Automotive Science and Engineering, Vol. 11, No.

2, (2021), 3569-3590

ISSN: 2717-2023
Automotive Science and Engineering

Journal Homepage: ase.iust.ac.ir

Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis

Equipped with Linear Wave Springs
Mohammad. Shirzadifar1* ,Ali. Abdollahifar 2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: This paper introduces a new configuration of ladder chassis containing a
Received : 2 Dec 2020 set of linear wave springs to improve the lateral stability of road vehicles.
Accepted: 26 May 2021 The governing equations for lateral stability of the ladder frame equipped
with linear wave springs were derived. In order to investigate this new
Published: 1 June 2021
system a unit base of the ladder frame equipped with linear wave springs
and a typical ladder frame were modeled using FEM methods
Keywords: (ABAQUS) with the same size conditions. This comparative study is
Road vehicle utilized to validate the derived equations and also to compare the
Ladder Frame effectiveness of the new designed system with typical ladder frames.
Linear Wave Spring
Results indicate that the new system has considerably improved the
lateral stability of the vehicle during road transportation and also
Vehicles Lateral Stability noticeably decreased the stress on the side and cross members.
Chassis FEM Analysis
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1. Introduction frame sections in three categories including

channel section, box section and tabular section
Chassis in ground vehicles consisting of several to overcome the lack of torsion stiffness. In early
types of frame structures is used to maintain all 1950s, Mercedes designers improved ladder frame
assembly units of the vehicle in the right order chassis by mounting the cross members through
and withstand the longitudinal, lateral and vertical the side members. Later, ladder frame chassis
forces caused through transportation.
became less useful due to the lake of twin tube
Chassis types can be classified by several chassis efficiency as a result of the weight of the
characteristics such as: frame materials, number large tubes, although they had less priced
of wheels fitted in the vehicle, the number of production methodology.
driving wheels, the shape of the frame sections Over recent decades, a number of
and the amount of integrity between the frame investigations were conducted on different aspects
chassis and the vehicle’s body. The ladder frame of the vehicle’s chassis:
is the simplest and the oldest chassis design
consisting of two symmetrical side members with - Dependence of truck roll stability on size and
an acceptable beam resistance. weight variables by Ervin in 1986 [1].
The first use of ladder frame chassis goes back - Fatigue analysis of vehicular structure for
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

to the mid of the 1930’s in race cars and VolvoS80 by Conle in 1997 [2].
cruciform bracing was added to them in order to - Evaluation of design alternatives for roll
increase the torsion stiffness. control of road vehicles by Cole in 2000 [3].
In 1950’s, Mercedes Benz and Auto Union - Fundamentals of the lateral dynamics of road
modified the ladder frame chassis using different vehicles by Sharp in 2001[4].

*Mohammad Shirzadifar
Email Address: [email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.22068/ase.2021.534
 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

- Normalized measure of relative roll instability linear wave springs to increase the lateral stability
for open-loop rollover warning by Kar and in road transportation.
Rakheja in 2006 [5].
Linear wave springs can serve as a lateral spring
- Dynamics analysis of the cross member on a and is able to be located in the side members of
4.5 ton truck chassis by Han Fui and Rahman in the ladder frame owing to their particular shape.
2007 [6]. Wave springs were first developed by the USA
SMALLEY industries in 1990’s. Their stress
- Active chassis geometry for motorcycles by
equations are based on curved beams theories.
Šmiraus and Richtář in 2011[7].
They usually are categorized by their occupied
- Standard stress analysis of truck chassis during area which is a function of their shapes (linear,
ramping for evaluating frame strength by Asker1 circular or multiple structures) with four types of
and Salih in 2012 [8]. material. SMALLEY industries, mainly employe
- Structural analysis of heavy vehicle chassis SAE 1070-1090 high carbon tempered spring
with different shapes of the cross sections by steel, SAE1060-1075 high carbon cold drawn
Sharma and colleagues in 2014 [9]. spring steel, and stainless steel 302 and 316 as
these springs follow the hook’s law [17].
The successive studies in literature indicate
that the frame designing methods are subject to The first idea of using wave springs in the
continuous improvements, which leads to vehicle’s structure was attributed to Pavani and
optimize common chassis structures to apply his research group in 2014. They analyzed wave
more payloads and stability for vehicles during springs to use them as an alternative for the
road transportations. In recent years, a number of helical compression springs in a vehicle’s
efforts had been made to improve the performance suspension [18]. In another research, Erfanian et
of vehicles by focusing on chassis performance al. evaluated the application of composite wave
via introducing new chassis structures, performing springs and the designing methods in chassis
a number of simulation studies, suggesting new structure [19].
materials and patenting a number of chassis Although linear wave springs have been
arrangements. Shin et al. presented new aluminum extensively used in different industries, still there
alloys for chassis [10] aiming at reducing the is a lack of their application in vehicle’s chassis
weight of the chassis, In another research, structures to develop the stability.
Autotech Engineering Deutschland GmbH
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The main purpose of this article is to design a

invented new chassis link to improve the stiffness
new chassis structure based on using ordinary
of chassis link [11], Ford Global Technologies,
ladder frames and devising a set of linear wave
LLC, patented a chassis subframe arrangement to
springs inside the ladder chassis to increase the
improve crash protection [12], Mazda Motor
torsional resistance of the road vehicle’s typical
Corporation patented side chassis structure to
ladder frame and also to decrease the lateral forces
absorb even a small vertical impact force applied
such as cornering to improve road vehicle’s lateral
to the side chassis structure[13] and ZF
stability and tire’s life cycle. The equations of
Friedrichshafen AG invented a chassis
lateral forces and main stresses of the ladder
arrangement for utility vehicles [14]. Jonasson et
frame unit equipped with linear wave springs are
al. at 2006 investigated an autonomous corner
calculated and then an application of using them
module as a facilitator for new vehicle chassis to
for a road vehicle sample are modeled using FEM
increase vehicle’s stability and handling [15]. A
software (ABAQUS) to validate them and to
review on numerical analysis of vehicle chassis
evaluate their effects on improving lateral stability
can be found in [16] suggesting ANSYS,
in comparison with an ordinary ladder frame unit
ABAQUS and NASTRAN as the main FEA
with the same size order.
software to study chassis. To the best of our
knowledge the modification of chassis structures 2. Introducing typical and multiple ladder
involving a class of trucks hasn’t been developed frame chassis units consisting of linear
as ordinary urban vehicle’s class, although their
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

wave springs
chassis torsional resistance has noticeable effects
on truck’s stability. Typical ladder chassis includes several patterns
of rectangular ladder frame units containing two
In order to develop the effects of truck’s side members and two cross members as shown in
chassis on their lateral stability, this paper focuses Figure1. The number of ladder frame unit patterns
on introducing new truck chassis structure depends on the dimension of the vehicle’s body,
containing ladder frame equipped with a set of thus in order to determine the new structure of the
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 Shirzadifar et al.

ladder frame consists of wave springs, it is enough space was prepared for them to have a
sufficient to introduce only one-unit base. The deflection inside each side member along
new proposed ladder frame unit has the main longitudinal direction (X direction in Figure 3) to
structure of ladder chassis equipped with two sets release their energy. Therefore, the configuration
of linear wave springs inside each of the side of locating linear wave springs inside each of the
members. As it is illustrated in Figure 2, each side members do not have any effects on applied
frame unit consists of two side members, two forces in longitudinal and vertical directions (X
cross members, four sets of linear wave springs and Z directions in Figure 3). The member’s
and two connecting planes. In order to supply dimension of the ladder frame unit equipped with
enough space for wave springs and connecting linear wave springs is shown in Figure 4. So, the
plans inside the structure, the unit frame members equipped ladder frame unit has only two
should have boxing section (Figure 3). Each connecting planes and four sets of linear wave
connecting plane is located between the middle springs in addition to the typical ladder frame unit
inside place in the side members. The cross which doesn’t make much difference between
members are welded to the connecting plane with frame unit’s weights until they have the same size
the same thickness as side member surfaces. The order. Based on Figures 1 and 4, the relations
connecting planes are free to provide only lateral between the dimensions of the typical ladder
displacement along the lateral direction (Y frame unit and the one consists of linear wave
direction in Figure 3). A set of linear wave spring springs should be as shown in Table 1 to be in the
is located in lateral direction between each side of same size order.
the connecting plane and side members which has
surface contact with each other.
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Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a typical ladder frame unit

The linear wave springs are activated when lateral

forces are applied to the ladder frame unit along
the lateral direction (Y direction in Figure 3) and
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 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Figure 2: A ladder frame unit equipped with linear wave springs

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Figure 3: The structure of Ladder frame unit equipped with linear wave springs

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Figure 4: The member’s dimension of the ladder frame unit equipped with wave springs

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 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Table 1: Dimensions relation between the typical ladder frame and the one consists of linear wave springs to be in the
same size order
Parameters name Parameters of Parameters of Relations between frames
frame for Fig. 1 frame for Fig. 3
Frame's longitudinal LTL LML LTL LML
Frame's width WTL WML WTL WML
Number of frame units NLU NLU NLU NLU

Longitudinal of side member's outer square cross section a1TL a1ML a1TL a1ML

Longitudinal of side member's inner square cross section a 2TL a 2ML a 2TL a 2ML

Thickness of side member's cross section S1TL S1ML S1TL S1ML

Longitudinal of cross member's outer square cross section a 3TL a 3ML a 3TL a 3ML

Longitudinal of cross member's inner square cross section a 4TL a 4ML a 4TL a 4ML

Thickness of cross member's cross section S2TL S2ML S2TL S2ML

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Figure 5: Elementary bicycle model of a vehicle

with the typical one, the vehicle’s lateral forces

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3. Methodology of evaluating frame unit

stems from road transportation with direct effects
As mentioned before, the main purpose of on the frame unit of the chassis were calculated.
introducing a new ladder frame unit equipped Then the amount of frame unit lateral force which
with linear wave springs is to reduce the can be neutralized by linear wave springs was
destabilizing effects of vehicle’s lateral forces calculated based on the theory of linear wave
applied to the chassis. In order to compare the springs. Finally, regarding the theory of stress-
lateral stability of the proposed ladder unit frame strain, the amount of net stress on each
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 Shirzadifar et al.

components of both ordinary and proposed ladder

frame units caused by the net lateral force were
calculated and compared together to investigate
the improvement in the stability of the ladder
frame unit equipped with linear wave springs.
4. Elementary vehicle analysis for calculating
lateral forces on frame chassis
Lateral forces applied to vehicles during passing Figure 6: Linear wave spring dimensions with N
through a corner, includes three phases: the waves and E modulus of elasticity
transient turn entry in which, vehicle’s lateral
velocity and turning moment increases from zero FL W S L3
to their steady values; the steady state cornering yLWS = (3)
that vehicle’s lateral velocity and yawing moment 1 6 E L W S b t 3N 4
remain constant with time and the vehicle is
navigating a path with a cornering radius; the 3 FL W S L
SLWS = (4)
transient turn exit while vehicle’s lateral velocity 4 b t 2N 2
and moment return back to zero. Since calculating
Therefore the linear spring stiffness ( k L W S ) and
vehicle’s lateral force is complex, a simple
method named bicycle model was deployed. its force ( FL W S ) in linear wave spring, can be
Regarding the bicycle theory as it is depicted in calculated by the equations (5) and (6) based on
Figure 5, the lateral force applied on the chassis the hook’s law.
frames during vehicle’s cornering can be
calculated using equations 1 and 2 [20 -24]. (5)
Lateral force which is applied to the vehicle’s 1 6 E L W S b t 3N 4
kLws=
chassis from the front wheels [20]: L3

FF O + FF i 

φ kφ F + kφ R × Flws =
1 6 E L W S b t 3N 4
 y LWS
(6)

m hC G L3
(1) Based on the dimensions that are used for each
m F  h C G kφ F b 
linear wave springs in Figure 7, the upper bound
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× + hR F   amounts of deflection for each of them in the

w F  kφ F + kφ R L   frame assembly occurs when all of the waves are
near to fade and the wave springs converts to a
Lateral force which is applied to the vehicle’s flat surface. Thus, the maximum deflection of
chassis from the rear wheels [20]: each linear wave springs located inside of the side
  k F + k R 
members in ladder frame unit can be determined
FR O + FR i = × as equation 7 based on reference [17].
m hC G
m R  h C G k R a 
× + hR R  
w R  k F + k R L  
(2)

5. Elementary linear wave springs analysis for

neutralizing frame chassis lateral force
Based on the installation position of linear wave
springs in assemblies, the forces can act axially or
radially.
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In order to calculate deflection ( y L W S ) and Figure 7: The shape of the linear wave springs when
operating stress ( S L W S ) of a linear wave spring all of the waves are near to fade in the frame assembly
with N waves, as it is shown in Figure 6, curved
beam’s theory and equations 3 and 4 were used
[17]:

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 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

of losing lateral stability of typical ladder frame

(7)
unit’s momentum under the effects of vehicle's
y L W S ( m a x ) = 0 . 0 2 2 2 2 N cornering can be calculated from equation (8):

k F +k
(8)
 L2 
 a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S   2 
2 R
MTLS
 N  N2LU mhCG
 8 a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  
 
    amF hCG k F b


L
a  3S 1M L  2t L S 
N 1M L

 wF k F +k R
h
LTL RF
A R C s i n  t L S
 a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S 
2
L2  bmR hCG k a
  
R
h
 4 4N 2  wR k F +k R
LTL RR

Now, by using the dimension’s notation of the

assembly showed in Figure 10 in equations (4), According to the effects of cornering on one
(5) and (6), the maximum amount of forces, typical ladder frame unit, Figure 1, equation (8)
operating stresses and spring stiffness created in and by the help of reference [25], the critical
each unit of linear wave spring can be calculated, states of stress for side and cross members are
respectively, by equations (A-1), (A-2) and (A-3) shown in Figure 9. Now based on the equation of
of the Appendix (A.1). normal stress (equation (9)) and Figure 9, the
amount of maximum normal stresses of the side
and cross members of the typical ladder frame
6. Calculating forces and stresses for both of unit can be calculated, respectively, by equations
the typical ladder frame units and the one (10) and (11) as follows. According to the
equipped with wave springs equation of normal stress from reference [25]:

As it is shown in Figure 8, the typical ladder 2

(9)
frame unit’s free body diagram consists of front X Y X Y 2
max XY
and rear lateral forces which results in a 2 2
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momentum (MTLS) in the frame structure and 2

0 0
makes the loss of vehicle’s lateral stability under max
Y Y
02 max Y
the effects of cornering. In regard with the Figures 2 2
1 and 8 and also equations (1) and (2), the amount
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Figure 8: Free body diagrams for the typical ladder’s frame under the effects of cornering

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 Shirzadifar et al.

Figure 9: The critical states of stress for side and cross members of the typical ladder frame unit

(11)
According to the equations (8), (9) and Figure 9,
maximum normal stress for the side member of 6×φ k φF +k φR
the typical ladder frame unit ( TLS ) equals: σ TLC = ×
4
a3TL 4 a3TL -2S2TL N2LU mhCG
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(10)

amF hCG k φF b
6×φ k φF +k φR × + h
σ TLS = 4
× wF k φF +k φR LTL RF
a1TL 4 a1TL -2S1TL N2LU mhCG
bmR hCG k φR a
- × + h
wR k φF +k φR LTL RR

amF hCG k φF b
× + h
wF k φF +k φR LTL RF As it is shown in Figure 10, free body diagram of
the ladder frame unit with linear wave springs
under the effects of cornering consists of front and
rear lateral forces that the a large portion of that
bmR hCG k φR a
- × + h can be neutralized by the action of wave springs.
wR k φF +k φR LTL RR Thus, the amount of losing lateral stability
(MMLS), maximum normal stress for the side
(σMLS) and cross members (σMLC) and the
According to the equations (8), (9) and Figure 9, maximum normal stress for the connecting plane
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maximum normal stress for the cross member of (σMLP) of the ladder frame unit consists of linear
the typical ladder frame unit ( TLC ) equals: wave springs are respectively calculated by
equations (A-4), (A-5), (A-6) and (A-7) of the
Appendix (A.2).

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 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Figure 10: Free body diagrams for ladder frame equipped with linear wave springs under the effects of cornering

7. Comparison of the typical ladder frame unit

and the one equipped with linear wave springs decreasing percent of normal stress of (14)
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Considering equations (8) and (A-4), the TLC MLC

improvement of vehicle’s lateral stability in cross members frame unit 100
TLC
proposed ladder frame unit can be calculated from
equation (12): 8. Application of derived equations for ladder
frame unit equipped with wave springs
improving percent of Lateral stablity = Appendix (B) were selected as loading condition
for two unit frames, including a typical and an
M TLS M MLS (12)
100 equipped unit with linear wave spring with the
M TLS same size order. Both unit frames modeled in
FEM software (ABAQUS) with the boundary
Moreover, following equations (10) and (A-5), conditions and mesh settings as shown in Figure
the reduction of normal stress for the side 11 and Table 2 under the static lateral loads of
members in the frame unit with linear wave cornering. The stresses caused by lateral loads for
springs compared to the side members of the the components of both unit frames calculated by
typical ladder frame unit, can be calculated as the FEM software as indicated in Figure 12 for the
(13): typical frame unit and Figure 13 for the unit
equipped with linear wave springs. In addition,
decreasing percent of normal stress of side stresses of both ladder frame units were calculated
(13) by the derived equations in Table 4 to make a
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TLS MLS
members frame unit 100 comparison with the FEM software’s results.
TLS
According to Table 4 the discrepancies between
Similarly, based on the equations (11) and (A-6), the results of the calculated equations and FEM
the normal stress reduction in the cross members outputs was less than ten percent. These results,
of proposed frame was calculated using following presented in Table 4, are a good proof to indicate
equation (14): the application of derived equations for both of
the ladder frame units.

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(a)
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(b)

Figure 11: Boundary conditions in FEM software: a) For the typical ladder frame unit. b) For the ladder frame
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unit equipped with linear wave springs

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 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Table 2: Mesh settings for ladder frame units in FEM software

Mesh setting Mesh parameters for typical Mesh parameters for ladder frame unit
parameters ladder frame unit equipped with linear wave springs

Number of nodes 15702 19603

Number of elements 9207 11039

Number of quadratic tetrahedral 4973 5614

elements(C3D10)

Number of linear hexahedral 4234 5425

elements(C3D8)

Average aspect ratio 1.08 1.11

Worst aspect ratio 2.03 2.27

Quad face comer angle less than 10 0% 0%

degrees

Quad face comer angle greater than 0% 0%

160 degrees

Table 3: Mesh study for ladder frame units analyzed by the FEM software
Number of Max of normal Convergence Number of Max of normal Convergence
elements stress percent elements stress percent
for typical ladder for typical ladder for typical ladder For ladder frame for ladder frame unit for ladder frame
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frame unit frame unit frame unit unit equipped equipped with wave unit equipped with
with wave springs springs wave springs

3151 38.11 Mpa - 4392 1389.51 Mpa -

5120 31.25 Mpa 18% 6268 1172.75 Mpa 15.6%

6324 26.47 Mpa 15.31% 7312 1009.15 Mpa 13.95%

7342 23.20 Mpa 12.36% 8536 876.95 Mpa 13.1%

8769 20.59 Mpa 11.24% 10031 769.61 Mpa 12.24%

9207 19.63 Mpa 4.68% 11039 744.6Mpa 3.25%

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(a)
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(b)
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(c)

Figure 12: Stress contours analyzed by FEM software only under the effects of vehicle’s cornering for: a)
Typical ladder frame unit. b) Two cross member and one side member. c) Each side and cross member

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(a) (b)
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(c) (d)
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(e)

Figure 13: Stress contours of the ladder frame unit equipped with linear wave spring analyzed by FEM software
only under the effects of vehicle’s cornering for: a) Ladder frame unit. b) Side member. c) Cross member. d)
Connecting plane. e) Linear wave springs

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Table 4: Stresses for the components of ladder frame units calculated by the gained equations and FEM software

Parameters Calculated by Calculated by FEM Calculated by Calculated by FEM

equations for the software for the equations for the software for the ladder
typical ladder frame typical ladder ladder frame unit frame unit equipped
unit frame unit equipped with linear with linear wave
wave springs springs
Normal stress of 15.37 Mpa 15.1 Mpa 6.54Mpa 6.9Mpa
side members

Normal stress of 17.82 Mpa 19.63Mpa 7.59Mpa 7.8Mpa

cross members

The normal stress of - - 738.82Mpa 744.6Mpa

linear wave springs

The normal stress of - - 0.49Mpa 0.52Mpa

connecting plane

The amount of -24.094kN.m - -10.26kN.m -

momentum caused to
lose lateral stability

9. Discussing the results decreasing percent of

The introduced member’s dimension of the normal stress of side members frame unit (16)
equipped ladder frame unit in Figure 4 resulted in (15.37) (6.54)
a 37.5 % of weights increase in comparison with 100=57.45%
the typical ladder frame unit since the connecting 15.37
planes and wave springs have almost the same
decreasing percent of normal stress of (17)
thickness and density as side member surfaces.
Furthermore, as the locating configuration of cross members frame unit
linear wave spring inside the side members
(17.82) (7.59)
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doesn’t have any effects on the suspension’s 100 57.41%

spring stiffness in vertical direction (Z direction in 17.82
Figure 3), the vertical and longitudinal natural 10. CONCLUSION
frequency of the new proposed ladder frame unit In this paper, a new ladder frame chassis
decreased for 16.5 % in comparison with the equipped with linear wave springs is introduced.
typical ladder frame unit only due to weights As the configuration of locating wave springs
increasing. However, the linear wave springs inside the equipped frame only affects the lateral
inside the ladder frame units improving vehicle’s applied forces, only the governing equations of
lateral stability, decreasing normal stress on the lateral frame’s stability and normal stress on the
unit frame’s side and cross members are more components under the effects of vehicle’s
than 57 percent, respectively, by equations (15), cornering forces were derived and compared with
(16) and (17). This means, about 57 % of the their counterparts in a typical ladder frame unit to
energy caused by applying cornering force on the indicate the advantages. In addition, the derived
equipped ladder frame, absorbed by the linear equations were validated considering a loading
wave springs deflection and its friction between condition of a 10 ton truck chassis with 34 ton
the surface contact with the connecting plane and payload and using the analysis reports of the FEM
inner surface of the side members. software. The governing equations and FEM
analysis compatibility indicated the effects of
improving percent of Lateral stablity = using linear wave springs in the ladder frame
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

(15) chassis on increasing lateral natural frequency,

( 24.094) ( 10.26)
100=57.42% vehicle’s lateral stability, decreasing the normal
24.094 stress of the unit frame’s cross and side members
are more than 57 % and its inefficient effects on
increasing weights, decreasing vertical and
longitudinal natural frequency is less than 37.5 %.
Linear wave springs were able to absorb 57 % of

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energy caused by applying cornering force on the frame unit

equipped ladder frame and inefficient effects of h CG Height of vehicle’s central gravity
locating them inside the structure of the ladder
frame on increasing weights can be ignored in h RF Height of front roll centre
comparison with its advantages of increasing h RR Height of rear roll centre
lateral natural frequency, vehicle’s lateral kF Spring stiffness of front suspension
stability, decreasing the normal stress of the unit
frame’s cross and side members. Furthermore, kR Spring stiffness of rear suspension
since the portion of the vehicle’s lateral forces kLWS Spring stiffness of linear wave spring
under the effect of cornering must be tolerated by k Front roll stiffness of the suspension
the tires, decreasing the vehicle’s lateral forces F

also can cause an increase tire’s life cycle. k R

Rear roll stiffness of the suspension
Therefore, using ladder frame chassis equipped LTL , LML Frame's longitudinal
with linear wave springs can be more useful than m Vehicle’s weight with its full load
typical ladder frame for road vehicles.
Furthermore, to decrease the effects of locating mF Vehicle’s front weight
linear wave springs inside the structure of ladder mR Vehicle’s rear weight
frame structure on increasing weights, it can be M MLS Momentum of ladder frame unit consists of
beneficial to study the effects of their replacement wave springs
with the composite linear wave springs as the MTLS Momentum of typical ladder frame unit
future work.
N Number of waves for each linear wave
Declaration of Conflicting Interests springs in frame unit
N LU Number of frame units
The authors confirm that the first author is with
SLWS Operating stress of a linear wave springs
Yasouj University and the second author is with N waves
with Shiraz University, and there is not any S1TL , S1ML Thickness of side member's cross section
conflict of interest for this manuscript.
S2TL , S2ML Thickness of cross member's cross section
List of symbols t LS Thickness of linear wave spring
a Longitudinal distance of C.G from vehicle’s wF Front width of vehicle
front
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

AF Lateral distance of front wheels from wR Rear width of vehicle

vehicle’s central gravity w TL , w ML Longitudinal of each cross members in
AR Lateral distance of rear wheels from frame unit
vehicle’s central gravity ΔyLWS Deflection of a linear wave springs with N
a 1TL , a1ML Longitudinal of side member's outer square waves
cross section  Mass Density
a 2TL , a 2ML Longitudinal of side member's inner square  Ackermann steering angle
cross section
a 3TL , a 3ML Longitudinal of cross member's outer σ max Maximum principal stress
square cross section σ MLC Maximum normal stress of cross members
b Longitudinal distance of C.G from vehicle’s in ladder frame unit contains wave springs
rear σ MLS Maximum normal stress of side members in
cF Lateral distance of front spring suspension ladder frame unit contains wave springs
from suspension ’s link σ TLC Maximum normal stress of cross members
cR Lateral distance of rear spring suspension in typical ladder frame unit
from suspension ’s link σ MLP Maximum normal stress of connecting
DF Lateral distance of front wheel from plane in ladder frame unit contains wave
suspension ’s link springs
DR Lateral distance of rear wheel from σ TLS Maximum normal stress of side members in
suspension ’s link typical ladder frame unit
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

E Modulus of Elasticity for side and cross Tensile Strength

T
members
ELWS Modulus of Elasticity for linear wave spring σ X , σX , σ X Normal stress of X direction

FZi , FZo Vertical force which is applied to each σY, σYʹ , σYʺ Normal stress of Y direction
vehicle’s wheels from road Y
Yield Strength
FFi , FFo Lateral force which is applied to vehicle’s τXY, τXʹ Yʹ , Shear stress in XY plane
chassis from wheels τXʺ Yʺ
FLWS Force of linear wave spring applied to each Rolling gradient

3584 Automotive Science and Engineering

 Shirzadifar et al.

References U.S. Patent No. 10,173,731. 8 Jan. 2019.

[1] Ervin, R. D. "The dependence of truck roll stability
on size and weight variables." International Journal of [14] Langhorst, Friedhelm, et al. "Chassis system for a
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2019.
[2] Conle, F. A., and C-C. Chu. "Fatigue analysis and
the local stress–strain approach in complex vehicular [15] M. Jonasson, "Aspects of Autonomous Corner
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(1997): 317-323. Solutions", Licentiate Thesis of Royal Institute of
Technology Vehicle Dynamics, SE-100 44 Stockholm
[3] Cole, D. J. "Evaluation of design alternatives for (ISSN 1651-7660), 2006.
roll-control of road vehicles." Proceedings of the 5th
International Symposium on Advanced Vehicle [16] Vijayan, Singarajan Nagammal, and Sathiavelu
Control (AVEC 2000). University of Michigan, 2000. Sendhilkumar. "Structural analysis of automotive
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[4] Sharp, Robin S. "Fundamentals of the lateral International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and
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Mellennium. Springer, Dordrecht, 2001. 127-146.
[17] Smalley production datasheets. Retrieved from
[5] Kar, Sandeep, Subhash Rakheja, and A. K. W. https://www.smalley.com/sites/default
Ahmed. "A normalised measure of relative roll /files/pdfs/Wave-Springs-CC2015: page 117.
instability for open-loop rollover warning."
International journal of heavy vehicle systems 13.1-2 [18] Pavani, P. N. L., et al. "Design, Modeling and
(2006): 74-97. Structural Analysis of Wave Springs." Procedia
materials science 6 (2014): 988-995.
[6] Fui, Teo Han, and Roslan Abd Rahman. "Statics
and dynamics structural analysis of a 4.5 ton truck [19] Erfanian-Naziftoosi, H. R., Seyedmohammad S.
chassis." Jurnal Mekanikal 24.2 (2007). Shams, and Rani Elhajjar. "Composite wave springs:
Theory and design." Materials & Design 95 (2016):
[7] Šmiraus, Jakub, and Michal Richtář. "DESIGN OF 48-53.
MOTORCYLE ACTIVE CHASSIS GEOMETRY
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"Race Car Vehicle Dynamics. Warrendale, PA:
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[8] Asker, Haval Kamal, Thaker Salih Dawood, and Society of Automotive Engineers." (1995).
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chassis during Ramping on block using finite element [21] Smith, Carroll. Tune to win. Fallbrook: Aero
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[22] Beckman, Brian, and No Bucks Racing Club.
[9] Khan, Mohammad Mamoon. "Structural Analysis "The physics of racing, part 5: Introduction to the
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[23] Johnson, Charles Wayne. "Lateral stability of the
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[11] Haselhorst, Kai, Viktor Friesen, and Denis [25] Sadd, Martin H. Elasticity: theory, applications,
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[12] Hilmann, Joergen, et al. "Chassis-subframe

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Takayuki Nakamae. "Side chassis structure of vehicle."

Automotive Science and Engineering 3585

 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Appendix A. Governing equations of linear (A-2)

wave springs
1 2E L W S t L S N 2
SL W S ( m a x ) =
A.1. Calculating the maximum amount of LML
forces, operating stresses and spring stiffness of (  2S 1M L  2 a 3M L ) 2
N LU
linear wave springs

According to Figure (4), equations (6) and (7),
the maximum forces of linear wave spring    a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  2  
( F l w s ( m a x ) ) can be calculated from equation   
  
(A-1).   L 2

 
  M L  2 S1 M L  2 a 3 M L  
(A-1)    N LU  
  2 
0 . 0 2 2 2 2 N  N 
 
16E
L W S   a 2 M L  2S 1M L   t
3
LS N
4    8   a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  
Fl w s ( m a x ) =     
   
L
 ( M L  2S 1M L  2 a 3 M L ) 3  
 N LU    
  
   a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  2       
     
   
   L 2
 
  
   M L  2 S1 M L  2 a 3 M L  
   N LU      
  N2     
0 . 0 2 2 2 2 N     LML 2 S   
  8   a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S   
     N 1ML 2 a 3ML   
      LU 

     N  
    
     
     a  3 S  2t   
    A R C s i n  1M L 1M L LS
 

 
    a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  2  
    
     
   L
 
     4  
 
ML
2 S 2 a
 
 N LU
1 M L 3 M L

     
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

    L 2 
  N  
  
       M L  2 S1 M L  2 a 3 M L   
  a
1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S 
     N LU   
 A R C s i n       
   a 1M L  3S 1M L  2t L S  2
   4N 2

    
 
  4    
      t L S 
 2 



 LML 
 2 S1 M L  2 a 3 M L  
 
   
   N LU    
 
 4N 2

   
   
   
 t L S 
   
   
   
   
 
   
   
   
    
   
   
 
 
 
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

According to Figure (4) and equation (5), the

maximum spring stiffness of linear wave springs
According to Figure (4), equations (4) and (A-1), ( k L w s ) can be calculated from equation (A-3).
the maximum operating stresses of linear wave
1 6 E L W S   a 2 M L  2S 1M L   t 3 L S N 4 (A-3)
springs ( S L W S ( m a x ) ) can be calculated from kLws =
LML
equation (A-2). (  2S 1M L  2 a 3M L ) 3
N LU

3586 Automotive Science and Engineering

 Shirzadifar et al.

A.2. Calculating the amount of losing lateral Now, based on the equation of normal stress
stability, maximum normal stress for the side (equation (9)) and Figure (A-1), the amount of
and cross members and the maximum normal maximum normal stresses of side and cross
stress for the connecting plane of the ladder members and also the connecting plane of the
frame unit equipped with linear wave springs ladder frame unit consists of linear wave springs
According to Figures 4 and 9 and also equations can be calculated by equations (A-5), (A-6) and
(1), (2) and (A-1), the amount of losing lateral (A-7) as below, respectively. According to the
stability of the ladder frame unit equipped with equations (9) and (A-4) and Figure (A-1),
linear wave springs under the effects of vehicle’s maximum normal stress for the side member of
cornering can be calculated from the frame unit’s the ladder frame unit equipped with linear wave
momentum ( M MLS ) by equation (A-4). Based on springs ( MLS ) equals:
Figures (4) and (10) and also equations (1), (2) (A-5)
and (A-1):
6
σM L S = ×
(A-4) a 4
- a1 M L - 2 S1 M L
4
1ML

φ kφ F + kφ R a mF hC G kφ F b
× × + hR F -
N2L U m h C G φ kφ F + kφ R wF k φ F + k φ R LM L
hC G kφ F × -
a mF b N2L U m h C G
MM L S = × + hR F - - b mR hC G kφ R a
wF k φ F + k φ R LM L × + hR R
wR k φ F + k φ R LM L
b mR hC G kφ R a
× + hR R
wR k φ F + k φ R LM L
1 6 EL W S× a 2 M L - 2 S1 M L × t 3L S N 4
×
a 2 M L - 2 S1 M L × t 3L S N 4 L
1 6 EL W S×
× ( M L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L )3
L NL U
( M L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L )3
NL U 0.02222N×
0.02222N× 2
2
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S +
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S + 2
2 LM L
LM L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L NL U
NL U
N2
N2
8 × a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S 8× a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S

LM L LM L
× ×
NL U NL U

LM L
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L LM L
NL U - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
× NL U
N ×
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S N
ARCsin 2
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S
+ ARCsin 2
4 a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S
2 +
LM L 4
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
NL U 2
LM L
4 N2 - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
+ tL S NL U
4 N2
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

+ tL S
According to the effects of cornering on ladder
frame unit equipped with linear wave springs,
Figure 4, equation (A-4) and by the help of
reference [25], the critical states of stress for side
and cross members and also the connecting plane
are as shown in Figure (A-1).
Automotive Science and Engineering 3587
 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Figure A-1: Critical states of stress for the side and cross members of the ladder frame unit equipped with linear
wave springs.

According to the equations (9) and (A-4) and

Figure (A-1), the maximum normal stress of the
cross member of ladder frame unit equipped
with linear wave springs ( MLC ) calculated from
equation (A-6) and also According to the
equations (9) and (A-4) and Figure (A-1), the
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

maximum normal stress on the connecting plane

of the ladder frame unit equipped with linear
wave springs calculated from equation (A-7).
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

3588 Automotive Science and Engineering

 Shirzadifar et al.

(A-6) (A-7)

6 6
σM L c = 4
× σM L P = 2
×
a 4 3 M L - a 3 M L - 2 S2 M L LM L
a 2 M L - 2 S1 M L × - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
NL U
φ kφ F + kφ R
× φ kφ F + kφ R
N2L U m h C G ×
N2L U m h C G
a mF hC G kφ F b
× + hR F - a mF hC G kφ F b
wF k φ F + k φ R LM L × + hR F -
wF kφ F + kφ R LM L
b mR hC G kφ R a
- × + hR R b mR hC G kφ R a
wR k φ F + k φ R LM L - × + hR R
wR kφ F + kφ R LM L

1 6 EL W S× a 2 M L - 2 S1 M L × t 3L S N 4 1 6 EL W S× a 2 M L - 2 S1 M L × t 3L S N 4
× ×
L L
( M L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L )3 ( M L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L )3
NL U NL U
0 . 0 2 2 2 2 N × 0 . 0 2 2 2 2 N ×
2 2
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S + a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S +
2 2
LM L LM L
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L - 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
NL U NL U
N2
N2
8 × a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S
8 × a 1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S

LM L
LM L ×
× NL U
NL U
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

LM L
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
LM L NL U
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L ×
NL U N
×
N a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S
A R C s i n 2
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S
A R C s i n 2 +
a1 M L - 3 S1 M L - 2 t L S 4
+ 2
4 LM L
2
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L
LM L NL U
- 2 S1 M L - 2 a 3 M L 4 N2
NL U
+ tL S
4 N2
+ tL S

Appendix B. Characteristics of the case study

B.1. Introducing the characteristics of the

truck chassis used for the study

The characteristics of the truck chassis used as

an application of the calculated equations are
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

introduced in Table (B-1).

Automotive Science and Engineering 3589

 Improving the Lateral Stability of Road Vehicles Using Ladder Chassis Equipped with Linear Wave Springs

Table B-1: Characteristics of the truck chassis used for the study
Parameters symbol Parameters amount for typical Parameters amount for unit consists of linear wave
unit springs
- AISI 4130 alloy AISI 4130 alloy
- 0.30 C, 1.0 Cr, 0.90 Mn, 0.20 Mo 0.30 C, 1.0 Cr, 0.90 Mn, 0.20 Mo
E 207 GPa 207 GPa
ρ kg kg
7798 7798
m3 m3
910 Mpa 910 Mpa
Y

1030 Mpa 1030 Mpa

T
0.5 rad 0.5 rad
k F kN kN
375 375
m m
k R kN kN
1025 1025
m m
m 44000 kg 44000 kg
h CG 2.1 m 2.1m
NLU 5 5
LTL , LML 7.8 m 7.8 m
a 4.9m 4.9m
b 2.9m 2.9m
h RF 1.1m 1.1m
h RR 1.1m 1.1m
wF 2.04m 2.04m
wR 1.82m 1.82m
[ Downloaded from www.iust.ac.ir on 2022-02-06 ]

mF 13040kg 13040kg
mR 30960kg 30960kg
a1TL , a1ML 0.29m 0.29m

a 2TL , a 2ML 0.27m 0.27m

S1TL , S1ML 0.01m 0.01m

a 3TL , a 3ML 0.27m 0.27m

a 4TL , a 4ML 0.25m 0.25m

S2TL , S2ML 0.01m 0.01m

t LS - 0.01m
N - 4
LTL L 1.56m 1.56m
, ML
N LU N LU

w TL , w ML 0.60m 0.60m
ELWS 203.4 Gpa 203.4 Gpa
LM L - 1m
2 S1 M L 2 a3 M L
NL U

a2 M L 2 S1 M L - 0.25m
[ DOI: 10.22068/ase.2021.534 ]

LM L - 1.56m
NL U

a2 M L 2 S1 M L - 0.25m
S1ML - 0.01m

3590 Automotive Science and Engineering

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