food containers etc. Below is the briefly description of
each of the above type of plastics according their properties, process of manufacturing and uses
(Abota, 2012).

Polyethylene
Low density polyethylene (LDPE), Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) and High
density Polyethylene (HDPE) are the three types of Polyethylene plastic. Polyethylene has a
density range of 918-965kg/m3 depending on the type. It is a soft, tough and flexible and
transparent material. LDPE is used in the application of making bottles, bowls, buckets, film
plastic bags, tubing or pipes, electric or telephone insulators etc. on the part of HDPE, it is
slightly tougher and stiffer than LDPE. It is used in manufacturing of dustbins, bottles crates,
pipes and fluid containers.

Polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is a thermoplastic material that is obtained by polymerization of monomer
styrene extracted as liquid from petroleum. It is a brittle, transparent material and it is solid at
room temperature and soften to liquid at temperature above 100oc. Polystyrene is produced in
the form of either as solid or foamed plastic and use in the application such as electrical thermal
insulation, window panels, food cutlery, battery case, food box etc. It is resistant to heat, oil,
acids, alcohols etc (Abota, 2012).

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Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic material made from monomer propylene and properties
such as rigidity, chemical resistance, stiffness and excellent fatigue. In terms of its applications,
it is used to make pipes, crates, chairs, tool handles, TV cabinets, machine parts, carpets, bottles
etc.(Abota, 2012).

Polyvinyl Chloride
One of the most used plastic materials is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The plasticized and
unplasticized are the forms of polyvinylchloride. Polyvinyl chloride has flexibility rigidity,
resistance to weathering, hardness, toughness and electrical insulation as its properties depending
on the form of polyvinylchloride concern. Polyvinylchloride is used in applications such as floor
tiles, raincoats, water pipes, window frames, water hose, gloves, toy balls etc.

1.3 Sources Of Plastic Waste

Wastes Plastic has been considered as one the commonly used materials in our daily life due to
its unique properties such as light in weight, flexibility and durability. However, it has bad side;
the effect of plastic wastes on the environment is a huge problem that people face. The plastic
wastes generation in Nigeria comes from different ways or sources such as metropolitan,
municipal, district waste, commercial waste and industrial waste.

Metropolitan, Municipal, District Waste

In Nigeria, the national environmental protection agency is responsible for managing wastes.
They collect the wastes including plastic from residential areas, streets, parks, waste collection
points and waste dump site popularly called "Boola". The manner in which people disposed
plastic wastes is worrying. The amount of plastic wastes keeps on increasing due to the increase
of population and life style of the people. In Nigeria, since the introduction of drinking water
packaged in the sachet and bottle termed pure water and the use of plastic as packaging material
when you buy a product from the market or shops led to the increase. Once the plastic sachets or
bottles are empty of water, they are thrown away into the streets with impunity. According to the
estimation that there about 20 million people actively involved in daily activities, out of this
population each individual throws out one plastic sachet or bottle , then there would be 20
million of plastic sachets or bottles per day, which is very huge. All these indiscriminating
disposal of plastic wastes find their way into gutters which then block the flow of water
whenever it rains which then causes flooding.

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Commercial Wastes
Commercial wastes are waste generated by the shops, supermarkets, hotels, restaurants,
institutions during their operations. These wastes include some amount of plastic wastes which
end up into our environment. There is no well-organized way of disposing solid wastes. People
dispose the wastes in their own ways, wherever they find it necessary to dispose them. In some
cases, people gather the plastics waste and set fire on the waste to burn the plastic waste which
they pollute the air.

Industrial Wastes
These are wastes generated by the manufacturing, packaging, and construction and assembling
companies. For instance, the scraps from plastics companies, plastics used as packaging or
wrapping of parts in automobile and construction industries. All these plastic wastes from
institutions contribute to waste problem in Nigeria (Temitope, et al, 2015).

1.4 Recycling Of Plastics Wastes

Plastic recycling is the process of recovering plastic wastes and turning old or scrap plastic into
useable products that can re-enter the manufacturing chains. This will in turn generate revenue,
create more job opportunities and reduce the hazards associated with improper disposal of plastic
wastes (Abota, 2012).

Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and refining the material
into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original state. In years
past, various works have been done on recycling of plastic wastes by many researchers.
According to Kalilu; large quantities of horticultural, domestic and industrial wastes are
generated and deposited in landfills. The horticultural wastes are biodegradable while a good
number of the industrial wastes are not and as thus, will pose threat to health, drainage and urban
planning. Owing to the rapid upsurge in the price of building materials, a young man from
Kodungallur, in Thrissur district in India devised a way of making floor tiles from plastic waste.
First, the plastic waste is being powdered in a machine after which it is mixed with liquid asphalt
and chipped metal before being heated. This type of tiles is seen to have numerous advantages
over conventional cement tiles. Some of the advantages are that the plastic tiles are relatively
cheap, requires less time for production and relatively lighter when compared to the cement tiles
(Abota, 2012).

Plastic Waste Recycling Techniques

There are basically two types of plastic wastes recycling techniques. They are:
1. Mechanical recycling techniques and
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2. Chemical recycling techniques.

Mechanical Recycling Techniques: This comprises of some processes, which are shredding,
melting and pelletizing of waste plastics. Plastics must be sorted prior to mechanical recycling
techniques. Mostly, sorting is done manually. Advancements have been made in sorting plastics.
The technology introduced in sorting plastics automatically includes using X-ray fluorescence,
infrared and near infrared spectroscopy, electrostatics and flotation. These sorting techniques are
used in large scale recycling. Owing to the expensive nature of this sorting technology, sorting
will be done manually. After the sorting exercise, the plastics are shredded into smaller sizes
(between 5 mm2- 10 mm2). The shredded plastics are melted and moulded directly into a new
product or melted and formed into pellets or granule, Flow chart 1.

Plastic Waste Cleaning Sorting Shredding Melting Moulding

Flow chart 1: Mechanical Recycling Process

Chemical Or Feedstock Recycling Techniques: Here, the plastic waste materials are broken
down into smaller chemical form by chemical process and reuse to produce raw material for
manufacturing plastic products or different kinds of products. The feedstock recycling is done by
decomposition of the plastic waste materials aided by the presence of heat, chemical agents and
other catalysts in order to turn the plastic waste materials as source of hydrocarbon chemicals or
fuels. In feedstock feeding, only specific plastic waste materials are used in this process such as
PET, nylon etc. It has limitation of not recycling mixed plastic waste material but only separate
plastic waste. There are several separation methods that need be carried out in order to
completely recycle the plastic waste materials by feedstock recycling. The separation methods
must be followed systemically and these are gasification, thermal treatment, hydrogenation,
catalytic cracking and chemical depolymerization as in the Flow chart 2.

Plastic Waste Gasification Heat Treatment Hydrogenation

Cracking Chemical Depoly-Merization . Finished Product
Flow chart 2: Feedstock Recycling Process

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

2.1 Materials
The equipment used in this work are as follows:
Weighing Scale, Wooden plank, Metal mould, Measuring Cylinder, Hand Trowel, Sieve, Hand
glove, Wood Stirrer, Coal pot, Mouth mask, Scissors and Temperature sensing device.
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2.2 Procedure into Pilot Scale Production Of Composite Floor Tiles

The steps involved in the production of the floor tiles are detailed below:
 Collection of raw materials: The plastic materials were collected from trenches,
drainages, streets, dump sites and from eateries and pure water factories around Ilorin
metropolis. The reason for using this area as case study is due to large volume of plastics
wastes generated by these selected area. To effectively collect these plastic wastes, the
areas where plastics wastes are generated in large quantities were identified.

 Washing: Detergent and water were used to wash the already sorted plastic materials and
thereafter leave to dry. The reason for washing process is to remove label attached to
bottles and to get rid of contaminants such as adhesives and dirt. However, the shredding
process in a small scale recycling process employs the rapid granular method in
shredding the dried sorted plastic materials. It is however, worthy of note that the
shredding process was carried out with the aid of scissors.

 Collection of sun-dried sawdust and sieving operation: The waste products from saw
dusts were collected during wood milling operations of oganho, gmelina, mahogany and
iroko tree. After the various types of sawdust were collected, they were placed separately,
directly under the sun. This was to dehydrate the sawdust for just one day, being in
powdery form, the drying was quite fast. The sun-dried saw dust was sieved to different
degrees of fineness. The fine particles were used to provide the fine surface finishing
while the larger particles were used to give a rough/coarse surface finish.

 Collection of sand: The coarse grain sand was collected from the school premises

 Melting of the shredded plastics and curing process: An aluminum pot is placed on a
heat source (charcoal) for close to 3 minutes and the shredded water sachet and other
plastic waste component inclusive. The shredded material is then allowed to melt
completely inside the heated aluminum pan. A finely defined sun-dried saw dust or sand
is then added to the mixture. The mixture is stirred to allow for uniformity of the blended
mixture. The mould is lubricated before pouring the mixture so as prevent the mixture
from sticking into the mould and to allow easy removal of the tiles after solidification.
This is then poured into a pre-designed metal mould that is placed on a wooden plank.
The edge of the mould were gently banged on the ground continuously to allow for even
spreading of the molten material which aids the escape of bubbles that can cause a crack
in the composite. The curing process involves the cooling of the composite material to
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allow for solidification. This is done for 2hours in air.

Plate II: Interlocking tiles from

Plate I: Conventional brick
sand & plastic wastes
tiles

Plate III: Moulds Plate IV: Interlocking tiles produced from

Plastic Wastes and Sawdust

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tests were carried out on the composite samples to ascertain their suitability for floor tiling and
compared with the mechanical tests on the conventional tiles. These tests include the water
absorption test, crushing test, frictional test, and the flammability test.

Water absorption (Cold and hot testing): In cold absorption testing, the weight of the
composite and conventional tile before immersion into the cold water was determined using a
scale of capacity of 20 kg. After 24 hours of immersion, the weight of both the pilot produced
composite and conventional tiles was taken again. However the hot absorption test involves
weighing the composite and conventional sample using the weighing scale and thereafter dipping
into boiling water for 30 minutes. A stone was then placed on the composite and conventional
material to prevent it from floating. After 30 minutes the composite was reweighed and the
quantity of water absorbed was obtained. From the above test resulted, the composite tiles
produced from the recycled plastic has a zero absorbing capacity when immersed in cold water.
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This is comparable to the conventional ceramic tiles sold in the market, which also had a water
resistant. The composite tiles produced from the recycled plastic bottles and water sachet can act
as an alternative in place of the ceramic tiles. For the hot water test, it was discovered that: There
was no water absorption by the composite after 30 minutes of immersion in boiling water. Also
there was no crack on the composite sample tested, this show the ability of the tiles to resist heat
from the boiling water.

With the above observation, it is pertinent to note that, the composite produced from a recycled
water sachet /plastic bottles possess the ability to resist heat from the boiling water. Hence the
composite tiles produced can be used as floor and wall tiles for both bathroom and kitchen

Crushing test: The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was used to carry out this test. This was
placed in the machine and loading was applied until there is a noticeable fracture in the
composite and conventional material. The failure load was thereby obtained. For a material to be
used as floor tile it must have high load carrying capacity as people and items of various weight
will be stationary or moving on the tile. It was noticed that the composite did not shatter under
sudden loading. Hence, it has high ductility. This is one major setback for the conventional tiles
which will readily shatter into new smaller sharp pieces under sudden loading or when released
from a height and these can cause serious injuries to human beings.

Frictional coefficient test: The frictional coefficient test is used to obtain the slip properties of
the tiles produced, this is done by placing the composite and conventional sample on an incline
plane machine, and it is raised until slipping occurs. The machine was continuously raised such
that the composite tile inclines at an angle. At this point the value of the angle of inclination was
taken; this is called the angle of repose. This was done using different materials of different
weight and surface finish.
The Frictional coefficient is obtained using the equation below:
Frictional coefficient ( )

Flammability tests (Composite)

Composite testing: A piece of composite tile was thrown into the fire and left for 2 minutes
before taken out of the fire. This was repeated for duration of 2 minutes and observation was
made.

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4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion
It was concluded that plastic wastes (pure water sachets and plastic bottles) which pose hazards
to human beings and the environment can be converted into useful plastic based products such as
utensils, plastic chairs, key holders, infant bench, flower vase, tiles and buttons by adopting a
simple recycling method which can be carried out by small cottage industries, and that recycling
should be adopted as the main method plastic waste management as it has various advantages
such as reduction of the hazards that improper waste management constitute and also to reduce
the tapping into fresh raw materials for development of products over the methods of plastic
waste management. It was inferred that the composite tiles produced from the recycled plastic
bottles and water sachet can act as an alternative in place of the ceramic tiles.
It was also discovered after the flammability test that the composite tile will have tendency of
being reused as it will not spoil into separate pieces and all that is needed to be done is to refine
the surface of the composite for a smooth surface. Furthermore, the composite tiles will not
cause injuries in the case of inferno as they will not forcefully split into pieces that will pierce
into human skins. After comparing the composite tiles produced with conventional tiles it was
concluded that the composite tike can be used as an alternative of conventional tile.

5.0 Recommendations
Every human being desires to live in a healthy environment and free of filth. To achieve this,
everyone must have environmental consciousness in mind, that littering the environment is a
wrong step to take but reusing and proper disposal is the key. In order to curb and minimize the
amount of plastic wastes found in the environment and meet the objectives of recycling of
plastics the following recommendations would be helpful:
1. The Government should make the plastics manufacturing companies to pay levy on the
amount of plastic produced per year to support the plastic waste management in the
country.
2. The plastics companies should also be made to set up their plastic recycling plants either
in groups or individual companies with support from the government, where import
duties on mechanical recycling machinery could be free of charge.
3. further researches need to be carried out in the initial and subsequent costs of the
materials used
4. Granite sand should be used for additional strength of the composite tiles
5. The blending of saw dust with the melted plastic should be employed as it has the ability
to withstand all the tests carried out on it
6. Governments at various levels should support the waste management agencies to provide
waste collection bins and containers to place at vantage areas within the localities to
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make it easy for the masses to dispose their waste products appropriately. With the
support of the waste management agencies, there should be creation of collection depots,
where citizens can bring and sell their collected plastic wastes for recycling.

References
Abota C.A.(2012): Recycling of Plastic Waste in Ghana; a way to reduce environmental
problems/ pollutions. University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.
Bhogayata, A., Shah, K. D., Vyas, B. A., N. K. Arora (2012), Performance of concrete by using
Non Recyclable plastic wastes as concrete constituent, International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) vol. 1 issue 4, June-2012.
Elzafraney, M., Soroushian, P. and Deru, M.(2005): Development of energy Efficient Concrete
Buildings Using Recycled Plastic Aggregate, Journal of Architectural Engineering ©
ASCE/ December, 2005.
Khilesh Sarwe, (2014): Study of Strength Property of Concrete Using Waste Plastics and Steel
Fibers, Department of Civil Engineering , Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, India.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES), Vol 3, Issue 5 pp. 09-11.
Pramod S. Patil, Mali, J. R., Ganesh V. Tapkire, Kumavat, H. R. et.al.(2016): Innovative
Techniques of Waste Plastic Used in Concrete Mixture, International Journal of Research
in Engineering and Technology.
Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas paul, Eldho Varghese et.al,(2013): Recycled Plastic
as Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete, International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology vol. 2,Issue3, March 2013.
Raghatate Atul M.(2013): Use of plastic in a concrete to improve its properties, International
journal of Advance engineering Research and studies. http://www.technical journals
online.com
Ramesh, R. L., Asharani, K. M., Dhiraj Katari, V. C., Pruthvi Sagar, D. S., Sahana, R.
et.al(2014): Recycled Plastics used as coarse aggregate for constructional concrete, SJB
Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Suganthy, P., Dinesh Chandrasekar, Sathish Kumar, P. K. et.al(2013): Utilization of Pulverized
Plastic in Cement Concrete as Fine Aggregate, Vol.:02 Issue: 06, June-2013,
http://www.ijret.org
Temitope, A.K., Abayomi, O. O., Ruth, A. O. and Adeola, A. P. (2015): A pilot to recycling of
plastic pure water sachets/bottles into composite floor tiles.
Youcef Ghernouti, Bahia Rabehi, Brahim Safi and RabahChaid(2014): Use Of Recycled Plastic
Bag Waste In The Concrete, Journal of International Scientific Publications: Materials,
Methods and Technologies Volume 8, ISSN 1314-7269 (Online), Published at:
http://www.scientific-publications.net (assessed 25/01/2020).
Zainab, Z. Ismail & Enas A. AL Hashmi(2018): Use of waste plastic in concrete mixture as
aggregate replacement, Department of Environmental Engineering, college of
Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq. www.sciencedirect.com.

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MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL

EQUIPMENT USING MANUAL AND COMPUTERIZED
MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
1
Adedoye, E. A. and 2Ibrahim R.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Kwara State.
GSM No: 08036197027 e-mail: [email protected]
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Offa, Kwara State. GSM No:
08030575903 e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Breakdown of industrial equipment makes the workers and the machines idle resulting in loss of
production, delay in the planned schedules, reduces availability and reliability of equipment
reduces the life span of equipment and leads to emergency repairs. Maintenance is therefore an
imperative service function of an efficient and continuous production system. The objective of the
maintenance system is to ensure high performance of the operation system at minimum
maintenance cost. Maintenance performance evaluation therefore is a tool used in minimizing
the risks of safety and industrial accidents enormous financial losses, product contamination,
detection of corrosion effects and possible plant shutdown. Primary and secondary statistical
data gathering methods were employed in selected manufacturing industries across Nigeria
using the maintenance performance evaluation parameters. The study revealed that the failure
rate, maintenance cost and waste indices were higher for the manual maintenance system
indicating gross inefficiency as against the computerized system. Also, the equipment utilization
ratios, equipment performance indices and technical competence ratios were on the contrary
higher for computerized system indicating better efficiency and effectiveness of the system.
Hence, the better implementation of the computerized maintenance system is for industrial
equipment.

KEY WORDS: Maintenance, Evaluation, Computerization, Equipment Efficiency, Parameter

1.0 Introduction
Maintenance planning and management is considered to be one of the most neglected areas of
engineering. Maintenance performance evaluation has become imperative as the dynamic nature
of the engineering profession has developed highly sophisticated equipment from the annual and
obsolete ones.

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Maintenance activities are associated with a combination of actions carried out to keep or restore
any asset including machines and equipment, buildings as well as human resources in operating
conditions for continuous flow of production. Thus, making maintenance an important
engineering function as technique for cost-effectiveness, operational efficiency, higher and
qualitative production, reducing excessive downtime as well as reduction in the pace of
deterioration and breakdown (Saha, 2004).

Therefore, maintenance performance evaluation is required in the maintenance department in an

industrial environment to control the rising costs in operating conditions, leading to effective
planning and management as well as improve operational effectiveness and developing a
controlled situation. Poor maintenance can result into negative output, unsafe working
conditions, increase in industrial accidents and higher production costs due to delays, repairs and
idle time of both workers and machines. These downtime costs often result in loss of production,
delay in schedules and expensive emergency repairs. And these exceed the estimated
maintenance costs of inspection, service and scheduled repairs that are not economically
justified.

The Manual Maintenance System often classified as visual inspection and guess works, is
associated with majority of the industries in the developing Countries. This is majorly due to
philosophy and policy, span of control, technical personalities involved, training and manpower
development, operating schedule, size and type of operation (Aderibigbe, 1999).
The continuing requirement for effective, competitive and timely delivery of products and
services has dictated the need for optimal level of performance during the life cycle of
engineering equipment. This has led to the Maintenance Management Information Systems that
are basically computerized in the planning, design and operational life of industrial equipment
leading to reduced maintenance costs, high capacity utilization and effective organizational
structure.

2.0 Objectives of the Maintenance Evaluation

The primary role of any maintenance system, manual or computerized, is to minimize the risk of
minor events escalating into major incidents that can destroy lives and properties. The objectives
include to maximize the availability and reliability of the equipment so as to obtain the
maximum possible returns on capital invested. Also, to extend the life span of the equipment by
minimizing wears and tear deteriorations. The objectives also include the enhancement of the
safety of manpower using the equipment and maximizing the utilization of scare resources in
order to maximize the total production or operating costs. The maintenance evaluation enables
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product or service qualities to be achieved through correctly adjusted, serviced and operated
equipment.
Generally, the costs associated with maintenance are downtime (idle time costs) costs due to
equipment breakdown, costs of spares or other materials used for repairs, costs of maintenance
labour and overheads, losses due to inefficient operations of the equipment and capital
requirements necessary for the replacement of the damaged parts or the equipment as a whole
(Martand, 2011)

Maintenance

Planned Unplanned
Maintenance Maintenance

Preventive Corrective Predictive Emergency

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

Running Shutdown Scheduled Breakdown

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

Fig. 1: Types of Maintenance (Martland, 2011)

By adopting systematic maintenance, it is possible to achieve substantial savings in money,
materials and manpower. The important functions of the maintenance include
Inspections/Constant Check-ups, Adequate lubrications, planning and scheduling, records and
failure analysis, storage of spare parts and regular training to the maintenance Staff (Mayer,
1998).

3.0 Research Methodology

Planning and scheduling of maintenance activities require a lot of paperwork as the way in which
the maintenance work is managed has a profound effect on its costs and overall success. Some of
the basic information required in maintenance management information systems are Equipment
and Facility Information, Maintenance Procedures, Calendar Information (Hourly, daily, weekly,
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monthly and annually) and Spare parts Information (Inspection, Replacement and Storage). The
amount of data generated over time is so enormous that there is usually a considerable delay in
the response to time to organize the data manually into a useful reporting form to meet urgent
management decisions. The frequency of breakdowns also fall inline with data generation.
Maintenance staff may not carry out adequate inspection or may not be adequately equipped
enough to detect and repair minor and major faults.

With the current availability of high speed computers and diagnosing equipment, faster and
efficient data management is attained as well as quick detection of faults, prescription of
remedies as well as urgent attention desired are the order of the day in a computerized
maintenance management systems. This is expected to streamline activities such as planned and
unplanned maintenance as well as corrective and preventive work order in terms of detection,
generation, tracking, inventory control, job planning, purchase requisition and purchase order
generation (Willoughby, 1990).

The research was carried out in some notable Manufacturing/Production Industries across the
Country including Textile Manufacturing Industries, Food & Beverages Industries, Plastic
Manufacturing Industries, Pulp & Paper Industries, Soft Drinks Production Industries and
Construction Industries (Earth Moving Equipment). Field survey of the Industries reveals that
some of the Industrial equipment are still maintained manually while in others, it is a
combination of the manual and computerized systems. Majorly, the Industries that have newly
installed equipment operate majorly by computerized programmes from the manufacturers and
as such, can easily be diagnosed through signals hence applicable remedies are profound to the
operating equipment in a safer, faster, neater, more precision and less expensive ways.

Some maintenance performance evaluation parameters were used as comparative analysis for
both the manually operated systems and the computerized systems in our Manufacturing
Industries.

From the field survey carried in various manufacturing industries in some notable cities across
the country and with the help of adequate statistical data gathering tool, the following equipment
maintenance performance parameters were evaluated.
 Failure Rate Index (FRI) = ----------------------------------(1)
 Maintenance Cost Index (MCI) = --------------------------------- (2)

 Equipment Utilization Ratio (EUR ) = ------- (3)

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 Waste Index (WI) = ---------------------------- ---- (4)

 Equipment Performance Index (EPI) = ------------- (5)

 Technical Competence Ratio (TCR) =
----------------------------------- (6)
( )

4.0 Result and Discussion

It was generally discovered that in all the industries under investigation, the Failure Rate Index
(FRI) was higher in the manually controlled maintenance system as against the computerized
system. The same higher figures were recorded for Maintenance Cost Index (MCI). On the
contrary, lower figures were recorded for the Equipment Utilization Ratio (EUR), Equipment
Performance Index (EPI) and Technical Competence Ratio (TCR) for the manually controlled
system (TABLES 1 – 6).

The interpretation is that failure rates as well as the maintenance cost are higher in manual
systems. The computerized system has that tall advantage because of higher sensitivity and
quicker response in these regards. For the computerized system, there are organized and
professional ways of equipment utilization, equipment performance and technical competence.
Note: MCMPE – Manually Controlled Maintenance Performance Evaluation
CMPE – Computerized Maintenance Performance Evaluation
FRI – Failure Rate Index
MCI – Maintenance Cost Index
EUR – Equipment Utilization Ratio
WI – Waste Index
EPI – Equipment Performance Index
TCR – Technical Competence Ratio

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Table 1: Textile Manufacturing Industries Table 2: Food & Beverage

Industries
PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE
FRI 68 32 FRI 74 26
MCI 77 23 MCI 71 29
EUR 35 65 EUR 34 66
WI 54 45 WI 63 37
EPI 37 63 EPI 28 72
TCR 33 67 TCR 31 69

Source: Field Survey, (2019, 2020)

Table 3: Plastics Manufacturing Industries Table 4: Pulp & Paper Industries

PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE

FRI 72 28 FRI 76 24
MCI 80 20 MCI 78 22
EUR 36 64 EUR 39 61
WI 61 39 WI 58 42
EPI 32 68 EPI 31 69
TCR 24 76 TCR 35 75

Source: Field Survey, (2019, 2020) Source: Field Survey,

(2019, 2020)

Table 5: Soft Drinks Industries Table 6; Construction Industries

PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE PARAMETERS MCMPE CMPE

FRI 81 19 FRI 75 25
MCI 82 28
MCI 79 21
EUR 40 60
EUR 37 63 WI 73 27
WI 61 36 EPI 30 70
EPI 27 73 TCR 28 72
TCR 23 77
Source: Field Survey, (2019, 2020) Source: Field Survey, (2019, 2020)

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Various alternatives are evaluated on the basis of maintenance cost incurred for a desired level of
reliable performance from the production system. Beyond the point of optimal effort, an
increasing higher level of maintenance cost is incurred.
Cost Total Cost
Preventive Maintenance

Breakdown Maintenance

M . Maintenance Activity
w. r.t time
Point of Optimal Effort
Fig. 2: Cost Relationship of Maintenance Alternatives (Gupta, 2012).

Some of the maintenance performance evaluation parameters used in the comparative industrial
analysis of equipment maintenance include the Failure Rate Index (FRI), Waste Index (WI),
Total Plant Maintenance Productivity (TPMP), Productivity Ratio (PR), Equipment Utilization
Ratio (EUR), Technical Competence Ratio (TCR) and Equipment Performance Index (EPI).
Some notable statistical tools were also employed in the comparative equipment maintenance
analysis across some notable industrial cities in the country. These include the interview method
directly on the workers, the observation method within the working environment and the
questionnaire method in cases where the manufacturing industries were far. These techniques
were professionally applied to get the best results from the workers and assuring them that the
information will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

The maintenance performance evaluation parameters are the resultant effects of the failure rate
of both the new and old equipment. Failure analysis plays a vital role in taking decisions
pertaining to both the manual as well as the computerized maintenance systems. It helps to
identify the nature and occurrence of failures and is a useful tool in designing and ensuring
reliable performance for optimum productivity (Gupta, 2012). From engineering professional
experience, new or recently serviced equipment is initially at a higher risk of failure, i.e., it is less
reliable until, after successive minor breakdowns, vulnerable and/or damaged components are
replaced or repaired. This is the period of infant mortality and can be minimized through the
improved computerized maintenance system. Subsequently, components fail due to ageing and
wear-out and the failure risk will increase with operating time as indicated in Fig. 2 (Martand,
2011).
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Computerized maintenance systems have been designed and developed to assist the present and
common manual systems by reducing idle times wasted on repairs, reducing the damage on
complex equipment during dismantling and assembling operations, reduction in the sudden
failure and collapse of equipment, higher industrially safe working environments, leads to direct
and ease of detection of the exact faulty point/area and hence absolute reduction of idle machine
hours and man hours and eventual higher efficiency and productivity (James, 2008). The
profitable decision in the maintenance of engineering equipment is the one that costs the least
over a defined period which may be called the life cycle of the equipment. To make such a
decision, the engineer must know the characteristics of failure risks of the equipment for which
he is accountable, and how these risks are affected by the operational use, operating environment
and maintenance attention as they affect equipment utilization, downtime effects, efficiency and
productivity in a comparative analysis (Kaushish, 2013)

5.0 Conclusion
Manual and computerized maintenance systems of Industrial Equipment were analyzed using
maintenance performance evaluation parameters. The parameters include the failure rate index,
maintenance cost index, equipment utilization ratio, waste index, equipment performance index
and technical competence ratio. The failure rates, maintenance costs and waste indices were
higher for the manual systems showing the disadvantages of the old systems. On the other hand,
equipment utilization, equipment performance and technical competence reveal higher figures in
the computerized system.

A good industrial maintenance management system should be integrated and computerized as it

is easy to use, logically formatted, user friendly, capable of sorting out information in many
different ways and also able to grow and update with the equipment. These will minimize the
outage time, reduce plant breakdown through adequate monitoring optimizes equipment
efficiency, provide efficient documented information and save the industry the calamity of brain
drain. It also reduces a lot of paper work, streamlines activities and eases free flow of
information and improves communication. The issue of effective and innovative equipment
maintenance scheme is a national problem that requires the establishment, implementation and
commitment in this regard.

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James Riggs (2008), Productive System Planning, Analysis Control, 4th Edition, Willey Eastern
Publishing, New Delhi.
Kaushish, J.P., (2013), Manufacturing Process, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited,
Rimjim House, Delhi.
Martand Telsang (2011), Industrial Engineering and Production Management, S. Chand &
Company Limited, Ram Nagar, New Delhi.
Mayer, a. (1998), Production Management, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
Saha, B.N. (2004), Integrated Maintenance Management – Concept to Computerization, SBA
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Willoughby, K.W., (1990), Technology Choice: A Critique of the Appropriate Technology
Movement, Westview Press, Boulder, USA.

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SEDIMENTOLOGICAL AND PEBBLE MORPHOMETRIC STUDIES OF

PART OF KAWO AND ITS ENVIRONS, CENTRAL BIDA BASIN,
NIGERIA
1
Egbhatheye, J. A., 2Sule, T. U., 3Umoru T. A. & 4Sanni E. B.
1,2,3,4
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering Technology,
Auchi Polytechnic Auchi.
Email: [email protected]., [email protected].,
[email protected].,[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The environment of deposition was determined through the Sedimentological characteristics and
pebble morphometric study of outcrops exposed around Kawo area in central part of Bida Basin.
A total of nine (9) beds were logged at a type locality chosen for this studyand the beds were
grouped using their textures and structures into three (3) facies, viz: Cross-bedded sandstone
facies, massive sandstone facies and mudstone facies. The beds recognized within the facies were
showing a generally fining upward sequence with various degree of bioturbation. The average
value from morphometric analysis gave an average MPSI value of 0.82, elongated ratio 0.60,
flatness ratio 0.65, roundness 38% and average pebble size 3.07. These values confirm a fluvial
origin with a short distance of transportation from source area.
Keyword: Lithofacies, fluvial, cross-bedded, floodplain, sandstones

1. INTRODUCTION
The studied area belongs to the Mokwa Sandstone series exposed around Kawo village in central
Bida Basin. It is a Northwest-Southwest trending depression perpendicular to the main axis of
the Benue Trough, it extends over an area of about 7000km2 from conference of Benue Rivers to
Waria in the Northwestern part of Nigeria. The thickness of sediment has been estimated to be
about 2600m (Ojo and Ajakaiye 1989).

The formation contains belt of mesas, up to 2km and a flat lying gently rolling plains with
occasional residual hills. Bodies of small pocket of water were noticed in the area, they were
however dried up at the dry season and these are generally called ephemeral streams. The area is
poorly drained as there were no river flowing through the studied area, and the drainage nature
were generally dendrite, an indication of uniformity in the geology of the area.
The geology of the sub-basin has been classified into four major lithologic unit, Adeleye (1971),
herein referred to as ―series‖, principally on the basis of litho-stratigraphic variation viz: The

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Bida Sandstone series, Mokwa Sandstone series, Kudu Shale/Sandstone series and Lokoja
Shale/Sandstone series. Work on adjacent area by Okosun et al., (2009) identified five facies
based on inferred environment of deposition, they are floodplain facies, alluvial fan facies, mire
facies, lacustrine facies and coarsed-grained channel facies. A braided river character has been
inferred from the fluvial deposit. Braide (1990).

Massive lower portion of Bida Formation in the Bida Basin consist of erosional based unit, Goro
et al., (2014). It comprises of unit and compound bar that are extensively and vertically stacked
giving a sheet-like geometry. Onodukuet al 2017 from palynological analysis inferred a non-
marine environment of deposition for central Bida sediment which is an indication of
terrestrial/fluvial dominated environment that is prone to dry gas generation. Most pollen and
spores indicate type 1 or 2 kerogen (terrestrial paleo-environment). Late Campanian – Early
Maastrichtian age was then proposed. The study area is bounded by lat.090 55‘ 06‖ N log.050 43‘
14‖ E and is generally accessible through Minna-Zugeru-Mokwa road.

Figure1: Geological map of Bida Basin (Rehaman et al., 2019)

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Within the central Bida Basin only a small area has been mapped in detail and little is known
about the regional correlation and hydrocarbon potential. A detailed mapping of the basin
especially the Kawo part is therefore necessary to know the type of sediment accumulated and
structures present. This work will help to identify the type of sediment, investigate the
environment of deposition of these sedimentary units and further interpret the condition at play
during deposition. The history obtained from this analysis will serve as a guide to geologist in
further exploring this part of the Bida Basin.

2. METHODOLOGY

This workwas carried out in two ways, field study and laboratory analysis. Field process involve
graphic logging of beds outcrop exposed around Kawo village, and each of the exposed bed were
analyze on the basis of their texture, structure, fossil content, thickness and observed colour.
Samples were systematically collected from each bed for laboratory analysis. Pebbles were also
collected from the bed they occur for morphometric study.
The laboratory procedures involve sieving method, with the following instrument: Beam
balance, crushing machine, screen of meshes of Terent size/weight, labelled nylon pack and
sieve brush.
Samples were first disaggregated and a weight of 100g was collected from each sample. Sieves
of mesh 10, 20, 45, 60, 120 and 200 were selected and shaking was done for a period of 5
minutes. The fraction retained on each mesh were weighed and recorded.Granumetric analysis
was done to obtain the mean, sorting, skewness and kurtosis.
Morphometric parameters such as maximum projection sphericity index, oblate prolate index,
coefficient of flatness and elongated indices was employed for the interpretation of paleo-
environment.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Most of the observed sedimentary structures were biogenic, however in bed six (6) more of these
structures were seen like borrows of animals or organism. Other prominent structures are cross-
bed and massive bedding.

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Table 1: Morphometric analysis of pebbles obtained from the beds

S/N L-Axis I-Axis S-Axis F.R E.R (I/L) MPSI Roundness
(cm) (cm) (S/L) (S2/LI)1/3 (%)
1 2.75 2.25 1.80 0.65 0.40 0.81 30
2 3.10 1.87 1.54 0.63 0.37 0.81 30
3 2.37 2.04 1.66 0.70 0.66 083 50
4 3.86 2.20 1.90 0.52 0.59 0.77 40
5 1.85 1.71 1.52 0.82 0.92 0.97 50
6 3.50 2.35 1.85 0.53 0.67 0.75 40
7 3.55 2.18 2.05 0.58 0.61 0.82 30
8 2.50 2.60 2.15 0.79 0.35 0.84 40
9 4.16 3.55 2.45 0.59 0.85 0.74 30
Average 3.07 2.31 1.88 0.65 0.60 0.82 38
value

Table 2: Granumetricanalysis interpretation

BED. MEAN SORTING SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
NO
B1 Medium-grained Poorly sorted Strongly negatively Leptokurtic
skewed
B2 Coarse- grained Moderately sorted strongly negatively Leptokurtic
skewed
B3 Medium-grained Poorly sorted negatively skewed Very Leptokurtic
B4 Medium-grained Poorly sorted negatively skewed Mesokurtic
B5 Medium-grained Poorly sorted Near symmetrical Playtikurtic
B6 Medium-grained Poorly sorted Near symmetrical Playtikurtic
B7 Medium-grained Moderately Sorted Near symmetrical Mesokurtic
B8 Coarse-grained Moderaetely Sorted strongly negatively Leptokurtic
skewed
B9 Medium-grained Poorly sorted negatively skewed Mesokurtic

The grains within the basal unit are angular and sub-angular in shape, and the bed were group
into three(3) facies on the basis of their textures and structures viz: Cross-bedded sandstone
facies, massive sandstone facies and mudstone facies.

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The cross-bedded facies: This occurs at the top and the basal part which represents a stream
deposit usually confined to channel. they are poorly sorted and whitish or reddish-pinkish colour
with scattered pebbles. This facies was probably deposited in an environment with fairly high
energy with considerable distance considering the angularity of the pebbles

Massive sandstone facies: It consists of whitish colour and bioturbation, the bioturbation
suggests aerobic environment with high energy of deposition due to the massive nature of the
bed which is interpreted as bar top.

Mudstone facies: These were deposited in an overbank environment of a floodplain and

represent quiet water condition which allows the suspended sediment to settle out of standing
water.

4. CONCLUSION
The grain size analysis result shows that the Sandstone deposit around Kawo is dominated by
poorly sorted, medium grained bed, indicating rapid deposition of sediment. The sub-angular
nature of the pebbles shows short distance of sediment travel. The mean MPSI value 0.81
indicates fluvial origin, mean elongated value 0.61 indicates current flow derived pebble.
The fining upward sequence of the entire beds is a reflection of the decrease in stream power
during the deposition of the sediments. Sedimentary structure like massive bed and large scale
cross stratification denote the meanders and point bar sub-environment

REFERENCE
Adeleye D, R. (1974), Sedimentology of the fluvial Bida Sandstones (Cretaceous): Journal of
Sedimentary Geology, Vol. 12, Niger, Nigeria pp1-24.
Adeleye D, R. (1971), Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of Upper Cretaceous Strata around Bida,
Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria pp 222-234.
Braide, S. P. (1992), Syntectonic fluvial sedimentation in the central Bida Basin. Journal of
Mining and Geology, 28, 55-64.
Goro, A.I., Salihu, H.D, Jibrin B.W, Waziri N.M and Idris-Nda A.(2014); Characterization of
massive sandstone interval, example from Doko member of bida Formation. Nigeria
universal journal of geoscience 2, pp 60.
Ojo, S. B. &Ajakaiye, D. E. (1989). Preliminary interpretation of gravity measurement in The
middle Niger Basin area, Nigeria. In; C.A. Kogbe (ed) Geology of Nigeria, 2nd Edition,
Elizabeth Publishing Co., Lagos, pp. 347-358.
Okosun, E.A., Goro, A.I., Olobaniyi, S.B., Shekwolo, P.D and Nwosun, J.E., (2009).
Stratigraphy of Bida Basin Fortion, Borno journal of Geology, Vol.4 pp2.
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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Onodoku U. S, Edwin Okosun, Isah Goro Salisu H. D 2017: Palynological Evidence of a

Campanian-Maastrichtian Age of the Central Bida Basin, Nigeria: Implication for
Paleoenvironment, Paleoclimate and Hydrocarbon Prospectivity; Minna Journal of
Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (165 – 178).
Rahaman M.A.O, Fadiya S.L, Adekola S.A, Coker S.J, Bale R.B, Olawoke O.A, Omada I.J,
Obaje N.G, Akinsanpe O.T, Ojo.G.A and Akande W.G (2019). Revise Stratigraphy of
Bida Basin, Nigeria; journal of African earth science vol 151pg 67-81.
Sames C.W (1966). Morphometric Data Of Some Recent Pebbles Associations And Their
Application To Ancient Deposits River, Taxas: A Study In Particles Morphogenesis,
Journal of Geology Vol 66 Pp114-150.

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Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF TV WHITE SPACES IN

SOUTHERN NIGERIA (A CASE STUDY OF UGBOWO, BENIN CITY)

Kebiru Abu1 and Jerome Dada K.2

1
[email protected]
Phone number: 107032503385, 208065928156

1
Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka,
Nigeria.
2
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic Auchi, Edo
State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The high cost of installing optical fibre and Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) in remote locations,
makes it imperative to find a cost effective wireless solutions as TV White Space technology to
ensure higher internet penetration especially to remote locations in Nigeria. The Ultra high
frequency (UHF) band spectrum has very good wireless radio propagation characteristics. In
this paper, the sensing techniques was used for comprehensive quantitative assessment of TVWS
in the 470-870MHz of the UHF band, for urban area of Edo State in South-South region of
Nigeria was presented using an inexpensive Radio Frequency (RF) Explorer and the readings
were presented using graph plots through the aid of touchstone PC spectrum analyzer software.
The result analysis shows that over 58% of the 50 channels assessed in this area were
underutilized while 42% were utilized. Hitherto, we have high alarming rate of spectrum scarcity
by the communication industries. Most of the smart devices competing for these scarce spectra
can be deployed to these unutilized spectra at low or no cost thereby freeing most of the
spectrum bands.

Keywords— Spectrum, Frequency, TV White Space (TVWS), South-South Nigeria, Internet

INTRODUCTION
Television White Spaces (TVWS) refers to unused portions of spectrum in the television (TV)
bands, such as guard bands between broadcasting channels and channels freed up by the
transition from analogue to digital TV broadcasting (Maheshwari et al., 2012).
TV white space technology is a promising one in the current scenario to provide broadband
connectivity to rural areas. Internet connectivity is scarce in areas with low population density
due to environmental obstacles, distance from major Internet Service Providers (ISP), and lack of
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financial incentives. This results in expensive and complex networks leaving the rural
communities with little options. While traditional Wi-Fi weakens over rugged terrain, the TV
band can penetrate buildings and terrains with good signal strength. Also they provide larger
coverage and greater bandwidths which allow these channels to be used for delivering broadband
internet access in areas that aren‘t easily accessible by cable at much lower costs than optical
fiber or conventional wireless networks. These frequencies can be made available for unlicensed
use by secondary users at locations where the spectrum is not being occupied by licensed users.
This leads to more efficient use of the existing spectrum. However the incumbent user is
protected from any interference from the unauthorized ones. The secondary user must vacate the
band once the primary user arrives. The systems operating in the TV bands are analogue TV with
sensitivity value of -94 dBm, digital TV with sensitivity of -116dBm and wireless microphone
with -107 dBm (Faruk et al, 2013). In this regard, Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
in the United States of America (USA) announced a threshold of -114 dBm as the criteria for
TVWS (FCC, 2008). The logic behind this is to utilize the unused spectrum of the incumbent
systems for secondary access so that white space devices with low power can utilize this
spectrum without causing interference with the incumbent systems. The unused Broadcast TV
channels vary sparingly from one location to another. The TVWS will have the flexibility to
sense, operate and log on to unused TV White Space channels. This is possible with the use of a
database that houses unused channels called geo-location database technology (Opawoye et al.,
2015). This paper is aimed at investigating and assessing TV white space availability in Ugbowo
area of Benin City to provide internet connectivity in less densely populated area.

METHODOLOGY
 Study Area
The area under scrutiny for the collection of feasibility-oriented parameters is situated in Ovia
North, Edo state and its original name (with diacritics) is Ugbowo. Fig. 1 shows the Google map
location of the measurement site and Table 1 shows the coordinate of the measured locations.

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Figure 1: Google map of Ugbowo, Benin City. (Courtesy: Google Earth)

Table 1: Coordinate of the Measured Locations

Site Name Latitude Longitude
Ugbowo (Urban Area) 6.405315 5.624839
 Measuring Instruments/Equipment
1. Spectrum Analyzer (RF explorer 3G combo model)
2. A laptop equipped with touchstone RF spectrum Analyzer software.
3. Mini USB cable.
4. A global positioning system (GPS) receiver set
5. Power inverter.

 NBC Licensed Stations in Edo State

The Table 2 shows the licensed TV station signal, their channels and frequency of operation that
can be received within the study area.

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Table 2: TV Stations parameters in Edo State

S/no Station Channel Frequency
1. Edo Broadcasting Station 55 743.25MHz
2. Independent Television 22 479.25MHz
3. Silverbird Television 30 543.25MHz
4. NTA Iruekpen 45 663.25MHz
5. NTA Benin 7 189.25 MHz
6. NTA Uzairue 41 631.25MHz
7. Delta TV 23 487.25MHz

 Measurements and Data Collection

The spectral analysis was carried out utilizing an RF explorer 3G combo model, a handheld real
time spectrum analyzer that graphically represents the magnitude of an input signal versus
frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument. It is based on a highly integrated
Frequency synthesizer which offers high performance, compact size, low consumption and low
cost. It is currently available at $269 online (RF Explorer spectrum Analyzer User manual 2018).
The RF Explorer was connected to window PC through the USB port for better visibility and
other functionalities such as high resolution view, save screen shot image, print data and export
to comma-separated values (CSV) for use in 3rd party tools such as excel (RF Explorer spectrum
Analyzer User manual 2018).

Fixed site monitoring was chosen for the analysis; the monitoring extended over several hours
for 24 hours; readings were taken using he spectrum analyzer to measure the received signal
strength for all the 50 UHF channels (21 through 70) corresponding to 470 – 870 MHz with an
Omni-directional antenna, a laptop and a GPS device for over 60 sweeps. The RF explorer
antenna height is 2m above the ground, a span of 100MHz was used to enhance the visibility of
the spectrum measured and the resolution bandwidth in the experiments was set to 178.57 KHz
on the RF Explorer window client.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The results obtained reveal the various TV stations signals that can be received within the study
area. Table 1 shows the licensed TV station, their channels and Frequencies of operation. Some
of the state mentioned in the table 2 above also share boundaries with Benin, where Ugbowo is
located.

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Measurement was carried out in Ugbowo area and environs in Edo State, and the results are
shown in Fig. 2 and table 3.Results for spectra coverage carried out for 470-570MHz is shown in
Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Spectral analysis plot for frequency span (470-570MHz)

Table 3: Summary of 470-570MHz Spectrum Occupancy in Ugbowo

Frequency Channel Description Status
Span no
470-478 21 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
478-486 22 Unoccupied Free
486-494 23 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
494-502 24 TV broadcasting Occupied
Station
502-510 25 TV broadcasting Occupied
station
510-518 26 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
518-526 27 Unoccupied Free
526-534 28 Unoccupied Free
534-542 29 Unoccupied Free
542-550 30 Unoccupied Free
550-558 31 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
558-566 32 Unoccupied Free

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Total number of channels within 470-570MHz is 12; total number of occupied channels = 6;
Total number of unoccupied (whitespace) channels = 6; this shows that in this area 50% are
occupied while 50% are free to be used by white space. Results for spectra coverage carried out
for 570 to 670MHz is shown in fig. 3.

Figure 3: Spectral analysis plot for frequency range (570-670MHz)

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Table 4: 570-670MHz Spectrum Occupancy Description

Frequency span Channel Description Usage
no
566-574 33 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
574-582 34 Unoccupied Free
582-590 35 Unoccupied Free
590-598 36 Unoccupied Free
598-606 37 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
606-614 38 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
614-622 39 Unoccupied Free
622-630 40 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
630-638 41 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
638-646 42 Unoccupied Free
646-654 43 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
654-662 44 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
662-670 45 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station

Table 4 shows that the total number of channels investigated in the range was 13; total number of
occupied channels = 8; Total number of unoccupied (whitespace) channels=5: This shows that in
this area 62% are occupied while 38% are free to be used by white space. The frequency
occupancy for 670 to 770MHz range is as shown in fig. 4.

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Figure 4: spectral Analysis plot for frequency span (670-770MHz)

Table 5: 670-770MHz Spectrum Occupancy Description

Frequency Channel Description Usage

Span no
670-678 46 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
678-686 47 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
686-694 48 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
694-702 49 Unoccupied Free
702-710 50 Unoccupied Free
710-718 51 Unoccupied Free
718-726 52 Unoccupied Free
726-734 53 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
734-742 54 Unoccupied Free
742-750 55 Unoccupied Free
750-758 56 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
758-766 57 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station

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Table 5 shows that the total number of channels investigated in the range was 12; total number of
occupied channels = 6; Total number of unoccupied (whitespace) channels = 6; This shows that
in this area 50% are occupied while 50% are free to be used by white space.

Figure 5: Spectral analysis plot for frequency span (770-870MHz)

Table 6: 770-870MHz Spectrum Occupancy Description

Frequency Channel Description Usage
Span no
766-774 58 Unoccupied Free
774-782 59 Unoccupied Free
782-790 60 TV Broadcasting Occupied
Station
790-798 61 Unoccupied Free
798-806 62 Unoccupied Free
806-814 63 Unoccupied Free
814-822 64 Unoccupied Free
822-830 65 Unoccupied Free
830-838 66 Unoccupied Free
838-846 67 Unoccupied Free
846-854 68 Unoccupied Free
854-862 69 Unoccupied Free
862-870 70 Unoccupied Free
Table 6 shows that the total number of channels investigated in the range of 770-870MHz was
13; total number of occupied channels = 1; Total number of unoccupied (whitespace) channels =

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12; This shows that in this area 8% are occupied while 92% are free to be used by white space.
Majority of the free spectral space are in this range.

Spectral Occupancy Analysis for Ugbowo area, Benin City, Edo State
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50% Occupied
40% Free
30%
20%
10%
0%
470-570MHz 570-670MHz 670-770MHz 770-870MHz
Frequency

Figure 6: Spectrum occupancy in Ugbowo area, Benin City, Edo State.

DISCUSSION
Measurements using RF explorer revealed that the ambient noise level in the absence of any
transmission channel occupied by a primary user is -90 to -114dbm. This was confirmed through
repeated measurements in a known vacant channel at 24:00hrs when the station normally ends
transmission. i.e Edo Broadcasting Service (EBS) that transmit on 743.25MHz . Keeping
sufficient cushion for low power transmission -100dBm was chosen as the noise threshold for the
measurement. The following is a summary of the analysis of the plots obtained from the
readings. The summary is shown in table 7.

Table 7: Summary of Observation from Spectral Analysis

Description Number
Total number of channel analyzed 50
Total number of occupied channel 21
Number of unoccupied (white space) channel 29
Percentage of occupied channel 42%
Percentage of unoccupied (white space) channel 58%
Total free spectrum(whitespaces) 232MHz
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The analysis shows that an abundance of free spectrum is available which can be utilized for
broadband connectivity at Ugbowo area of Edo State, Nigeria.

CONCLUSION
There is no denying the fact that TVWS is one of the best candidate to curb the spectrum crunch
that is been faced by the global communication scene. It not only offers better spectrum
management but due to the inherent propagation characteristics of the UHF band is an
economically viable solution. Not only developed nations are cashing on the advantages of
TVWS technology but countries with minimal communication infrastructure are going for it
because of its ease of deployment, being mainly in the license exempt and serving large coverage
areas. This paper was able to analyze and quantify the available TVWS in Ugbowo area of Benin
City, Edo State Nigeria, as an alternative way to meet the growing demands of wireless devices.
It is seen from the results of the measurement carried out that the available TV white space is
58% even in the dense area of Benin City center while 42% is occupied. Considering each TV
channel uses 6MHz of bandwidth; the available TV white space of 232 MHz which was
determined for the densest case could be reused by cognitive radios.

In the course of our findings, it was discovered, reasonable percentage of the TV band is unused,
even without digitization. The digitization of TV transmissions is underway and may free up
even more TV spectrum.

REFERENCES
Faruk N, Adediran Y. A. and Ayeni A. A., (2013). ―On the study of empirical path loss models
for accurate prediction of TV signal for secondary users. Progress in Electromagnetic
Research (PIER) B, USA, Vol. 49, pp 155- 176.
FCC (2008). ―Second report and order and memorandum opinion and order," ET Docket No. 08-
260, November, 2008.
Maheshwari A., Gopalakrishnan A., Harini A., Mangla N. A, Bhagavatula P., and Goyat R.,
(2012). Television White Spaces – Global Developments and Regulatory Issues in India.
IDFB Course Project Submission by G10. pp. 1-36
Opawoye I., Faruk N, Bello O.W, and Ayeni A. A. (2015, July). ―Recent Trends On Tv
White Space Deployments In Africa‖ Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH) Vol.
34 No. 3, pp. 556 – 563. doi.10.4314/njt.v34i3.19
RF Explorer spectrum Analyzer User manual (2018), Available online:
https://www.robotshop.com/en/rf-explorer-digital-spectrum-analyser-3g-combo.html]
retrieved may 8, 2018.

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ELECTRONIC WASTE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND

RECYCLING

*Umoru, T. A.1, Sule, T. U. N.1, Sanni B. E.1, Sado-Alimikhena. E2 &

Osiyoku Dada Akanni 1

*Corresponding Author: [email protected], +2347062238600

1
Department of Mineral and Petroleum Resources Engineering Technology,
Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi.
2
Department of Mechnical Engineering Technology,
Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi.
Abstract
Electronic waste (e-waste) is described as discarded electrical or electronic devices. Electronic
waste may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment device
electronics, mobile phones, television sets, and refrigerators. Urban consumption and waste
generation and the negative impacts associated with them in Nigeria vary dramatically from city
to city. The poor collection, transportation and disposal of both municipal and industrial wastes
in Nigeria pose a greater environmental threat facing the growing society. The heaps of solid
waste in open dumpsites constituting eyes sore in the urban landscape and the burning of such
waste causes environmental pollution and are threat to human’s health. Electronic waste is
generated from three major sources which includes individuals and small businesses; large
businesses, institutions, and governments; and, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).
Changes in technology and media (such as tapes, software, MP3), falling prices of electronic
devices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste
around the globe. The export of e-waste as witnessed in China, India, Pakistan, Nigeria and
Ghana is in violation of the Basel Convention and the Basel Ban Amendment (Secretariat of the
Basel Convention 2011). E-waste contains hazardous materials such as lead, mercury,
beryllium, cadmium, and brominated flame-retardants that pose both human and environmental
health threat. Properly disposal or reuse of electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and create jobs. There have been calls to reform "the methodology for
e-waste disposal and re-use in developing countries" with reuse and refurbishing offering a more
environmentally friendly recycling process. Effective management and recycling of e-waste
should be encouraged to prevent pollutions associated with e-waste.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Waste is a global environmental issue that is becoming most noted in developing countries.
Electronic waste (e-waste) is described as discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used
electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also considered
as e-waste. Informal processing of electronic waste in developing countries may cause serious
health and pollution problems, as these countries have limited regulatory oversight of e-waste
processing. Electronic scrap components, such as CRTs, may contain contaminants such as lead,
cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Even in developed countries recycling and
disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to workers and communities and great care must
be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as heavy
metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

Electronic waste may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment,

entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets, and refrigerators. This includes
used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal. Others are
re-usables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary scrap (copper, steel, plastic, etc.)
to be "commodities", and reserve the term "waste" for residue or material which is dumped by
the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling operations. Because
loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and non-recyclable),
several public policy advocates apply the term "e-waste" broadly to all surplus electronics.
Information and telecommunications technology (ICT) and computer Internet networking has
penetrated nearly every aspect of modern life, and is positively affecting human life even in the
most remote areas of developing countries (Osibanjo and Nnorom 2007). Electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) have been instrumental to the revolution witnessed in various sec-
tors of human endeavor around the world; in communication, entertainment, transport,
education, and health care sectors. As there appears to be no signs of this revolution slowing
down soon so also the grow-ing concern on the increasing e-waste arising from the ICT sector.
However, imports of used or rather end-of-life (EoL) electronics to the developing countries is a
double-edged sword: the positive potential also carries with it the risk of becoming a dumping
ground for waste equipment from rich developed countries (Schmidt 2006; Puckett et al. 2005).
Globally, e-waste is growing as consumers, in both developed and developing nations, buy new
gadgets and discard their old ones. According to studies by the United Nations, anywhere
between 20 and 50 million tonnes of e-waste are generated globally, an amount growing at a rate
nearly three times faster than the overall municipal solid waste stream (Schluep et al. 2009).
Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams around the world,
growing at a rate of 3–5% per annum or approximately three times faster than normal municipal

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solid waste. Today, the amount of e-waste is rapidly growing in developing countries as they join
the global information society. Urban consumption and waste generation and the negative
impacts associated with them in Nigeria varies dramatically from city to city. The poor
collection, transportation and disposal of both municipal and industrial wastes in Nigeria pose a
greater environmental threat facing the growing society. The heaps of solid waste in open
dumpsites constituting eyes sore in the urban landscape and the burning of such waste causes
environmental pollution and are threat to human‘s health.
In Nigeria, the importation of used electronics assumed an alarming dimension in the last ten
years especially considering that un-reusable goods (wastes) destined for recycling are exported
into Nigeria in the name of reuse . In recent months, three ships at different times laden with
toxic products, otherwise known as e-wastes, ar-rived the Lagos port and the Federal
Government of Nigeria received an alert through a Dutch agency, VROM-Inspectorate and the
International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE) before the
arrival of the ships. The ships which berthed at the Tin-can Port (Lagos), were detained on the
or-ders of officials of the National Environmental Standards Regulations Enforcement Agency,
NESREA and made to return with the e-waste at all the occasions (Olakitan et. al, 2012).

2. SOURCES OF ELECTRONIC WASTES

Electronic waste is generated from three major sources which includes individuals and small
businesses; large businesses, institutions, and governments; and, original equipment
manufacturers (OEMs). Changes in technology and media (such as tapes, software, MP3), falling
prices of electronic devices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of
electronic waste around the globe. The constant availability of newer technology and design, and
an increasingly early obsolescence, the average lifespan of a new model computer has decreased
from 4.5 years in 1992 to an estimated 2 years in 2005 and is further decreasing (Widmer et al.
2005). Technical solutions are available, but in most cases a legal framework, a collection,
logistics, and other services need to be implemented before a technical solution can be applied.
Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory
(DRAM or SRAM), and audio components have different useful lives. Processors are most
frequently out-dated (by software no longer being optimized) and are more likely to become "e-
waste", while display units are most often replaced while working without repair attempts, due to
changes in wealthy nation appetites for new display technology.

The USA discards 30 million computers each year and 100 million phones are disposed of in
Europe each year. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15-20% of e-waste
is recycled, the rest of these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators. The United

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States is the world leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3 million tons each
year. China already produces about 2.3 million tons (2010 estimate) domestically, second only to
the United States. And, despite having banned e-waste imports, China remains a major e-waste
dumping ground for developed countries. The export of e-waste as has been witnessed in China,
India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Ghana etc is in violation of the Basel Convention and the Basel Ban
Amendment (Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 2011). The Basel Convention Regional
Coordinating Centre for Africa and Technology transfer in collaboration with Basel Action
Network BAN in 2005 reported that while some of the imported EEE into Nigeria are fully
functional and are directly reused or can be repaired and reused, there is nevertheless a
significant quantity of imported computing equipment or parts that are considered junk. The
estimate figure as indicated by experts were 25- 75 % that is unmarketable due to either lack of
computing effectiveness or due to the fact that it is uneconomical to repair from an estimated
inflow of 500 containers of used computer scraps of various stages of condition and age entering
through the Lagos Ports each month. As used electrical equipment continues to flow into the
country there remains a challenge to determine the official figures of e-waste internally
generated from new or domestically assembled ones.

Society today revolves around technology and by the constant need for the newest and most high
tech products is contributing to mass amount of e-waste. Since the invention of the iPhone, cell
phones have become the top source of e-waste products because they are not made to last more
than two years.

Table 1: Contents of valuable metals in the printed circuit boards of some electronic
products
S/N Products Valuable metals contained in products
1. TV (CRT monitor) Aluminum, antimony, copper, gold, indium, iron,
neodymium, nickel, platinum, silver and yttrium.
2. TV (LCD, plasma) Aluminum, antimony, gold, indium, iron, platinum, silver
and yttrium.
3. Washing machine, Air Aluminum, antimony, copper, gold, iron, platinum and
conditioner, Refrigerator silver.

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Figure 1: Piles of printed wiring boards (e-waste).

3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ELECTRONIC WASTES

E-waste contains hazardous materials such as lead, mercury, beryllium, cadmium, and
brominated flame-retardants that pose both human and environmental health threat. E-waste also
contains some valuable met-als, especially in the PWB. Some of these metals include iron,
aluminum, nickel, copper, and some precious metals. The precious metals (PM) include gold,
silver and the platinum-group metals (PGM): platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium
and osmium. All precious metals belong to the transition elements. Precious metals are
characterized by high economic value, beauty and particular chemical and physical proper-ties,
i.e. low electron affinity, high resistance to corrosion and high density (Hagelüken, 2005). The
processes of dismantling and disposing of electronic waste in the third World lead to a number of
environmental impacts. Liquid and atmospheric releases end up in surface water, groundwater,
soil, and air.

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Table 2: Effects of chemicals in e-waste on human’s health

E-toxin Source of e-toxin Health effects
Arsenic Found in computer chips Arsenic is a known cancer-causing substance
and light emitting diodes (carcinogen). It is known to cause skin and lung
cancer.
Brominated Added to plastic to prevent Brominated Flame Retardants act as hormone
Flame fires disrupters. Children exposed to these substances
Retardants show increased risk to thyroid disease and
neurobehavioral disease
Cadmium Cadmium coating of Breathing high levels of Cd can cause lung damage
contacts and switches in the and death. Long term exposure to low levels of Cd
CPU and monitors is used to can cause elevated blood pressure and kidney
prevent corrosion. It is damage. Cadmium is a known carcinogen.
found in NiCd bat-teries
Chromium It is used as a hardener in Chromium has a variety of effects depending how
plas-tics and a dye in it enters the body. Chromium is a carcinogen if
pigments. It may be present inhaled. Chromium may also cause DNA damage.
in the coatings on some
metal parts.
Halogens Plastics and insulation These substances are of concern because of the
possibility that toxins such as dioxins and furans
may be created and released burning.
Lead Cathode-ray tubes (about 5 Initial symptoms of exposure are anorexia, muscle
lbs.) and Solders pain, malaise, and headache. Long-term exposure
to lead decreases the overall performance of the
nervous system. High level exposure causes brain
damage and death.
Mercury Old battery and switches. Short term exposure to all forms of mercury causes
Flat screen have mercury lung damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
containing fluorescent tubes. increases in blood pressure or heart rate, skin
rashes, and eye irritation Long term exposure
permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and
developing foetus.
Polyvinyl PVC plastic is used in the When burnt it produces highly toxic dioxins;
chloride insulation f some cables research is finding if PCV is a hormone disruptor.
(PVC) used in ICT equipment.

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4. RECYCLING AND E-WASTE MANAGEMENT

One of the major challenges in e-waste management is recycling the printed circuit boards from
the electronic wastes, the circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum,
etc. and such base metals as copper, iron, aluminum, to mention but a few. One way e-waste is
processed is by melting circuit boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open-
pit acid leaching for separating metals of value. Conventional method employed is mechanical
shredding and separation, but its recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as
cryogenic decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board recycling, and some other
methods are still under investigation.

Computer monitors are typically packed into low stacks on wooden pallets for recycling and then
shrink-wrapped. Audiovisual components, televisions, stereo equipment, mobile phones, other
handheld devices, and computer components contain valuable elements and substances suitable
for reclamation, including lead, copper, and gold. Properly disposal or reuse of electronics can
help prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and create jobs, there have been
calls to reform "the methodology for e-waste disposal and re-use in developing countries" with
reuse and refurbishing offering a more environmentally friendly recycling processes. Table 3
shows the environmental impact of the recycling processes of different electronic waste
components.

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Table 3: The Environmental Impact of the Processing of different Electronic Waste

Components
E-Waste Component Recycling Process Potential Environmental Hazard
Cathode ray tubes Breaking and removal of Lead, barium and other heavy metals
(used in TVs, yoke, then dumping leaching into the ground water and release of
computer monitors, toxic phosphor
ATM, video cameras,
and more)
Printed circuit board De-soldering and removal Air emissions as well as discharge into rivers
of computer chips; open of glass dust, tin, lead, brominated dioxin,
burning and acid baths to beryllium cadmium, and mercury
remove final metals after
chips are removed.
Chips and other gold Chemical stripping using Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, brominated
plated components nitric and hydrochloric substances discharged directly into rivers
acid and burning of chips acidifying fish and flora. Tin and lead
contamination of surface and groundwater.
Air emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy
metals and hydrocarbons
Plastics from Shredding and low Emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy
printers, keyboards, temperature melting to be metals and hydrocarbons
monitors, etc. reused
Computer wires Open burning and Hydrocarbon ashes released into air, water
stripping to remove copper and soil.

Inappropriate and crude techniques are adopted in material recovery from e-waste in the
developing countries. This has four major effects:
1. Low recovery of materials (Rochat et al. 2007).
2. Recovered materials are often heavily contaminated.
3. Crude recovery techniques result in environmental contamination (Sepúlveda et al. 2010).
4. Negative impacts on the health of workers and nearby residents (Schluep et al. 2009).

Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most effective solution to the growing
e-waste problem. Most electronic devices contain a variety of materials, including metals that
can be recovered for future uses. In an alternative bulk system, a hopper conveys material for
shredding into an unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening and granulating
machines to separate constituent metal and plastic fractions, which are sold to smelters or
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plastics recyclers. Such recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system.
Some of the emissions are caught by scrubbers and screens. Magnets, eddy currents, and
trommel screens are employed to separate glass, plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals,
which can then be further separated at a smelter.
An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for component recovery with
increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic waste. Reuse is an alternative option to
recycling because it extends the lifespan of a device. Devices still need eventual recycling, but
by allowing others to purchase used electronics, recycling can be postponed and value gained
from device use.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Electronic components may contain some contaminants such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or
brominated flame retardants, and in developed countries recycling and disposal of the used or
unwanted electronics poses significant risk to the communities and great care must be taken to
avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as heavy metals
from landfills and incinerator ashes into the water bodies, air and soils. The causes of e-waste are
as results of changes in technology, changes in media, falling prices, and planned obsolescence
have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the globe, if not properly
managed can results to degradation and pollution of the environment.
Effective management of e-waste management which may include e-waste recycling, e-waste
management should be encouraged and commissions should be established in government
agency to handle the management of e-waste and put in place a well defined e-waste recycling
plants.

REFERENCES
Hagelüken, Christian. 2005. ―Optimising the Recycling Chain - the Contribution of an Integrated
Metals Smel-ter and Refinery.‖ In Securing the Future 2005. Skelleftea.
Olakitan O. Innocent C. N., Oladele O. & Mathias S. (2012). E-Waste Country Assessment
Nigeria. E-Waste Africa project of the Secretariat of the Basel Convention.
Osibanjo, Oladele, and I. C Nnorom. 2007. ―The Challenge of Electronic Waste (e-waste)
Management in De-veloping Countries.‖ Waste Management & Research, 25, 489–501.
Osibanjo, Oladele, and Innocent Chidi Nnorom. 2008. ―Material Flows of Mobile Phones and
Accessories in Nigeria: Environmental Implications and Sound End-of-life Management
Options.‖ Environmental Impact Assessment Review 28, 198–213.

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

Rochat, David, Christian Hagelüken, Miriam Keller, and Rolf Widmer. 2007. ―Optimal
Recycling for Printed Wiring Boards (PWBs) in India.‖ In R‘07 Recovery of Materials and
Energy for Resource Efficiency, 12. Davos, Switzerland.
Schluep, Mathias, Christian Hagelueken, Ruediger Kuehr, Federico Magalini, Claudia Maurer,
Christina Mes-kers, Esther Mueller, and Feng Wang. 2009. Recycling - from E-waste to
Resources, Sustainable Inno-vation and Technology Transfer Industrial Sector Studies.
Paris, France: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Schmidt, C. W. 2006. ―Unfair Trade - E-waste in Africa.‖ Environmental Health Perspectives
114: 232–235.
Secretariat of the Basel Convention 2011. Where Are WEEE in Africa? Findings from the Basel
Convention e-Waste Africa Programme. Geneva / Switzerland.
Sepúlveda, Alejandra, Mathias Schluep, Fabrice G. Renaud, Martin Streicher, Ruediger Kuehr,
Christian Hagelüken, and Andreas C. Gerecke. 2010. ―A Review of the Environmental Fate
and Effects of Haz-ardous Substances Released from Electrical and Electronic Equipments
During Recycling: Examples from China and India.‖ Environmental Impact Assessment
Review, 30, 28–41.
Widmer, Rolf, Heidi Oswald-Krapf, Deepali Sinha-Khetriwal, Markus Schnellmann, and Heinz
Boni. 2005. ―Global Perspectives on E-waste.‖ Environmental Impact Assessment Review,
25, 436–458
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electronic_waste&oldid=669136610 retrieved 8th
July, 2020
www.google.com/e-waste retrieved 8th July, 2020.

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERIC AND MULTIBAND POWER

SYSTEM STABLIZER (PSS) ON ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM
STABILITY
1
Abolaji Stephen Korede, 2Jerome Dada Keshi, 3Isichei Pius
1,2,3
Electrical/Electronic Department, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi.
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Stable operation of the power system is one of the key factors for reliable and quality power
supply. Any set back in the system operation mode (short circuits, outages of large generating
units, transmission lines, etc.) causes significant changes in the parameters of state of the
electricity system. The response of the system in such cases is an emergence of
electromechanical oscillations in synchronous generators reflected in the fluctuation of the
regime parameters (rotational speed, active and reactive power, voltage, power output, etc.).
Oscillations can reach an amount that can compromise the stable operation of the synchronous
generator and the power system in general. One way to suppress oscillations is to use a
stabilizer of the power system as an integral part of the excitation systems of generators. The
task of the power oscillation stabilizer is to produce a torque damping component of the
electromagnetic torque through the excitation systems. This paper compares two different power
system stabilizers (Generic and Multiband PSS) to enhance the damping of low frequency
oscillations in power systems. The effectiveness of the two different power system stabilizers was
compared through the simulation of a two machine power system in Matlab Simulink.

Key words: Stability; Oscillations, Faults, Simulation, Power.

INTRODUCTION
Today‘s world is continuously growing so that generation, distribution and transmission of
power are also simultaneously required to increase in same manner to fulfill the requirement.
Power system stability may be broadly defined as that property of a power system that enables it
to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating condition and to regain an
acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance (Kunju, at el, 2016).
Stability of this system needs to be maintained even when subjected to large low-probability
disturbances so that the electricity can be supplied to consumers with high reliability.

It is known that the power-system stabilizers PSS for generators and the supplementary
controllers for flexible ac transmission system (FACT) devices are efficient tools for improving
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the stability of power systems through damping of low frequency modes (Cardenas, at el, 2013),
where the frequency of these modes ranges from 0.2 to 2.5 Hz. Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
devices are responsible for providing a damping torque component to generators for reducing
fluctuations in the system caused by small perturbations.

The Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is a control device which ensures maximum power transfer
and thus the stability of the power system enhancement. The PSS has been widely used to damp
electromechanical oscillations occur in power systems. If no adequate damping is available, the
oscillations will increase leading to instability (Ali, 2013).

2.0 DAMPING POWER OSCILLATIONS

A continually oscillatory system would be undesirable for both the supplier and the user of
electric power. The definition of Stability describes a practical specification for an acceptable
operating condition. This definition requires that the system oscillations be damped (Omar,
Samir, Ahmed, 2016). Accordingly, a desirable feature in electric power systems, considered
necessary for all intents and purposes, is that the system contain inherent features that tend to
reduce (or eliminate) power oscillations.

2.1 Power Oscillation Damping Strategies

A number of strategies are available for damping low frequency oscillations in power systems.
Of these, the Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is the most commonly used. It operates by
generating an electric torque in phase with the rotor speed (Khaleghi at el, 2010). In most cases,
the PSS works well in damping oscillations. However, because the parameters of PSS are tuned
by the original system parameters, its control has less flexibility, which means the control results
are far from ideal if the operating conditions and/or structures of the system change (Alok,
Surya, 2013). Modern controllers used to damp power system oscillations include High-Voltage
DC (HVDC) Lines, Static Var Compensators (SVCs), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors
(TCSCs), Thyristor Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformers (TCPSTs) and other such Flexible
AC Transmission System (FACTS) equipment. FACTS devices provide fast control action and
have the advantage of flexibility of being located at the most suitable places to achieve the best
control results. As these controllers operate very fast, they enlarge the safe operating limits of a
transmission system without risking stability (Abd-Elazim, Ali, 2012). FACTS devices are oft
combined with Energy Storage Systems (ESS) to achieve higher efficiency and greater
operational effectiveness. FACTS/ESS technology has the advantages in both energy storage
ability and flexibility of its power electronics interface. FACTS/ESS also has capability to work
as active and reactive power generation and absorption systems, voltage control systems, and to
improve the transmission capability and system stability (Shahgholian, Haghjoo, 2011).
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Fig. 1: Power Oscillation Damping (POD) Strategies

2.2 POWER SYSTEM STABILIZERS (PSSs)

These are controllers with the ability to control synchronous machine stability through the
excitation system by employing high-speed exciters and continuously acting voltage regulators.
The PSS adds damping to the generator unit‘s characteristic electromechanical oscillations by
modulating the generator excitation so as to develop components of electrical torque in phase
with rotor speed deviations. The PSS thus contributes to the enhancement of small-signal
stability of power systems. Fixed structure stabilizers generally provide acceptable dynamic
performance. (Shahgholian, Shafaghi, at el, 2009).
2.3 OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER (PSS) STRUCTURES
Shaft speed, electrical power and terminal frequency are among the commonly used input signals
to the PSS. Different forms of PSS have been developed using these signals. This section
describes the advantages and limitations of the different PSS structures.

Fig 2: Overview of Power System Stabilizer (PSS) Structures

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2.3.1 SPEED-BASED ( ) STABILIZER

These are stabilizers that employ a direct measurement of shaft speed. Run-out compensation
must be inherent to the method of measuring the speed signal to minimize noise caused by shaft
run-out (lateral movement) and other sources. While stabilizers based on direct measurement of
shaft speed have been used on many thermal units, this type of stabilizer has several limitations.
The primary disadvantage is the need to use a torsional filter to attenuate the torsional
components of the stabilizing signal (Hossain, Hasan, 2014). This filter introduces a phase lag at
lower frequencies which has a destabilizing effect on the "exciter mode", thus imposing a
maximum limit on the allowable stabilizer gain. In many cases, this is too restrictive and limits
the overall effectiveness of the stabilizer in damping system oscillations. In addition, the
stabilizer has to be custom-designed for each type of generating unit depending on its torsional
characteristics.

2.3.2 FREQUENCY-BASED ( ) STABILIZER

Here, the terminal frequency signal is either used directly or terminal voltage and current inputs
are combined to generate a signal that approximates the machine‘s rotor speed, often referred to
as compensated frequency. The frequency signal is more sensitive to modes of oscillation
between large areas than to modes involving only individual units, including those between units
within a power plant (Shahgholian, Eshtehardiha at el, 2008). Thus, greater damping
contributions are obtained to these inter-area modes of oscillation than would be, with the speed
input signal. Frequency signals measured at the terminals of thermal units contain torsional
components. Hence, it is necessary to filter torsional modes when used with steam turbine units
(Köse A., Irmak E. (2016). In this respect frequency-based stabilizers have the same limitations
as the speed-based units. Phase shifts in the ac voltage, resulting from changes in power system
configuration, produce large frequency transients that are then transferred to the generator‘s field
voltage and output quantities. In addition, the frequency signal often contains power system
noise caused by large industrial loads such as arc furnaces.

2.3.3 POWER-BASED ( ) STABILIZER

Due to the simplicity of measuring electrical power and its relationship to shaft speed, it was
considered to be a natural candidate as an input signal to early stabilizers. The equation of
motion for the rotor can be written as follows:
( ) (2.1)
Where:
H = inertia constant; = change in mechanical power input; = change in electric power
output and = speed deviation.

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If mechanical power variations are ignored, this equation implies that a signal proportional to
shaft acceleration (i.e. one that leads speed changes by 90°) is available from a scaled
measurement of electrical power. This principle was used as the basis for many early stabilizer
designs (Khalid., Saleh, Ercelebi, 2015). In combination with both high-pass and low-pass
filtering, the stabilizing signal derived in this manner could provide pure damping torque at
exactly one electromechanical frequency. This design suffers from two major disadvantages.
First, it cannot be set to provide a pure damping contribution at more than one frequency and
therefore for units affected by both local and inter-area modes a compromise is required
(Shahgholian, Faiz, 2010). The second limitation is that an unwanted stabilizer output is
produced whenever mechanical power changes occur. This severely limits the gain and output
limits that can be used with these units. Even modest loading and unloading rates produce large
terminal voltage and reactive power variations unless stabilizer gain is severely limited. Many
power-based stabilizers are still in operation although they are rapidly being replaced by units
based on the integral-of- accelerating power design.

2.3.4 INTEGRAL-OF-ACCELERATING POWER ( ) STABILIZER

The limitations inherent in the other stabilizer structures led to the development of stabilizers that
measure the accelerating power of the generator. Due to the complexity of the design, and the
need for customization at each location, a method of indirectly deriving the accelerating power
was developed. The principle of this stabilizer is illustrated by rewriting equation (1) in terms of
the integral of power.
∫( ) (2.2)
The integral of mechanical power is related to shaft speed and electrical power as follows:
∫ ∫ (2.3)
The stabilizer makes use of the above relationship to simulate a signal proportional to the
integral of mechanical power change by adding signals proportional to shaft-speed change and
integral of electrical power change. On horizontal shaft units, this signal will contain torsional
oscillations unless a filter is used (Anil, Ramesh, 2016). Because mechanical power changes are
relatively slow, the derived integral of mechanical power signal can be conditioned with a low-
pass filter to attenuate torsional frequencies. The overall transfer function for deriving the
integral-of accelerating power signal from shaft speed and electrical power measurements is
given by:
( )
∫ ( )* ( )+ (2.4)
Where, ( ) is the transfer function of the low-pass filter.
The major advantage of a stabilizer is that there is no need for a torsional filter in the main
stabilizing path involving the signal. This alleviates the exciter mode stability problem,
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thereby permitting a higher stabilizer gain that result in better damping of system oscillations. A
conventional end-of-shaft speed measurement or compensated frequency signal can be used with
this structure.

2.4 GENERIC POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER (PSS)

The Generic Power System Stabilizer (PSS) block can be used to add damping to the rotor
oscillations of the synchronous machine by controlling its excitation. The disturbances occurring
in a power system induce electromechanical oscillations of the electrical generators. These
oscillations, also called power swings, must be effectively damped to maintain the system
stability. The output signal of the PSS is used as an additional input (Vstab) to the Excitation
System block. The PSS input signal can be either the machine speed deviation, , or its
acceleration power, Pa = Pm - Pe (difference between the mechanical power and the electrical
power). The Generic Power System Stabilizer is modeled by the following nonlinear system
shown in Figure 2.3:

Figure 3: The Generic Power System Stabilizer (Shahgholiyan, Haghjou at el, 2009)

To ensure a robust damping, the PSS should provide a moderate phase advance at frequencies of
interest in order to compensate for the inherent lag between the field excitation and the electrical
torque induced by the PSS action.
The model consists of a low-pass filter, a general gain, a washout high-pass filter, a phase
compensation system, and an output limiter. The general gain K determines the amount of
damping produced by the stabilizer. The washout high-pass filter eliminates low frequencies that
are present in the signal and allows the PSS to respond only to speed changes. The phase-
compensation system is represented by a cascade of two first-order lead-lag transfer functions
used to compensate the phase lag between the excitation voltage and the electrical torque of the
synchronous machine.

2.6 MULTIBAND POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER

The disturbances occurring in a power system induce electromechanical oscillations of the
electrical generators. These oscillations, also called power swings, must be effectively damped to

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maintain the system's stability. Electromechanical oscillations can be classified in four main
categories:

1) Local oscillations: between a unit and the rest of the generating station and between the
latter and the rest of the power system. Their frequencies typically range from 0.8 to 4.0
Hz.
2) Interplant oscillations: between two electrically close generation plants. Frequencies can
vary from 1 to 2 Hz.
3) Interarea oscillations: between two major groups of generation plants. Frequencies are
typically in a range of 0.2 to 0.8 Hz.
4) Global oscillation: characterized by a common in-phase oscillation of all generators as
found on an isolated system. The frequency of such a global mode is typically under 0.2
Hz.
The need for effective damping of such a wide range, almost two decades, of electromechanical
oscillations motivated the concept of the multiband power system stabilizer (MB-PSS). As its
name reveals, the MB-PSS structure is based on multiple working bands. Three separate bands
are used, respectively dedicated to the low-, intermediate-, and high-frequency modes of
oscillations: the low band is typically associated with the power system global mode, the
intermediate with the inter-area modes, and the high with the local modes.
Each of the three bands is made of a differential bandpass filter, a gain, and a limiter (see the
Figure 3 which is Conceptual Representation). The outputs of the three bands are summed and
passed through a final limiter producing the stabilizer output Vstab. This signal then modulates
the set point of the generator voltage regulator so as to improve the damping of the
electromechanical oscillations. To ensure robust damping, the MB-PSS should include a
moderate phase advance at all frequencies of interest to compensate for the inherent lag between
the field excitation and the electrical torque induced by the MB-PSS action (Shahgholian,
Etesami, 2011).

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Figure 4: Conceptual Representation (Mahmud, Hossain, Pota, 2013)

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Stability of an Electric Power System Employing PSS
Matlab Simulink environment was used in analyzing a simple transmission system containing
two hydraulic power plants. Power system stabilizers (PSSs) were used to improve transient
stability and power oscillation damping of the system. The phasor simulation method was
employed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the controller.

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO MACHINE ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

Fig. 5: Line Diagram of the Power System under Study

The modeling of a simple 330 KV transmission system containing two hydraulic power plants is
shown in Fig. 1. PSSs are used to improve transient stability and power system oscillations
damping. Despite the simple structure of the illustrated power system in the figure, the phasor
simulation method can be used to simulate more complex power grids. A 120 MW hydraulic
generation plant (machine M1) connected to a load centre through a 330 kV, 200 km
transmission line. The load centre was modelled by a 150 MW resistive load. The load was fed
by the remote 150 MW plant and a local generation of 120 MW (machine M2). The two

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machines were equipped with a Hydraulic Turbine and Governor (HTG), Excitation system and
Power System Stabilizer (PSS). These blocks are located in the two 'Turbine and Regulator'
subsystems of the simulation block diagram. Two types of stabilizers can be selected:
a) A generic model using the acceleration power ( = difference between mechanical
power and output electrical power ) and
b) A Multi-band stabilizer using the speed deviation (dw).
The stabilizer type can be selected by specifying a value (
) in the PSS constant block.
Figure 3.1 shows the use of the phasor solution for transient stability analysis of multi-machine
systems which is a Simulink model of Figure 4.1. It analyzes the enhancement of transient
stability of a two-machine transmission system with Power System Stabilizers (PSS).
Different faults especially a single phase faults were applied on the 330kV transmission system
and the impact of PSS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Impact of PSS on Two Machine System with Single-Phase Fault

Figure 6: Simulation Model of the system

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Figure 7: Turbine and Regulator M1

A single-phase fault was applied to the system in the transition time of 5.0s to 5.1s. Without the
application of PSSs, the oscillation of the system was as indicated in Fig. 4

9:

8:

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12:
13:

It is evident from Figure 7- 13, that when a single-phase fault was applied to the system in the
transition time 5.0s to 5.1s, the system regained its stability after the fault was cleared at 5.1s.

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This oscillation mode was typical of inter-area oscillations in a large power system. It can be
seen that without either PSSs in services, the oscillation of system was unstable but after fault
clearing, the 0.8 Hz oscillation was quickly damped when the two types of PSSs were put into
service.

Figure 14: Impact of PSS; Comparison of results for Single-phase fault

Figure 14 shows the comparison of the simulation results obtained when the two types of PSS
(Generic and Multiband PSS) were put into services. It can be seen from the Figure that
performance of the Multiband PSS was better than that of Generic PSS as it offered less
oscillation. As indicated by the blue curve the system became unstable without either PSSs.

CONCLUSION
A study of Power System Stabilizer (PSS) has been carried out. The function of these controllers
was discussed in brief and their effectiveness in enhancing power system stability assessed. From
the results obtained and by comparing the two types of PSS, the performance of the Multiband
PSS were better than that of Generic PSS as it offered less oscillation. To guarantee the
robustness of the proposed controller, the design process was carried out considering a wide
range of operating conditions: Heavy, normal and light loading. It has wide application in the
operation and control of power systems, such as scheduling power flow; decreasing
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unsymmetrical components; reducing net loss; providing voltage support; limiting short-circuit
currents; damping power oscillations; and enhancing transient stability.

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bacteria foraging optimization algorithm in a multi-machine power system.
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Ali A. (2013). Development of system with transitory steadiness of a bi-machine
transmission system with power system stabilizers and static Var compensator.
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Alok K., Surya Bhushan D. (2013). Enhancement of transient stability in
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Anil kumar N., Ramesh K. (2016). Transient stability improvement using SVC and
PSS. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 03(7),
1305-1311.
Cardenas, R.; Pena, R.; Alepuz, S.; Asher, G. (2013). Overview of Control Systems for the
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Hussein, T. R. (2014). Using Power System Stabilizers (PSS) And Shunt Static Var
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Khaleghi M., Hossein Nezamabadi-pour M. M., Lee K. Y. (2010). Pareto-optimical design of
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Kunju Muhammed, L.P.; Pal, B.C.; Oates, C.; Dyke, K.J. (2016). Electrical oscillations in wind
farm systems: Analysis and insight based on detailed modeling. IEEE Trans. Sustain.
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Panda S., Padhy N. P., (2007). Power system with PSS and FACTS controller
modeling, simulation and simultaneous employing genetic algorithm.
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Shahgholian G., Eshtehardiha S., Mahdavinasab H., Yousefi M. R. (2008). A
novel approach in automatic control based on the genetic algorithm in
STATCOM for improvement power system transient stability. IEEE/ICIS, Vol. 1,
pp.14-19, Varna.
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MODELING CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON PLANTAIN (MUSA.SPP)

IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

1
Olotu Yahaya, 2Luqman M.A, 2Abudu Mohammed and 3Thomas Bosede
1
Department of Agricultural & Bio-Environment Engineering, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi,
Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Nigeria
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Nigeria

Corresponding authors: [email protected];[email protected]

Abstract
It is evident that climate change (cc) could likely affect every sector of a human and socio-
economic interface, and turn makes agriculture and water resources vulnerable due to their
dependency on climatic events. This study aims to explore cc effects on plantain (Musa.spp)
irrigation water requirements (IWR) over Ondo State. The current (1980-2010) climatic dataset
was extracted from the eighteen Climate Research Unit (CRU 2.1) in the study region. The
projected climate variables (minimum temperature [Tmin], maximum temperature [Tmax], and
precipitation) were statistically-downscaled from an ensemble of six (6) general circulation
models (GCMs) under the climate change scenario-Representative Concentration Pathways
(RCP 4.5) for the 2040s [2030-2060] and 2080s [2070-2100]. The simulated dataset was
applied as input to run CROPWAT irrigation software to estimate reference evapotranspiration
(ETo), crop water requirements (CWR), and irrigation water requirements (IWR). The result
shows that the mean temperature (Tmean) increased by 0.8oC and 1.3oC from the 2040s to the
2080s, ETo increased from 4.4% to 9.8%, while precipitation is expected to decrease from
11.4% to 8.9%. It was observed that all the GCMs projected increases in CWR for future
periods. CCCMA model projected the highest increases of 900.4 mm (4.5%) to 1200.3 mm
(7.8%) for the 2040s and 2080s in response to the baseline. Also, the comparison between the
current and the future periods indicated that plantain IWR increased from 5.5% to 10.3% for the
2040s and 2080s. It is clear that the projected increase in temperature is largely responsible for
higher ETo and CWR. Overall projection in precipitation could result in to decrease in effective
rainfall (P.eff), and the predicted increase in IWR is due to higher CWR and reduction in P.eff.
In conclusion, irrigation water requirement is likely to significantly increase for the near
[2040s] and long [2080s] periods. To mitigate the possible effect of climate change, it is
important to adopt crop resistant crops, shifting planting date, and application of high-tech
water conservation irrigation mechanism.

Keywords: Climate change, Irrigation water requirements, Crop water requirement, General
circulation model, Representative concentration pathways, CROPWAT

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Introduction
Changes in climate might not only affect irrigation water requirements but water availability.
Several climate studies have reported that the mean average temperature during the current
period has increased [1]. The drivers of crop water requirement and irrigation demand are
basically temperature and effective rainfall. The increase in average temperature could lead to
higher evapotranspiration (ETo), crop water requirement (CWR), and soil moisture deficit; and
consequently, a risk to vegetation growth and development [2]. Accurate determination of CWR
is essential for the planning, designing, and management of irrigation schemes [3]. It is evident
that agriculture consumes a larger proportion of global consumption. Finding by [4] indicated
that about 70% of global water withdrawals from the aquifers and rivers are used up by
agriculture. Irrigation water requirements (IWR) depends on effective rainfall (Eff. Rain) to
satisfy the crop water requirements. Nigeria has an estimated irrigation potential between 1.5 to
3.2 million ha of which more than 1 million ha are located in the northern part of the country [5].
It is worth noting that agriculture only accounts for 1% of cultivated area in Nigeria [6], and this
makes it a subsistence-based under a rainfed system that could be susceptible to weather
variability [7]. Additionally, it is reported that there are about 264 multipurpose dams with a
combined reserviour capacity of 33 billion m3 for irrigation, municipal water supply, and eco-
tourism in Nigeria [8,9].

Irrigation facility such as Owena multipurpose dam constructed in Ondo State is only under 5%
usage for irrigation and 10% for municipal water supply. The irrigated land covers 2% of total
agricultural land of about 950,000 ha in Ondo State. However, addressing current and projected
food insecurity over Ondo State, it is necessary to move into precision farming by equipping at
least 50% of the total cropland with water-conserving irrigation mechanism. The volume of
water needed at the supplementary water application of 73 mm/m2 for plantain is considerably
large, the water can majorly be withdrawn from rivers and through groundwater extraction. Due
to rainfall variability and distribution in Ondo State, the recharge of underground water and
rivers could be greatly affected particularly in Ondo North Agro-Ecological Zone (ONAEZ).
This situation can further be exacerbated by the projected impact of climate change and makes
the region to be highly water-stressed. Change in irrigation water demand will put pressure on
underground water extraction and this is likely to have significant impact on groundwater
potentials [10]. It is important to understand the future trend of possible changes in temperature
and precipitation under different climate change scenarios. Water demand and supply can be
affected by changes in climatic parameters [10].

This study explores the possible impact of climate change on future irrigation water requirements
for plantain (Musa.ssp) over the study region and develops strong mitigation strategies. An
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ensemble of general circulation models (GCMs) is applied to statistically-downscale climate

datasets (temperature and precipitation) based on representative concentration pathways (RCP
4.5) for the periods the 2040s [2030-2060] and 2080s [2070-2100] in response to the referenced
period [1980-2010]. IWR is estimated using the CROPWAT model, GCMs projected climate
data, crop, and soil factors are used as inputs. The projected IWR from the selected GCMs is
compared with the computed baseline irrigation water requirements to create a database to
develop future irrigation scheduling.

Materials and methods

Study area
Ondo State has a total landmass area of 77,818 Km2 located in Southwestern Nigeria [11]. Ondo
state is located at an elevation of 264 meters above sea level and lies on coordinates 7°10'0" N
and 5°4'60" E in DMS (Degrees Minutes Seconds). Fig.1 shows the location of the Southwestern
region and Ondo State inside the map of Nigeria. It has a tropical wet-and-dry climate with a
mean annual rainfall of about 1500 mm and 2000 mm in the derived savannah and humid forest
zones [12]. The average annual mean temperature is about 25.9°C and the driest period is from
January to march, with nearly 9 mm of rainfall in January [13]. Most of the precipitation falls in
September, with an average of 247 mm [14]. The month of March is the warmest with an
average mean temperature of 27.7 °C [15]. In September, the average temperature is about 23.9
°C. It is the lowest average air temperature for the year [14]. A precipitation difference of 238
mm was observed between the driest and wettest months. The Ministry of Agriculture & Natural
Resources has proposed an irrigation plan for 400,000 ha over Ondo State. The soil types can be
categorized as light clay, sandy clay loam, sandy loam, and clayey loam.

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Fig.1: Map of Nigeria showing the study area (Ondo State)

Dataset
Historical
A 31-year historical monthly climate data (maximum temperature, minimum temperature and
precipitation) from 1975-2005 were taken from the CRU TS2.1 database through the Department
of Agro-climatological, Ministry of Agriculture & Natural Resources, Ondo-State, with a spatial
resolution of 30 arc-minute. Fig. 2 shows the location of temperature and precipitation
measurement stations in each of the eighteen local government areas of Ondo-State for the
period of 31-year. Fifteen stations offered a relatively complete daily climate parameters from
1980-2010, but stations 330G in Ese-Odo, 315T in Akure-North and 305U in Akoko S.E have
missing data from 1980-1985 but produced comprehensive weather data from 1986 to 2010.

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Fig. 2: Location of meteorological stations used for the study in Ondo State
Projected
Numerical models (General Circulation Models (GCMs)), representing physical processes in the
atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and land surface, are the most advanced tools currently available
for simulating the response of the global climate system to increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations [16]. GCMs are typically run with various changes to forcing conditions, such as
increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere [17]. According to [18], it is very
important not to depend on one GCM alone, but several climate models predictions when
developing assessment studies for impacts of climate change on crop yields. Based on this, an
ensemble of six (6) GCMs selected from the 5th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
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(CMIP5) was used for this study. Statistical downscaling model (SDSM) which is a hybrid
between a stochastic weather generator and a multilinear regression method, forcing synoptic-
scale weather variables to local meteorological variables using statistical relationships [19] was
used to project climate data for periods 2030-2060 and 2070-2100 under the climate change
scenario-Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 4.5). RCP 4.5 is known to be friendly
and median emission scenario and was chosen due to its long-term, global emissions of
greenhouse gases, short-lived species, and land-use-land-cover which stabilizes radiative forcing
at 4.5 W m−2[20]. The climate (minimum temperature, maximum temperature, precipitation)
projections were based on the output from the four GCMs; Canadian Centre of Climate
Modeling & Analysis (CCCMA), Max Planck‘s Institute of Meteorology (MPI), Meteorology
Office of Hardley Centre (MOHC), and Research National Centre for Meteorological (CNRM).
Table 1 shows the description of selected general circulation models, their spatial resolutions,
and representative concentration pathways for this research study. Table 1 shows the description
of selected general circulation models, their spatial resolutions and representative concentration
pathways for this research study.
Table 1 Properties of selected CMIP5 climate models used in this study
Model Names Abbreviations Spatial resolution
Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling & 48×96 cells, 3.750 × 3.750
Analysis CCCMA
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology MPI 96×192 cells, 1.90 ×1.90
Met Office Hadley Centre MOHC 88×176 cells, 2.00 × 2.00
Research National Centre for Meteorological CNRM 60 × 120 cells, 2.90 × 2.90
Source: [21]

Estimation of irrigation water requirements (IWR)

CROPWAT Irrigation model (Version 8.1) was used to estimate reference (ETo), crop water
requirement (CWR), and irrigation water needs (IWR) under baseline (1980-2010) and future
periods (the 2040s) and (2080s) respectively. The model, developed by FAO, is an irrigation
management model to evaluate crop water requirements and irrigation needs [22]. The model
was selected based on its ability to simulate the impact of various climate change scenarios on
crop water requirement; and also, on the basis of previous successful studies and satisfactory
performance in a number of worldwide locations under varying climate circumstances [23]. Four
main datasets were used as inputs in the CROPWAT estimation: climatic, crop, soil and
irrigation. The model also uses in-built Pen-Monteith method to compute reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) (eq. 1): Crop water requirement (CWR) and IWR were estimated using
CROPWAT software as shown in equations 2 and 3 respectively.

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( ) ( )
(1)
( )

(2)
∑ ( ) (3)
where CWR is crop water requirement in mm/day, Kc is crop coefficient and ETo is reference
evapotranspiration in mm/day. Rn is net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m2/day), G=soil heat
flux density (MJ/m2/day), T = mean daily air temperature at 2 m height (0C), u2 =wind
o
speed at 2 m height (m/s); es= saturation vapor pressure (kPa/ C); ea = actual vapor pressure
(kPa/oC); es–ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit (kpa); ∆= slope of vapor pressure curve
(kPa/oC) and γ = psychrometric constant (kPa/oC), Peff is effective rainfall [24; 25]. Fig. 3 shows
the methodological steps applied for the study.

Fig.3: The methodological framework for the study

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Results and discussion

Future climate scenario generation
Temperature projection
Overall trends of statistical downscaling outputs over the study region for projecting
maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures were obtained from six general circulation
models. The temperature changes indicate increases in minimum and maximum temperature for
most of the months up to the end of the 21st century (2100). The average monthly maximum
temperature (Tmax) had increasing trends relative to the baseline for all the general circulation
models. In the month of February and September for example, the highest and lowest average
maximum temperature of 38.7oC and 29.6oC was projected by ICHEC and CCCMA in OCAEZ
for a future period of 2030-2060, while least and highest maximum temperature values of 28.3oC
and 39.2oC were projected for period 2070-2100 (Fig. 4ae-4f). In ONAEZ, ICHEC and MOHC
models projected lowest and highest maximum temperature values of 28.0oC and 38.6oC for the
month of February and August during the time slice of the 2040s (2030-2060) and Tmax values
of 28.3oC and 38.6oC were predicted for the future period 2080s The least Tmax value of 27.5oC
was obtained from the ICHEC and MIROC 2040s whereas 28.3oC was predicted by ICHEC in
the 2080s in the month of August (Figs.4a-4f). Conversely, the National Central of
Meteorological Research (CNRM) and Canadian Centre of Climate Models & Analysis
(CCCMA) projected the highest maximum temperature (Tmax) values of 37.2oC and 37.3oC for
the 2040s and 2080s by the near (2040s) and long (2080s) term. (Fig. 4a-4f). In terms of
seasonality, all the outputs by the GCMs showed that it is likely to be a rise in maximum
temperature in the months of January, February, March, April, and Tmax gradually drops from
May to September.

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Fig.4 : Projected monthly Tmax for six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over ONAEZ for period 2035-2065 (a),
Projected monthly Tmax for six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over ONAEZ for period 2070-2100 (b),
Projected monthly Tmin for six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over ONAEZ for period 2035-2065(c), Projected
monthly Tmin for six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over ONAEZ for period 2070-2100 (d), Projected monthly
Tmax for six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over OSAEZ for period 2035-2065(e),Projected monthly Tmax for
six GCMs-RCP 4.5 over OSAEZ for period 2070-2100 (f),
Precipitation projections
The results from the GCMs indicate various degrees of variability in projected future
precipitation in all the eighteen (18) local government areas LGAs that comprise three Agro-
Ecological Zones in Ondo-State as shown in Table 2. Fig.5a-e is given the spatial distribution of
precipitation patterns for present (1980-2010), future periods (2030-2060) and (2070-2100) and
the difference between the future period with respect to baseline. The simulation indicated a
decrease in precipitation in all the LGAs with the exception of Akoko South West (Ako. SW)
which projected increases of 10.4% (154.4 mm) in the 2040s and 7.6% (112.9) in 2080 relative
to the baseline period. In absolute value, the highest reduction would be Odigbo (-676.0 mm; -
786.9 mm), and the smallest reduction would be Akoko North West (-29.0 mm; -1.8 mm).

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Table 2: Changes in projected precipitation from CCCMA-RCP 4.5 simulation

Changes in Precipitation
Locations Coordinates 2035 - 2065 2070-2100
Stations Long (N) Lat (E) (mm) (%) (mm) (%)
Ako. N.E 7.5248 5.7669 -59.6 -3.5 -101.5 -6.0
Ako.N.W 7.6323 5.7985 -29.0 -1.8 -81.7 -5.1
Ako. S.W 7.4387 5.7563 154.4 10.4 112.9 7.6
Ako. S.E 5.8981 7.4305 -152.6 -9.7 -194.1 -12.3
Owo 7.9890 5.5932 -459.7 -29.9 -574.0 -37.3
Ondo W 7.1000 4.8417 -380.5 -18.7 -420.9 -20.7
Idanre 7.0914 5.1484 -597.9 -33.5 -621.1 -34.8
Irele 6.4883 4.8702 -458.0 -24.1 -654.6 -34.4
Ifedore 7.4046 5.0130 -633.4 -40.0 -667.4 -42.2
Ose 6.9235 5.7774 -533.2 -36.0 -555.8 -37.5
Ilaje 6.3697 4.7847 -245.0 -10.2 -121.6 -5.1
Odigbo 6.7519 4.8780 -676.0 -30.9 -786.9 -35.9
EseOdo 6.2590 5.0000 -435.3 -20.9 -534.8 -25.7
Ileoluji 7.2825 4.8521 -202.6 -11.7 -205.6 -11.8
Akure N. 7.3803 5.2528 -89.5 -5.5 -92.5 -5.7
Akure S. 7.2571 5.2058 19.4 1.3 22.4 1.5
Okitipupa 6.5025 4.7795 -599.9 -28.1 -602.9 -28.3
Ondo E. 7.0659 4.9315 -92.5 -5.7 -89.5 -5.5

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Figure 5: Spatial distribution patterns for baseline precipitation (mm) in Ondo State for 1980-
2010(a), Projected spatial distribution patterns for precipitation (mm) using CCCMA under RCP
4.5 for period 2030-2060(b), Projected spatial distribution patterns for precipitation (mm) using
CCCMA under RCP 4.5 for 2070-2100 (c ),Projected changes in precipitation (mm) using
CCCMA model under RCP 4.5 for periods 2030-2060 (d) and 2070-2100 (e) relative to
baseline 1980-2010 in Ondo State.
Projection of reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
Historical and GCMs projected climate datasets were applied as inputs to run
CROPWAT software using crop factors (crop coefficient, rooting depth) and soil dataset (soil
texture, available soil moisture, infiltration rate) to estimate crop water and irrigation
requirements for baseline and projected periods. However, accurate estimation of reference
evapotranspiration is an important factor in computing CWR and IWR. The results of the
simulation run indicated that all the GCMs predicted increases in ETo from January to
December. Fig.6 shows that the highest and lowest ETo values were predicted in March and

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Synergy Towards Solution in National Development at Auchi Polytechnic New Auditorium, Auchi Edo State, Nigeria

September in the three AEZs for the periods 2030-2060 and 2070-2100. Reference
evapotranspiration increased from October through March and the period represents the dry
season. Again, it decreased from April to October which corresponds to the wet season. The
finding is in agreement with the projections of reference evapotranspiration calculated using the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 56 Penman-Monteith [26]. The
observation shows that the regions are likely to experience a warmer climate with projected
increases in temperature during the wet and dry periods. It is worthy of note that the predicted
increase in temperature is responsible for the projected increase in reference evapotranspiration
(ETo) since the temperature is the major driver of evapotranspiration. The results of ETo
obtained in this work shown good agreement with previous studies [27;28]. The projected ETo
could have serious effects on crop growth, development, and maturity. Excessive
evapotranspiration due to high temperature could also affect the phenological stages of plantain
and alter the growing cycle (i.e. early or late flowering, maturity, and increase of senescence rate
e.t.c).

Fig 6: Projected changes in monthly reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for future periods 2030-
2060 (a) and 2070-2100 (b) relative to baseline (1980-2010) and over ONAEZ, Projected
changes in monthly reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for future periods 2030-2060 (c) and
2070-2100 (d) relative to baseline (1975-2005) and over OSAEZ, Projected changes in monthly
reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for future periods 2030-2060 (e) and 2070-2100 (f) relative
to baseline (1980-2010) and over OCAEZ.
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Estimation of CRW and IWR

Crop water requirement (CWR) is the product of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and
crop coefficient (Kc) at different growth stages. Current and GCMs simulated ETo values in
ONAEZ, OSAEZ and OCAEZ were run with crop and water model to compute CWR and IWR
baseline (1980-2010) and periods 20400s, and 2080s. Predicted monthly plantain (Musa spp)
water requirements showed increasing trends across the three AEZs. The result of the ICHEC
simulation showed that crop water requirements increased from 60.1 mm in January to a
maximum value of 111.6 mm in October and decreased from November through December with
the CWR values of 70.7 mm and 57.9 mm for the short-term period 2030-2060 in ONAEZ
[Fig.7]. However, the CCCMA model consistently predicts largest changes CWR in the months
of September (15.6 mm and 20.4 mm) and October (66.1 mm and 68.1 mm) for the periods
2040s and 2080s relative to the current period of 1980-2010 in ONAEZ. This pattern of CWR
projections from the selected GCMs is similar in all the AEZs under the RCP 4.5 climate change
scenario (Fig.4.10a-f). This observation was similar to the works of Maurer et al. [29] and Sezen
et al. [30].

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Fig.7: Estimated current and projected monthly crop water requirements (CWR) in ONAEZ for
periods 2030-2060 (a) and 2070-2100 (b), Estimated current and projected monthly crop water
requirements (CWR) in OCAEZ for periods 2030-2060 (c) and 2070-2100 (d), and : Estimated
current and projected monthly crop water requirements (CWR) in OSAEZ for periods 2030-2060
(e) and 2070-2100 (f).

Since the irrigation demands of plantain depend on the CWR and precipitation amounts, the high
variability of precipitation and temperature significantly affected the amount of irrigation water
requirements. Irrigation water requirements (IWR) was estimated for historical period from
1980-2010 and the future periods 2030-2060 and 2070-2100 over Ondo State. Baseline and
projected climatic parameters were used in irrigation water requirements (IWR) estimation using
CROPWAT irrigation software. The results in Table 4show that the projected monthly IWR
under six GCMs-RCP 4.5 in the study regions.The concentration of IWR is very high from the
month of November through February whereas none of the GCMs projected supplementary
irrigation in March except the CCCMA model that projected 31.9 mm (319.0m3/ha) and 33.5
mm (335.0m3/ha) for the 2040s and 2080s in Ondo South Agro-Ecological Zone (OSAEZ). The
finding could have a strong linkage with the projections from the six global climate models that
predicted decreasing effective rainfall and precipitation trends for periods the 2050s and 2080s
from February through November in response to the baseline period in all the AEZs. However,
the projection from the GCMs did not simulate any significant irrigation water from April to
September for future periods (Table 3). The period falls at the onset of rainfall, and the wet
period over the study areas.

The Centre of Canadian Climate Model & Analysis projected the highest annual
irrigation water demand of 451.6 mm, 469.3 mm, and 493.8 mm, 500.8 mm for OCAEZ, and
OSAEZ for periods 2035-2065, and 2070-2100. These results correspond to irrigation water
demand increase of 4.9% to 26.1% in ONAEZ, 4.3% to 8.2% in OCAEZ, and 6.7% to 11.8% in
OSAEZ for the periods 2040s and 2080s relative to the current period of 1980-2010 (Fig. 8a-c).
Overall sensitivity comparative analysis for future irrigation water requirement (IWR) for
plantain (Musa.spp) by the GCMs indicate that more water could be needed to supplement the
projected decrease in projected future effective rainfall and precipitation for periods the 2040s
and 2080s in three agro-ecological zones. However, some level of supplementary irrigation could
be useful during the wet season, and full water application is strongly encouraged during the dry
season to meet up the water requirement for plantain over the study area.

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Table 3: Estimated monthly irrigation water requirements under baseline and future period in ONAEZ
Baseline ICHEC MPI MOHC CCCMA MIROC CNRM
2070
1975- 2035- 2070- 2035- 2070- 2035- 2070- 2035- 2070- 2035- 2070- 2035- -
Month 2005 2065 2100 2065 2100 2065 2100 2065 2100 2065 2100 2065 2100
JAN 42.5 53.3 54.3 36.0 68.7 61.7 62.0 68.5 68.8 49.3 63.2 54.3 60.5
FEB 24.4 26.6 30.6 26.1 28.6 25.6 27.8 38.9 41.2 27.1 33.4 30.6 34.6
MAR 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.9 33.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
APR 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
MAY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
JUN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
JUL 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
AUG 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SEP 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
OCT 0.0 28.1 34.2 22.4 28.5 20.7 44.7 113.2 114.7 33.8 56.4 40.9 55.6
NOV 10.8 88.2 91.2 86.7 91.8 64.8 67.8 116.1 117.9 84.9 106.5 93.0 93.3
DEC 57.0 59.2 59.2 63.2 63.9 116.6 112.5 125.2 126.2 110.7 125.9 62.3 62.9

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Fig.8: Projected annual irrigation water requirement (IWR) under baseline (1980-2010) and
future periods 2030-2060 and 2070-2100 over OSAEZ (a), OCAEZ (b) and ONAEZ (c).

Conclusion
This study evaluated the potential effects of climate change on irrigation water requirements
(IWR) for plantain (Musa.ssp) over the three (3) Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZs) over Ondo
State, Nigeria. In the study, an ensemble of six (6) general circulation models (GCMs) under the
climate change scenario (RCP 4.5) was used to project future climate variables (Minimum
temperature, maximum temperature, precipitation). The projected and current climatic variables
in combination with soil and crop factors were applied as inputs into the CROPWAT model for
computing CWR and IWR. However, the simulation revealed that all the GCMs indicated
increases in Tmax, Tmin, ETo, and consequently, an increase in crop water requirements (CWR) in
each AEZ. Therefore, it is projected that IWR will likely be to be more for 2070-2100 (the
2080s) than 2030-2060 (the 2040s). Conversely, overall simulations of climate change (cc)
effects in OCEAZ indicated a relatively small impact on IWR in comparison to ONAEZ and
OSAEZ over the study region. Generally, the findings from the study showed that CC could have
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significant effects on future irrigation water requirements in Ondo State. The observed findings
can be used to create robust mitigation strategies to reduce CC impacts on IWR. For future
climate change on IWR, more GCMs and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are
recommended for projecting climatic variables useful as inputs to compute IWR.

Funding
This research was self-funded without any external funding.

Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Olotu Y. & Olufayo A.A: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Omenaimen I. & Luqman M.A: Funding acquisition, Writing - review & editing. Rodiya A.A:
Writing - review & editing.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Mr. Theodore Imonigie for the GCMs simulation run and extraction. Also, Dr.
Gbode of Department of Meteorology, Federal University is appreciated for the running of R-
Studio of Statistical Computing.

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