Introduction

CHAPTER

1 Introduction
Under the term “Irrigation” as applied to the agriculture, is included all of the operation, or practices in
artificially applying water to the land for the production of crop during base period of crop. Or irrigation
may also defined as “the artificial process of supplying water for the growth of crops as per crop
requirement in the absence of sufficient precipitation”.
Ordinarily water is supplied to the crop land by nature through rain but generally it is not sufficient for the
proper growth of the plants. Different types of plants require different quantities of water at different
times, till they grow up completely. In order to achieve this objective of irrigation, an irrigation system is
required to be developed, which involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
various irrigation works viz. a sources of supply, a different system for carrying water from the source to
the agricultural land and its application on the land, and various other associated works.
Irrigation involves artificially providing water to crops. This technique is used in farming to enable plants
to grow when there is not enough rain, particularly in arid areas. It is also used in less arid regions to
provide plants with the water they need when seed setting. About 66% of the world's water catchment is
used in farming, which continues to make increasing use of irrigation. But in most irrigation systems 50
to 60% of the water used does not benefit the plants. It is therefore necessary to set up more carefully
designed irrigation schemes that ensure optimum agricultural production while preserving this resource.

1.1 Need and Scope of Irrigation and Drainage in Nepal

Nepal is agricultural country where most of the people are dependent in agriculture. But the rainfall,
climate, topography and vegetation vary from place to place. The amount and duration of rainfall vary
considerably. Even at particular place, the rainfall is highly erratic and irregular, as it occurs only during a
few particular months of the year. Crops cannot be grown properly over the entire land without providing
artificial irrigation in fields.
If the normal rain at any place is adequate to meet the total water requirements of the crops grown and the
time of interval of the rainfall is such that the water is available whenever the plants need it, then
irrigation is not required. Such ideal condition exists only for some regions of Nepal where the normal
rainfall is sufficient to fulfill the water requirements of the crops grown. However for most of the regions
of Nepal crop production is not possible without irrigation. Thus the factors which necessitate irrigation
are indicated below.
(i) Inadequate rainfall
When the rainfall at a place is inadequate to meet the crop water requirements, then it would be
necessary to use irrigation. In such cases water may be conveyed from the places where it is
available in abundance to the place of deficiency.
(ii) Uneven distribution of rainfall
The total rainfall in a region may be adequate but it may be unevenly distributed over time as well as
space. The entire rainfall for any region may occurs only during some period of the year and for the

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

rest of the period there may be no rain. Further in some part of the region there may be excessive
rain and remaining part may have little or almost no rain. The rainfall in Nepal has such
characteristics. The entire rainfall is received from the monsoon during the four months from June to
September and the rainfall during winter is scanty. With such uneven distribution of rainfall, it
would be necessary to use irrigation.
(iii) Growing crops round a year
The rainfall in a region may be sufficient to grow only one crop in a year for which no irrigation
may be required, for example rice in monsoon. However, in the same region if more numbers of
crops are to be grown during the same year it would be possible only if the irrigation facilities are
available. Moreover for some crops such as sugarcane have much longer period of maturity for
which irrigation is invariably needed.
(iv) Growing superior crops
Certain inferior or low-priced crops require less water and hence for growing such crops only the
rain water may be sufficient and no irrigation is therefore needed. However there are several
superior or high- priced crops which need frequent application of large quantity of water and for
growing such crops, irrigation is necessary.
There is a huge scope of irrigation development in Terai as well as in Hills of Nepal. In Terai (Plain
areas) a lot of agricultural areas are available without irrigation facility. These plains have high
fertility but in the absence of irrigation facilities they are limited to rain-fed cropping only. In Terai
there is a future scope of developing large irrigation systems with barrages, small dams and
reservoirs to produce a variety of crops in large quantity.
In hills there are small commanded areas which need small irrigation systems. In hills a lot of Farmer
Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) are available but they are not designed properly by engineers.
Farmers are facing difficulty in operation and maintenance of these systems. Hence there is a scope for
improving these small FMIS and construction of new irrigation systems in hills of Nepal.
Irrigation and drainage are two face of the same coin. Surface irrigation is a boon only if it is practiced
with great care. Due to steep topography, mountains and hills are less susceptible to water logging,
hence less need of drainage. In hills and mountains due to presence of sufficient natural drainage there
is less requirement of drainage. Remodeling of exiting natural drainage is sufficient to drain off the
excess water. But in case of plain areas during monsoon season, there is great chance of water logging.
To remove the excess water, there is necessary to introduce the surface and subsurface drainage. By
providing drainage facilities in Terai, optimum crop production can be assured.

1.2 Challenges and Opportunities of Irrigation Development in Nepal

The irrigation development will lead to economic growth of the country by the increase in the production
of crop, intense industrialization, employment generation and so on. The irrigation development can
replace the purchase of food from foreign. It can also reduce the famine problem.
The main challenges in irrigation development in Nepal have been identified as follows:
• The topography and fragile geology create more challenges to development of irrigation project.
• Monsoon and/or rainfall pattern are highly variable in respect of time and place.

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 Introduction

• In hills where more head is available there is less agricultural fields and in plains where more
agricultural fields are available there is less head.
• Isolated communities have out of necessity concentrated on growing subsistence food crops.
Due to difficult remote area, isolated farmers communities are not encouraged to adopt new
cropping pattern for want of market access.
• Due to poor agricultural support services improved seed varieties and agricultural techniques
are often not available to the farmers.
• Due to deforestation, rainfall runoff is more rapid, increasing the frequency of severs floods.
• Landslide and erosion causing damage to irrigation structure (particularly intakes) and
clogging canals.
• Conflicts between water users and political interferences.
• Misconceptions and lack of coordination between developer agencies.
• Problem in collection of Irrigation Service Fees.
There are several challenges as above mentioned however there are good opportunities for irrigation
development in Nepal. For irrigation development we need sufficient water source, croplands, suitable
crops, suitable climate, skilled human resources, construction materials and technology. These all are
more or less available in Nepal. For the source of irrigation water in Nepal different rivers, streams, lakes,
springs and ground water can be used. Agricultural and crop lands are abundantly available in all parts of
the country. Different types of crops such as rice, wheat, maize, tobacco, sugarcane, millet including
vegetables are suitably grown in the country. The climate of Nepal is also favorable for growing different
variety of crops and fruits. At present we have sufficient national experts in different areas for designing
and construction of irrigation projects. Basic construction materials such as cement, sand, brick, boulder
and steel are also available in Nepal. Fast growing technology can also be used to develop the irrigation
projects.

1.3 Status of Irrigation Development in Nepal

Out of the total 14.718 million hectare area of the country only 2.641 million hectare area is arable and
1.766 million hectare land is irrigable. 76% of potential irrigable area lies in the Terai region of Nepal.
The history of irrigation in Nepal before 1922 shows that irrigation were developed, operated and
maintained by farmers called Farmers Managed Irrigation System (FMIS). From 1922 to 1957,
Government made little effort to develop irrigation infrastructures in Nepal. Chandra Nahar, Juddha
Nahar, Jagadispur (Banganga), Phewa Dam are few examples of the projects developed during that
period. However, irrigation infrastructure development has got high priority since 1957, the milestone of
the beginning of periodic plan in Nepal.
The minor irrigation program was introduced in the second three-year development plan (1962-65) to
provide low-cost-irrigation facilities to farmers within a short period of time. The program included the
construction of small wells, irrigation tanks, reservoirs, pumps (lift) and other low cost irrigation
facilities. Although it was planned to provide irrigation facilities to 4,455 hectares by the end of the Plan
period under this program, the actual achievement was insignificant. The Third Plan Period (1966-70)

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

saw the countrywide implementation of the minor irrigation program with the emphasis on the
participation of the beneficiaries. The government investment in irrigation development – especially in
the large-scale irrigation systems in the Terai increased tremendously from 1970 onwards. This was due
to the increase in the borrowing of international capital in the form of loans and grants for the country’s
overall economic development. This is clearly reflected in the surge of irrigation development targets in
the subsequent five-year development plans- from the Fourth Plan (1970-75) onwards.
Until the middle of 1980s, irrigation development by the government focused largely on the construction
of physical infrastructure of canals and structures, and very little attention was given to the effective
management of the completed systems. Attention began to be paid to the improved management of
government-operated irrigation systems from 1985 onwards. This is reflected in the implementation of a
number of management-oriented projects in 1985-89: the USAID-funded Irrigation Management Transfer
Project (IMTP) in 1985, the Irrigation Line of Credit (ILC) in 1988 financed by the World Bank, the
Irrigation Sector Project (ISP) in 1988 financed by the ADB, and the Irrigation Sector Support Project
(ISSP) in 1989 under the co-financing of the UNDP, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank
(ADB). All these projects have specifically emphasized the participatory approach to irrigation
development and management of irrigation facilities. Further, following the introduction of the Basic
Needs Program (BNP) in 1987, the working Policy on Irrigation Development for the fulfillment of Basic
Needs’ was formulated in the early 1989.
This was immediately followed by the promulgation of the Irrigation Regulations (IR) in April 1989.
These Regulations placed emphasis on the greater collaboration with water users in all phases of
irrigation projects – planning, construction, operation and maintenance. The strategy of increasing farmer
participation was mainly based on the recognition that government resources alone were inadequate to
meet the country’s irrigation development objectives and sustain the management of government
irrigation systems after their completion. The government expected to increase the rate of irrigation
development and develop maximum farmers’/water users’ responsibility in the operation and
maintenance of completed irrigation systems. The Irrigation Regulations gave water users, for the first
time, a legal mandate to form water users’ associations in accordance with the 1976 Association
Registration Act. It institutionalized the participation of actual water users in irrigation. In 1989, the
action plans and policies for the turnover of small irrigation systems and the participatory management of
large irrigation systems were formulated.
This was followed by the promulgation of Water Resources Act and Irrigation Policy in 1992 with the clear
vision of irrigation development. Later this policy was amended in 1997 and now Irrigation Policy 2004 is in
practice. Similarly Irrigation Master Plan 1990, Agriculture Perspective Plan 1995, Water Resources Strategy
2002 and National Water Plan 2005 are other few documents which guide irrigation development in Nepal.
Out of total area 1,47,181 km2, Nepal has cultivable area of 26,42,000 ha. Out of total cultivable area irrigable land
is 17,66,000 ha. At the end of F.Y. 071/72, the area covered by the different irrigation methods are as follows.
Surface irrigation = 779694 ha.
Subsurface irrigation = 391080ha.
Farmers channel = 198140 ha.
Some irrigation systems of Nepal are given in Table 1.1 with their commended area and average design discharge.

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 Introduction

Table:1
Table:1.1 List of irrigation system and their commanded area with discharge (Source: - Department of Irrigation)
Asar-Kartik Mangsir-Falgun Chaitra-Jestha
Possible
Irrigation Commanded Average Average Average
S.N District Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated
System Area (ha) Discharge Discharge Discharge
area (ha) Area (ha) Area (ha) area (ha)
(lps) (lps) (lps)

1 Kankai IS Jhapa 8000 8000 7000 6000 4000 3000 2500 0

Morang
Sunsari
2 and 68000 50000 66000 22000 58000 15000 17700 0
Morang IS
Sunsari
Chandra
3 Mohana Sunsari 1800 1650 1500 1500 1000 1100 900 0
IS
Chandra
4 Saptari 10500 8000 10000 6000 7000 1500 300 100
Canal IS

Koshi
5 West Saptari 11000 9900 11000 9900 9000 9900 5000 7000
Canal IS

Kashi
6 Pump Saptari 13000 7000 10000 5000 7000 5000 0 2000
Canal IS
Siraha
and
7 Kamala IS 25000 28800 25000 8000 10000 4000 0 2000
Dhanus
ha
Hardinath Dhanus
8 2000 1600 1700 400 800 210 200 0
IS ha

Manushm
9 Sarlahi 5200 5800 5000 4300 3000 3200 1500 0
ara IS
Sarlahi
Bagmati and
10 45600 34000 39700 10200 25500 7700 13000 0
IS Rautaha
t
Rautaha
11 Jhaanjh IS 2000 3500 2000 1200 1500 1200 500 500
t
Bara
Narayani
12 and 28700 19200 28000 12000 18000 10000 500 12000
IS
Parsa
Bara
Narayani
13 and 2800 280 600 280 600 100 300 0
Tubel IS
Parsa
Narayani Chitwa
14 4700 5500 3700 2000 300 2000 0 3200
Lift IS n

Chitwa
15 Khageri IS 3900 6200 3600 2100 500 1500 500 0
n

Pokhara
16 Jal Kaski 1030 9000 1000 6000 500 4000 200 0
Upayog IS

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Asar-Kartik Mangsir-Falgun Chaitra-Jestha

Possible
Irrigation Commanded
S.N District Average Average Average Irrigated
System Area (ha) Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated
Discharge Discharge Discharge area (ha)
area (ha) Area (ha) Area (ha)
(lps) (lps) (lps)

Bijayapur
17 Kaski 1280 6000 1100 3000 500 2000 500 0
IS

18 Begnas IS Kaski 580 4500 500 1500 200 1000 100 0

19 Fewa IS Kaski 330 7000 320 3000 100 1000 20 0

Phalebash
20 Parbat 440 700 340 350 130 100 75 0
IS

Nepal
Gandak Nawalp
21 10300 8500 10000 4500 8000 4000 1300 2700
West arasi
Canal IS
Bhairahaw
a Lumbini
Undergrou Rupand
22 20309 10500 13500 10000 8000 10000 5000 0
nd Water ehi
Resource
IS

Marchwaa Rupand
23 3500 5200 3200 4000 2500 3200 0 600
r lift IS ehi

Baangang Kapilba
24 6200 3000 6000 2500 3600 1500 100 0
a IS stu

Praganna
25 Banke 5800 25000 5600 15000 5600 6000 600 3500
Canal IS

Dunduwa
26 Dang 1250 2046 500 1527 200 300 50 0
IS

Chaurjaha
27 Rukum 600 1200 600 500 300 300 0 200
ri IS

28 Babai IS Bardiya 13500 18000 11000 6500 6500 3000 1500 1500

29 Rajapur IS Bardiya 13000 35000 13000 15000 7000 8000 2000 6000

Patharaiya
30 Kailali 2000 2000 2000 700 1000 400 50 0
a IS

Mohana
31 Kailali 2000 1000 1200 400 600 200 50 0
IS

Mahakali Kancha
32 11600 28000 11000 4500 9000 4500 200 4000
IS npur

Total 325919 295660 199930 53945 40300

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 Introduction

1.4 Irrigation Development Policies 2070

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(www.doi.gov.np )

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

1.5 Stages in Project Development

Projects can be initiated from the "top down" or the "bottom up". "Top down" projects are normally
formulated from a combination of National or Regional plans, together with an inventory of resources
(principally land, water and people). "Bottom up" projects are usually stimulated by local requests.
Current emphasis is on "bottom up" projects. However, these naturally need to be considered in the light
of the competing uses of resources and the potential benefits. The principal stages shown in Figure 1.1 are
described below. For (small) projects, stages may be combined, since extensive and protracted studies
will be unjustified.
Stage 1: Project identification
Once the idea has been formulated, the project needs to be identified by name and location, and the
general feasibility established. The principal sources of information at this stage will be existing data
(mapping, aerial photography, hydrological records, etc.). It is unlikely that new data will be
generated through survey at this stage, unless information is particularly short. The types of data
often available for this activity includes:
- 1:25000 and/or 1:50000 scales Topographic maps (department of survey)
- General soils, land use and land capability maps (LRMP)
- Existing aerial photography (Google earth)
- Climatological records from nearby meteorological stations (available from DHM)
- Hydrological records from nearby gauging stations
- Social/ demographic records.
Identification will normally involve a site visit which will include:
- An inspection of the general topography and geology
- An inspection of existing agricultural conditions (crops grown, land use, number of farmers,
local markets, existing infrastructure, soils etc.)
- In inspection of the potential water sources
- Discussions with local farmers
- Discussions with local government officials
During the field visit, a crude assessment of the project potential and of any particular technical or
social problems should be made. It may also be possible to make a rough estimate of the likely
development cost in NRs/ha.
By the end of the identification stage, it should be clear, from the technical viewpoint, whether the
projects is worth pursuing further or not.
Stage 2: Pre - feasibility study
Once a project has been identified as having potential, a pre - feasibility study should be carried out.
This stage may be missed out for small and medium sized projects, and feasibility study would
follow directly from a satisfactory identification report.
The sources of information used for identification need to be supplemented by a limited amount of
survey work and measurement.

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 Introduction

The general features of the study would be as follows:

i. The general topographic mapping should be confirmed by limited spot leveling and distance
measurement between key features, to confirm existing mapping and support existing aerial
photography.
ii. Preliminary hydrological analyses for the identified sources should be conducted using the available
data to estimate the likely magnitude of floods, low season flows, sediment run off etc.
iii. An assessment of land capability and suitability for irrigated agriculture should be made from
site inspections and a limited survey.
iv. Possible alternatives for sources works (including groundwater and conjunctive use),
conveyance and distribution systems should be developed and examined.
v. Preliminary cropping patterns and associated water requirements should be derived and
compared with the rainfall and water sources analyses, to assess the overall water balance and
confirm the potential irrigable area.
vi. Possible sources of materials should be identified.
vii. Possible environmental effects of development should be listed and reviewed.
viii. Discussions with local farmers to enlist their willingness to participate and establish land status
should be held.
ix. Assessments of roads and access should be made.
x. Assessment of marketing facilities for envisaged crops should be made.
xi. An assessment of socio - economic impact should be made.
xii. A program for further development should be prepared.
xiii. Outline costs and benefits should be estimated.
xiv. The need for further studies should be established.
The pre - feasibility study will provide a guide to further development, and will enable conclusions
to be reached about:
- The location and size of the irrigation area
- The agricultural plan
- The irrigation sources to meet crop water needs
- The interest of the participants
- The type of engineering works required and possible alternatives;
- The economics of development
At the end of the pre - feasibility study, it should be possible to decide whether to incorporate the
project into the overall financing programs and proceed with a feasibility study.
Stage 3: Feasibility study
The main objective of a feasibility study is to fully assess the feasibility of project implementation
from technical, institutional and economic points of view. A feasibility study will normally from the
basis for financing by externals funding agencies for by Government.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

The general aims of the feasibility study should be

i. To collect and review previous studies.
ii. To collect and appraise existing data and supplement these, as necessary, (through field work)
to ensure that the bases for decision making are sound.
iii. To screen alternatives and develop the optimum solution.
iv. To prove that the technical and economic criteria set for projects of the type under
consideration are met.
v. To prepare programs for implementation of the project (where viable).
vi. To establish local support for the project.
For the typical irrigation project, the feasibility study would be expected to:
- Develop an appropriate cropping pattern from consideration of alternatives
- Establish needs for processing and marketing of produce
- Establish the institutional arrangements required for scheme management
- Establish the tariffs and cost recovery mechanisms
- Estimate water requirements for crops and other purposes
- Establish the sources and availability of water in average and dry years
- Determine the area which can be irrigated
- Consider and screen alternative solutions for distribution of water
- Prepare and cost outline designs of works
- Establish other infrastructure needs
- Estimate benefits (direct and indirect)
- Carry out economic and financial analyses
- Review environmental, social and economic impacts of project development
- Prepare a program for implementation
- Prepare a financing plan
Data requirements to support a feasibility study depend on the scale and type of projects, but would
typically include for a medium/ large project:
- Aerial photography at 1:10000 scale with orthophoto mapping for large projects, of
topographic survey at 1:5000
- Site surveys of major structures (e.g. alternative headworks locations)
- Survey of main canal lines
- Soil survey and land capability mapping at 1:25000 (semi - detailed)
- Survey of existing crops, cropping patterns and agricultural practices
- Hydrological/ meteorological data to support analyses of flood frequency, dry year flows,
sediment run off, erosion, crop water requirements, etc.

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 Introduction

- Geotechnical data at major structures sites

- Permeability tests along rotes of major canals
- Tests on materials at identified sources of construction materials
- Cost and benefit estimating data (e.g. construction costs, crop yields and prices etc.)
- Survey of existing environmental conditions
- Socio - economic and institutional survey
- Details of land ownership, ward boundaries etc. for initial establishment of tertiary units
At this stages, options should be carefully discussed with the beneficiary population, principally,
these would include:
- Alignments of primary and secondary canals
- Locations of tertiary head regulators and tertiary unit boundaries
- Principles of distribution and management of water particularly at the tertiary/ quaternary levels.
- Commitment of the farmers to building the tertiary/ quaternary systems (under technical assistance)
Sample areas would be chosen to define and test the proposed arrangements of distribution channels
at tertiary/ quaternary levels, and obtain farmers views. Final design of channels at this level is best
left until construction of the major distribution channels is nearing completion.
Stage 4: Detailed design and tender documents
The purpose of detailed design is to dimension and specify the works to a sufficiently accurate standard
for tenders for construction to be held. This normally implies an accuracy of ±15 % in the quantities of
work required. The project works are normally "packaged" into one or a number of contracts, depending
on the scale and type of works involved. Provision may also be made for works to be carried out by direct
labor. The product of detailed design is a set of tender documents comprising:
- Instructions for tendering - Conditions of contract
- Specifications - Bill of quantities
- Drawings
Additionally, cost estimates, design reports and programs should be prepared. Data for design are
usually drawn from those obtained for the feasibility study, but may additionally include:
- Strip survey along minor canal alignments
- Site surveys of minor structures
- Additional permeability investigations along canal routes
- Hydraulic model testing of major structures (especially headworks)
Stage 5: Construction and commissioning
This stage involves the physical construction of the required engineering works, and putting these
into working order prior to commencement of operations.
An important precursor to this stage is land acquisition, which should be commenced as soon as the
alignments decided during the detailed design stage are confirmed.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Works may be carried out by construction contractors or by direct labor. In the former case, pre -
and post - construction surveys need to be carried out for measuring the completed quantities of
work. Quality control will include:
- Approving contractors' methods of working
- Supervising and testing earthworks, concrete works, etc.
- Sampling and testing materials
- Sampling and testing completed works
- Checking completed works for compliance with specified dimensions and tolerance
A socio - economic baseline study undertaken at the end of construction will be necessary, if the
impact of the scheme is to be assessed and used for monitoring and evaluation purposes.
Stage 6: Operation and maintenance
Once construction is complete, the works can be put into operation. At this stage, an operation and
maintenance manual is normally produced. This specifies procedures for operating the system under
various conditions, and provides schedules for maintenance of the works. An important aspect of
operation is performance evaluation and reporting. This allows feedback on planning, design and
construction implications for operation and maintenance to be incorporated into future solutions on
similar projects. Evaluation should not only focus on shortcomings, but should also highlight
positive aspects of performance.

Feedback to potential National/Regonal plans

projects
Resources nventory
Requests from district level
Project Identification

Pre-fensibility study
Screning and ncorporation
into implementation
programmes
Feasbility study
Appraisal for financing

Detailed design and tender

document

On-site design Construction and Handover

Operation Mantenance and

Management

Montoring and Evaluation

Figure 1.1: Project development stage

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 Introduction

1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Irrigation

(i) Advantages of irrigation

With the introduction of irrigation, there have been many advantages, as compared to the total
dependence on rainfall. These may be enumerated as under:

• Increase in crop yield: The production of almost all types of crops can be increased by
providing the right amount of later at the right time, depending on its shape of growth. Such a
controlled supply of water is possible only through irrigation.

• Protection from famine: The availability of irrigation facilities in any region ensures
protection against failure of crops or famine due to drought. In regions without irrigation,
farmers have to depend only on rains for growing crops and since the rains may not provide
enough rainfall required for crop growing every year, the farmers are always faced with a risk.

• Cultivation of superior crops: With assured supply of water for irrigation, farmers may think
of cultivating superior variety of crops or even other crops which yield high return. Production
of these crops in rain-fed areas is not possible because even with the slight unavailability of
timely water, these crops would die and all the money invested would be wasted.

• Elimination of mixed cropping: In rain-fed areas, farmers have a tendency to cultivate more
than one type of crop in the same field such that even if one dies without the required amount
of water, at least he would get the yield of the other. However, this reduces the overall
production of the field. With assured water by irrigation, the farmer would go for only a single
variety of crop in one field at any time, which would increase the yield.

• Economic development: With assured irrigation, the farmers get higher returns by way of
crop production throughout the year, the government in turn, benefits from the tax collected
from the farmers in base of the irrigation facilities extended.

• Hydro power generation: Usually, in canal system of irrigation, there are drops or differences
in elevation of canal bed level at certain places. Although the drop may not be very high, this
difference in elevation can be used successfully to generate electricity for local use.

• Domestic and industrial water supply: Some water from the irrigation canals may be utilized
for domestic and industrial water supply for nearby areas. Compared to the irrigation water
need, the water requirement for domestic and industrial uses is rather small and does not affect
the total flow much.

(ii) Disadvantages of irrigation

• Raising of water table: Due to the excessive seepage of water through the bed and bank of the
canals the water table is in surrounding area may be raised which may constantly saturate the
root zone of the crop and soil may develop alkaline property which may be harmful to crops.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

• Formation of marshy land: Excessive seepage and leakage of water from the irrigation canal
may lead to formation of marshy land along the course of canal. These marshy land form the
colonies of mosquitoes which may be responsible for diseases.
• Dampness in weather: The temperature of Commanded area of an irrigation project may be
lowered considerably and the area may become damped. Due to dampness, the people residing
around the area may suffer from cold, cough and other such diseases originating from dampness.

• Loss of valuable land: Valuable land may get submerged when storage reservoir is formed by
constructing barrage or dams and some valuable land also may be lost while constructing
irrigation canals.

• Chances of soil erosion due to flood and over irrigation: Due to construction of the canal
the flood water may enter to the commanded area through the canal which may create soil
erosion and inundation in the area.

1.7 Crops, Cropping Periods, Cropping Pattern and Cropping Intensity

In general there are two main crop of Nepal viz. winter and summer Crops. (िहउदेबािल र बखबािल)(Rabi and
Kharif in India). Normally winter crops are shown in the month of October and are harvested by the end
of March, while summer crops are shown in the month of April and are harvested by the end of
September. However, the sowing and harvesting times of the crops grown during the two crop seasons
may vary from place to place in the country. Moreover, there is usually considerable overlapping of the
crops grown in the two seasons.

There are certain crops which have a longer period between their sowing and harvesting times which
extends from one crop season to the other. For example sugarcane is sown sometimes during February to
March and it is harvested sometimes during November to March of next year. Thus sugarcane takes
almost a full year of maturity covering both the crop seasons and hence it is classified as perennial crops.
Similarly cotton also requires relatively longer time for maturity. Cotton is sown in May or early June and
harvested in December or January next of year. Since cotton requires about eight months for maturity, it
is classified as eight month crop.

The above noted classification of the crops is based on the crop season, that is, on the sowing and
harvesting times of the crops. However the crops may also be classified on the basis of their irrigation
requirements as dry crop and wet crop. Dry crops are those crops which are ordinarily grown without
irrigation, but they utilized the moisture stored in the soil during rainfall. The dry crops are grown only in
those areas where the irrigation facilities are normally not available, however sometimes dry crops are
also irrigated, especially in the years of deficient rainfall, in which case these are known as irrigated dry
crop. On the other hand wet crops are those crops which cannot normally be grown without irrigation.

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 Introduction

Table: 1.2 Possible cropping pattern (PDSP Manual, 1990)

Cropping Dates
Region Alternate
pattern Seeded Transplant/Plant Harvest
I Rice Spring Mar 1 Apr 1 July 1
Rice monsoon June 2 July 2 Nov 1
Wheat - Nov 2 Mar 1
Hills (<1000m II Maize - Mar 2 June 1
amsl) Rice Monsoon May 2 June 2 Oct 2
Wheat - Nov 2 Mar 1
III Rice June 1 July 1 Nov 1
Wheat - Nov 2 Mar 2
I Rice May 1 June 1 Oct 1
Wheat - Nov 2 Apr 1
Hills (1000m –
II Vegetable
2000m amsl)
Winter - Nov 2 Mar 1
Summer - Jul 1 Oct 2
I Rice Spring Apr 1 May 1 Aug 1
Rice Monsoon July 1 Aug 1 Nov 2
Wheat - Dec 1 Apr 2
II Rice June 1 July 1 Nov 1
Wheat - Nov 2 Mar 2
III Rice June 1 July 1 Nov 1
Wheat - Nov 2 Mar 1
Mungbean - Apr 1 June 1
IV Rice June 1 July 1 Nov 1
Potato - Nov 2 Apr 1
Terai
V Rice May 1 June 1 Sep 2
Maize - Oct 1 Nov 2
VI Jute - Mar 1 July 2
Rice July 1 Aug 1 Nov 2
VII Rice Apr 2 May 2 Sep 2
Pulses/ oilseed - Oct 1 Mar 2
VIII Sugarcane - Feb 1 Dec 2
IX Vegetables
Winter - Nov 2 Mar 1
Summer - July1 Oct 2

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Table 1.3:
1.3: Crop and their required water depth. (FAO, 2017)

Crop Average water depth (mm)

A: Summer Crops (monsoon Crops)

– Rice 450 – 700

– Millet 150 – 200

B: Winter Crops (dry Crops)

– Potato 500 – 700

– Wheat 450 – 650
– Mustard 300 – 400
– Onion 350 – 550
– Cauliflower 350 – 500
– Pea 350 – 500

C: Perennial crops

– Sugarcane 1500 – 2500

– Banana 1200 – 2200

Cropping Intensity
Cropping intensity is defined the ratio of net area sown by different crops to the total cultivable (cropped)
area in a year. For example the cultivated area is 120 ha, now in a particular year if rice has been cropped
in 90 ha and wheat is cultivated after rice in 80 ha only, then the annual cropping intensity will be
90 80
× 100 + × 100 = 141.66%.
120 120

In Nepal cropping intensity varies from place to place. In Terai (plain area) the cropping intensity may be
about 200% (because two crops are grown in whole area in a year). In mountain areas the cropping
intensity may be only 100% or less (because only one crop may be grown in a year and not in whole
cultivated area). In valley floor of mid - hills like in Panchkhal valley the cropping intensity is 400%
(because 4 crops i.e. early paddy, monsoon paddy, potato and potato are grown in a year in whole
cultivable area).

1.8 Commanded Areas and Irrigation Intensity

1.8.1 Commanded Area (CA)
Commanded area is defined as the area that can be irrigated by a canal system, the CA may further be
classified as under (Reddy, 2010):

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 Introduction

(i) Gross Commanded Area (GCA)

This is defined as total area that can be irrigated by a canal system on the perception that unlimited
quantity of water is available. It is the total area that may theoretically be served by the irrigation system.
But this may include inhibited areas, roads, ponds, uncultivable areas etc. which would not be irrigated.

(ii) Cultivable Commanded Area (CCA)

This is the actually irrigated area within the GCA. However, the entire CCA is never put under
cultivation during any crop season due to the following reasons:
- The required quantity of water, fertilizer, etc. may not be available to cultivate the entire CCA
at a particular point of time. Thus, this is a physical constraint.
- The land may be kept fallow that is without cultivation for one or more crop seasons to
increase the fertility of the soil. This is a cultural decision.
- Due to high water table in some areas of the CCA irrigated water may not be applied as the
crops get enough water from the saturation provide to the surface water table.
During any crop season, only a part of the CCA is put under cultivation and this area is termed as
cultivable cultivated area. The remaining area which is not cultivated during a crop season is
conversely termed as cultivable uncultivated area.
GCA= CCA + uncultivable area

(iii) Net commanded area (NCA)

Net Commanded area is the cultivable commanded area less than the area of canal network, supply
ditches, bunds constructed in the field etc. included in the cultivable Commanded area.
NCA = CCA – Canal related structures – non irrigable areas

1.8.2 Intensity of Irrigation

Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of cultivable Commanded area proposed to be irrigated
during either a crop season or during a year. For example, if CCA of an irrigation field is 120 hectares,
out of which 90 hectares of land is cultivated during summer season and 60 hectare of land is cultivated
during winter season, the intensity of irrigation during summer season will be 90/120x100=75% and the
intensity of irrigation during winter season will be 60/120x 100= 50%. However, the yearly intensity of
irrigation will be equal to the sum of the two, i.e. equal to 75+50 = 120%. Thus yearly intensity of
irrigation can be more than 100%. (Punmia, 2009)

1.9 Methods of Field Irrigation and their Suitability

The design, equipment and technique of replenishing the soil water deficit by applying irrigation water is
referred to as irrigation method. Five basic methods of the application of irrigation water to the fields to
suit different crops, soil type, topography, water availability and its quality, climatic condition, individual
holdings and costs.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

1.9.1 System of Irrigation

Figure 1.2: System of Irrigation

1. Lift Irrigation
When water is lifted from surface sources or underground sources by man or animal power,
mechanical or electrical power and directly supplied to the agricultural land, then it is known as lift
irrigation. In this method isolated small area can be irrigated (Basak, 2007). The vast area can’t be
irrigated in this system. Lift irrigation can be divided in to two groups:
a. Lifting of water by man or animal power
b. Lifting of water by mechanical or electrical power
When mechanical or electrical power are not available in village or the economic condition of
farmers is not good enough to afford this expensive method, the lifting of water is done by the
following method from the surface sources like pond, lake, river etc.
When mechanical or electrical power are available in village or the can afford the expenditure for
the installation of the same, the underground water is lifted by pumps (diesel pump set or electrical
pump set) and directly supplied to the agricultural land. The underground water may be available
from the following sources:
• Open well
• Shallow tube well
• Deep tube well
Now a days a pumping system of lift irrigation from the shallow or deep tube well is widely
practiced. In Nepal Narayani lift irrigation, Marchawar lift irrigation, Waling lift irrigation are
example of some lift irrigation projects.

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 Introduction

Advantages of Lift Irrigation

The following are the advantages of lift irrigation
i. Farmers can supply water to their field according to the requirement, and hence there is no
possibility of over irrigation.
ii. The water table is lowered when the water is lifted from the well thereby reducing chances of
water logging in the area.
iii. As water is supplied directly to the fields, there is no water loss due to conveyance.
iv. Initial cost is low as there is no necessity of constructing hydraulic structures.
v. As the loss of water is low, the duty of water is high.
vi. The maintenance cost is low.
vii. More than one crop can be grown in a year on the same land.
viii. Loss of valuable land is prevented as there is no necessity of construction the network of canals.
ix. The water of the well is cooler in hot season and warmer in cold season. This phenomenon is
favorable for the crops.
Disadvantages of Lift Irrigation
Following are the disadvantages of lift irrigation
i. In summer the surface water may be dried up and the water table may go down below the suction
head. Hence, the lift irrigation from the surface and from the shallow tube well may fail in summer.
ii. If the lifting mechanism (i.e. pump) fails due to mechanical or electrical failure, then water
cannot be supplied until the mechanism is restored.
iii. The well water has no silt content. The yield of crop therefore depends on chemical fertilizer,
which is costly.
iv. The lift irrigation in consideration with the yield of crop is not cost effective.
2. Flow Irrigation
When water flows under gravitational pull through the artificial canal towards the agricultural land,
it is termed as flow irrigation. In this system, the head of the canal should always be at higher
elevation than the lad to be irrigated. The following are the different systems of flow irrigation.
(i) Inundation irrigation system
In this system a canal is excavated from the bank of the inundation river(i.e the river which
overflows in rainy season but nearly dried up in summer and winter). In this case water flows to the
agricultural land in rainy season only. There is no regulator at the head of the canal to control the
flow of water. The bed level of the canal is fixed at such level that the water can flow through the
canal only when water level of the river raise above the canal bed. Again, the flow of water through
the canal stops automatically when the water level of the river falls below the canal bed. So this
system of irrigation depends completely on the water level of the river. As there is no regulator at
the head of the canal, over irrigation is possible resulting in damaging the crops.
(ii) Perennial system of irrigation
In this system a weir or barrage is constructed across the perennial river (i.e the river which
flows throughout the year in its full capacity) to raise the water level on the upstream side or a
dam is constructed to form a storage reservoir. Then main canal is constructed on either or both
the banks of the river. Regulator is constructed at the head of the canal to control the flow of
water is available throughout the year. The perennial system of irrigation may be of the
following types;

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

(a) Direct irrigation system

In this system, a weir is generally constructed across a perennial river to raise the water
level on the upstream side up to a certain limit, so that the water can flow through the
canal. Here, the water level on the upstream side will remain at a constant height and
excess water flows over the weir. Sometimes a barrage is constructed, in place of weir, to
regulate the water level on the upstream side. The hydraulic structure which is
constructed in direct irrigation system is known as diversion head works.
(b) Storage irrigation system
In this system a dam is constructed across a reverb alley to rom a storage reservoir. The
main canals may be taken from both sides of the dam. The flow of water through the
canal is controlled by head regulator. This storage reservoir is also known as
multipurpose reservoir as it serves the following purposes:
– Irrigation – Water supply
– Hydro-electric power generation – Fishery – Flood control
1.9.2 Methods of Irrigation
The primary objective of any irrigation method is to supply water to soil so that moisture will be readily available
at all times for crop growth but without indiscriminately adding to the water table, as well as avoiding influence of
soil salinity. An efficient irrigation method is that which best suits local condition such as:-
i. Soil characteristics ii. Kind of crop and its age
iii. Crop rotation iv. Topographic condition
v. Available water flow vi. Sate of soil salinity.
vii. Underground water table condition (high or low)

Irrigation methods (method

of water application)

Sub-surface Surface Overhead Buried Drip Seepage line Suction

irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation
methods method
Free
flooding
Natural Artificial Sprinkler
Irrigation Deep Border
furrow flooding
Flooding Contour Furrow Check
farming Shallow flooding
furrow
Countur
Wild Control laterals
flooding flooding
Zig zag
Basin
flooding
Figure 1.3: Irrigation methods

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 Introduction

Requirement of an Irrigation Method

The essential requirements for adoption of any irrigation method are
i. Application is within desirable limits, stream flow is adequate so that the quality of irrigation is
such that the depth of wetting and hence the stand of crop are approximately uniform. The
irrigator achieves high productivity so that during day’s work he can irrigate a large hectares
ii. Afford a uniform water distribution in root zone of a crop with as small as 6 mm applications
for light irrigation
iii. Allow heavy uniform application of 15 to 20 cm of water depth and under some conditions as
much as 25 cm per irrigation for salt leaching where such a problem exists.
iv. Allow use of large concentrated water flows for reduction of conveyance losses, field channel
network and labor cost.
v. Suitable for use with economical conveyance structure
vi. Facilitate mechanized farming
vii. Occupy minimum land under bunds
viii. Inexpensive and economically justifiable.
ix. High efficiency of water application i.e. the ratio of water stored in the root zone to that
delivered to the field should be maximum.
x. Minimum wastage of water either through surface runoff or through deep percolation below
the root zone of crops.
A suitable irrigation method shall ensure maximum yield at optimum water utilization i.e. conservation of
water resources, the choice of an irrigation methods suitable to a specific situation as an important aspect
of water management of corps.
1.9.2.1 Subsurface Irrigation
In sub surface or sub-irrigation water is applied beneath the ground by creation and maintaining an
artificial water table at some depth, usually 30 – 75 cm, below the ground surface. Moisture moves
upward towards the land surface through capillary action to meet requirements of the crops in plant roots.
Water is applied through underground distribution system consisting of a properly designed main field
ditches, laterals, laid 5 – 30m apart. Water may be obtained from wells, streams, lakes etc. water is
introduced into soil profile through open ditches, mole drains or tile drains. Open ditches are preferred
because they are relatively inexpensive and suitable for all types of soils. Tiles and mole drains are
suitable only for organic soils. Subsurface irrigation requires little field preparation and labor. It entails
minimum evaporation loss and surface waste. The irrigation water is essentially required to be of good
quality to prevent excessive soil salinity. The flow rate on supply ditches is required to be low to prevent
water logging of the field. The use of sub-irrigation is limited because it requires certain soil condition
that is the soil is permeable in root zone, underlain by an impervious horizon or high water table.
Essential Requirements
The essential requirement requirements for a successful sub- surface irrigation are
• Availability of adequate supply of good quality water throughout growth period of the crop.
• Fields must be nearly level and smooth. Ground slope is moderate and land is approximately
parallel to water table
• Available of layer of permeable soil such as sandy loam or loam immediately below the
surface soil to permit free and rapid movement of water laterally and vertically

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

• Availability of a relatively impervious layer at 2 to 3 m in the substratum to prevent deep percolation

of water or a permanently high natural water table on which an artificial water table can be built
• A well planned distribution system of main ditches, field laterals etc. which raises the water
table to a uniform depth below the ground surface over the entire area.
• Availability of adequate outlet for drainage of the area so irrigated particularly in humid areas
• Subsoil water table is within 2-3 m below the ground surface
• Topographical conditions are uniform
• Soil is capable of lifting moisture from the water table to the root zone. Also the soil permits
lateral and downward movement of water. The efficiency of water use depends on soil
characteristics, topography and operation and maintenance management. In good system, the
efficiency is 70-75 percent.
Classification of Sub-surface Irrigation
The subsurface irrigation may be classified in to
1. Natural sub surface irrigation
This method is applicable to low lying lands where the water table is high and within the capillary
reach of root zone of crops. The water table is charged by seepage from irrigation canals. It is better
controlled lest it may develop in to water logging conditions. The method, applicable where above
conditions exist offers most economical means of raisin crops.
2. Artificial subsurface irrigation
It is a very expensive method. Its use is indicated only under favorable water supply and subsoil
conditions for high yielding crops. The water is provide to crops by capillarity through a network of
buried perforated pipes which carry water under pressure to percolate into soil.
Advantages and disadvantages of sub-surface irrigation
Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Minimum water requirement for raising crops (i) Required a special combination of natural
conditions so that only limited areas are
(ii) Suitable for most crops
suitable for irrigation by this method.
(iii) Minimum evaporation and deep percolation
(ii) There is danger of development of water
losses
logging
(iv) High crop yield
(iii) Possibility of choking of the pipes laid
(v) Most economical method of irrigation underground
(vi) Involves no wastage of land (iv) High cost
(v) No interference in free movement of farm
machinery
(vi) Cultivation operation can be carried out
without concern for the irrigation period
(vii) Little field preparation and labor

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 Introduction

1.9.2.2 Surface Irrigation

It is the most common type of irrigation. In surf/ace irrigation method, since water is applied to the field
in varied quantities and at different times, the flow remains unsteady. The method involves diverting a
stream of water from the head of a field into furrows or borders and allowing it to flow downward. Water
infiltrates into the soil while traversing the furrow. By subsequent ponding and lateral movement, the soil
is restored to its full water holding capacity to a depth that depends on the quality of water introduced, the
duration and rate of stream flow, the gradient and the soil structure and texture. Generally under open
ditch conveyance and surface irrigation methods, less than one half of the water released reaches plants.
Highly efficient irritation can be achieved by an appropriate combination of size of the irrigation stream,
uniform application of water, minimum soil erosion, minimum labor requirement, maximum land use,
size of and shape of field and use of machinery. The surface irrigation is essentially supplemented with
efficient water disposal system.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Allow use of machinery for land preparation, • Greater loss of water by surface runoff and
cultivation and harvesting. deep percolation, larger requirement of water
• Helps to store the required amount of water in per unit area
the capillary zone of the soil for supply to the • Water is lost in infiltration and deep
root zone of plants. percolation
• Low efficiency due to imperfect control over
the water flow.
• Inferior quality crops with a low yield.
• Wasteful use of water compared to better
irrigation methods.
• Costly and time consuming preparation of land.
Classification of Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation may be classified as flooding method, furrow method and contour farming method.
1. Flooding Method
In flooding irrigation, water is allowed to cover the surface of land in a continuous sheet, the water
standing just long enough in the field for the soil to absorb the water applied to refill the root zone.
A properly designed size of irrigation stream aims at proper balance against the intake rate of soil,
the total depth of water to be stored in the root zone and the area to be covered so as to give
reasonably uniform coverage of water over the entire field the flooding may be
(i) Wild Flooding
It is also called uncontrolled flooding. It is the primitive and most inefficient method of
irrigation. In this method water is spread over the smooth or flat field without much control
over the flow or prior preparation. The water is spread into the field from the ditch excavated
either on the contour or up and down the slope. This method is applicable to inundation
irrigation system or for pastures or forage crops where water is available in abundance at the
highest elevation and is inexpensive or the crop values do not justify adoption of better method.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

The water distribution is quite uneven. The method is suitable for all medium of fine texture
soils. It has low cost and doesn’t interfere with tillage.
The disadvantages of the method are
– Wasteful use of water
– Non-uniform distribution of water
– Excessive soil erosion on steeper slopes
– Require drainage arrangement to reduce ponding

Supply
channel
Field channels 15 to 45m

Figure 1.4: Wild or Uncontrolled flooding

(ii) Controlled Flooding
(a) Free Flooding or ordinary flooding
It is the commonly adopted method where irrigation water is in abundance and cheap. The
land is divided in to plots of suitable size depending on porosity of soil. Water is spread
over the field from watercourse. The irrigation operation begins at the higher area and
proceeds towards the lower levels. The flow is stopped when the lower end of the field
has received and desired depth of water. The field watercourse is properly spaced, the
spacing depends on the topography, soil texture, depth of soil and size of stream. The
spreading may vary from less than 15 m to more than 60m. Porous soil requires close
spacing than tight soil. The method is most suitable for soils of medium texture and with
moderate slopes.
Field channel

Field channel

Field channel
Figure 1.5: Control Flooding

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 Introduction

(b) Border Flooding

In this method, the field is divided into narrow strips by low parallel ridges on the sides.
The border strip is formed by levelling and grading the land between the ridges. The sizes
the strip depends on the types of soil, slope of the land and size of irrigation stream. The
width of the strip varies from 5 to 15 m and length varies from for sandy loan soils, 100-
120 m for medium loam and 150-300 m for clay loam and clay soils. A longitudinal
gradient of 0.02% to 0.05% for clay to clay loam, 0.02-0.4% for medium loam and 0.25%
to 0.6% for sandy loam to sandy soil is provided in each strip without any cross slope.
The entire land including the rounded border ridges is utilized for cultivation. Thus no
land is lost to production. Water is let into each strip in a thin sheet through a set of outlet
or siphon pipes underground concrete pipes through riser placed along the upper end of
the border. Water flows down the slope along the length of the strip at non –erosive
velocity covering the entire width of the strip. Thus sufficient moisture is provided in the
soil profile to the entire length of the border. Even distribution of water is ensured if the
strip is levelled at a more or less uniform longitudinal slope.
The method is applicable to most soil texture but is best adapted to soils having
moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is suitable for high value crops and
all close growing crops and is used for some row crops like cotton. In general, it is
suitable for hay, pastures and gram crops on lands having slopes up-to 3%.

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Utilizes large water streams safely. (i) Required proper levelling
(ii) Requires less labour and time: low (ii) High initial cost
maintenance cost. (iv) A large supply of water is needed.
(iii) Provide uniform wetting and efficient
use of water.

Borders of Levee's

Figure 1.6: Border flooding

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

(c) Check Flooding

It is widely practiced method of irrigation in Terai. In consist of applying water to
relatively level check basins enclosed by small bunds. The checks are square, rectangular
or irregular plots. If the ground has some initial slope, levees may follow the contours.
The size of check basin may range from 3m × 2m to 30m × 30m or even larger. In
orchards, checks are used to irrigate each tree or a group of few trees in a check basin.
The levees are 2 – 3 m wide at the base and 25 – 30 cm high in order to avoid obstruction
to the movement of farm machinery as also to permit growth of crops over them.
In highly permeable soils, larger size stream is required to quickly impound the check basin
with the required quantity of water without allowing deep percolation losses on the side of the
irrigation ditch. In highly impermeable soil with low infiltration rate, the water is impounded
in the basin and is slowly allowed to infiltrate in the soil. The method is especially suited to
fine textured soil which requires holding of water in order to secure the desired penetration.
This method is suitable for growing grain and forage crops. The use is generally restricted to
relatively smooth lands because of the expenditure involved in levelling the plots.
Advantages Disadvantages
(i) High irrigation efficiency can be achieved (i) High labour requirement
with properly designed check system.
(ii) Levees impose restrictions in the
(ii) Unskilled labour can be employed as there use of modern farm machinery
is no danger of erosion. (iii) Use is generally restricted to
relatively smooth lands because
of the expenditure involved in
levelling the plots.

Field channel

Field channel

Figure 1.7: Controlled Check Flooding

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 Introduction

(d) Contour Lateral Flooding

This method is best suited to steeper terrain. The field is cut by relatively dense network
of contour laterals; their spacing depends on the grade of land between two adjacent
ditches or laterals, uniformity of slope and type of soil. It may carry from 15 to 50m. The
contour ditches may have practically little grade if they are not too long. The water flows
through the openings in the laterals. On the other site of contour lateral, a small bund is
provided to divert the water from the main to the lateral. The stream size per unit area is
the same as in border irrigation.
Contour lateral flooding is adopted on close growing crops in sloping or rolling lands not
subject to any degree of levelling necessary for other methods of irrigation. Water flows
down slope between closely spaced ditches running along the contour of the land.
Disadvantages
• High labour cost of irrigation
• Not suitable if other method of irrigation can be adopted.
(e) Zig- Zag Flooding
It is a special method of flooding suitable for relatively level fields. But the method is
unsuitable for mechanical farming operation. In this method land is divided into square or
rectangular plots; each plot is further subdivided with the help of low bunds or levees.
Water enters at the upper end of the plot and follows circuitous route to reach the lower
end of the plot when the supply is cut off.

Supply
Channel
Field channel

Field channel

Figure 1.8: Controlled Zig–Zag Flooding

(f) Basin Flooding
It is essentially a check method of flooding adapted for irrigation of orchards. In orchards
basins are made around one or more trees depending on the soil condition and
topography. For efficient irrigation each basin has to be level, grade less than 0.1% with
no cross slope. It is adapted especially to flat lands. Water is filled quickly in the basin
and is allowed to percolate into the soil. It is desirable for close growing crops and
orchards on medium to coarse textured soils as also rice grown on fine textured, slowly

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

permeable soils. Water is conveyed to the basin or preferably through small ditches
feeding individual basins. The merits and demerits of the method are broadly the same as
indicated for border irrigation method.

Basins Orchards

O O O

Field channel

O O O

Figure 1.9: Basin Flooding

2. Contour Farming
It is adapted to hilly areas with steep slopes and quickly falling contours. The land is divided into
longitudinal curved plots, the bunds of the plots following the contours. The irrigation water stored
higher up in some depressions flows between the bunds. The cultivation of crops is along the
contour lines instead of the usual down the slope. Contour cultivation reduces runoff and soil loss.

Bunds or levees

Terraces

Figure 1.10: Contour Farming

3. Furrow Irrigation
It is the common method of irrigating row crops. A furrow consists of a narrow ditch between the
rows of crops. Water is applied in small streams between rows of crops, grown on ridges or in
furrows. The characteristic feature of furrow irrigation is that, unlike flooding method, only half to
one- fifth of the irrigated land surface is wetted, thereby cutting down evaporation losses. Water
flowing in the furrows seeps into the soil and spreads laterally to irrigate areas between the furrows.
For distribution of water to furrows, the main ditch is placed in the higher side of the field. The size
and shape of the furrows depend on the soul, crop spacing, equipment used for the formation of
furrow and intercultivation. Long furrows are advantageous in intercultivation. However, too long
furrow results in deep percolation losses and soil erosion near the upper end of the field, and too
little water near the tail.

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 Introduction

Advantages Disadvantages
• Low evaporation losses as only one half of • Not recommended for very light soil
irrigated land surface is wetted. having high infiltration capacity.
• It is possible to cultivate earlier, in heavy • Ditch may interfere with tillage.
soils.
• Usually expensive from the consideration
• Furrows serve as drainage ways for surface of time and labour cost.
runoff in areas of heavy rainfall. • Serious erosion hazard
• Especially suitable for crops like maize that • Adequate drainage need to be provided
are injured by contact with water.
•
• No wastage of land in field ditches.
• Fairly efficient in sue of water.
• Relatively cheap to construct and maintain.
• Efficient in its use of water.

Furrows

Field channel

Tail channel

Figure 1.11: Controlled flooding by furrow method

1.9.2.3 Sprinkler Irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation is an improvement over conventional surface irrigation. It simulate natural rainfall to spread
water in the form of rain uniformly over the land surface just when needed and as much needed at a uniform
pattern and at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff from irrigation.
Sprinkler is a versatile means of applying water to any crop (except field crops such paddy), soil and
topographic condition. It is particularly useful in areas where there is a shortage of water and the hill
slopes are steep and can erode with other methods of water application. Surface ditches and prior land
preparation are not necessary for sprinkler irrigation. Also the flexible pipes and fittings can be
transported to remote areas easily. Sprinkling is suitable for sandy soils or any other soils and
topographical conditions where surface irrigation is inefficient or expansive or where erosion of soil may
be particularly hazardous. Low rate and amounts of water may be applied such as are required for seed
germination, frost protection, delay of fruit budding and cooling of crops in hot weather, fertilizer and soil
amending chemicals may be dissolved in the water and applied through the irrigation system.

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Advantages Disadvantages
• Sprinkler provides protection to small plants • Pressure head and sediment free water is
from wind damage and soil from blowing, required so not suitable at plain land.
when crops such as onions carrots, lettuce and • Initial cost is relatively high. And regular
other small seed crop are grown on dry operation is required due to frequently
organic soils the soil dries out quickly and clogging of system.
seed may be blown away or covered too
• Doesn’t suitable for paddy crop.
deeply for germination. When such plants are
small they are also easily damaged by • High air flowing area is affected during the
windblown soil particles. operation.
• Sprinklers provides protection against freezing • Due to circular spraying of water there is
injury to crops sprinkling is most successful chances of over irrigation and no irrigation at
against radiation frost. some area.
• Sprinkler can control the soil temperature
during period of high incoming radiation soil
temperature can rise upto 20o C above the
ambient air temperature.

1.9.2.4 Drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation is a method of applying water directly to plants through a number of low flow rate outlet called
emitter or drippers, generally placed at short interval along small tubing. One of the main characteristics of this
method is point irrigation as compared to area irrigation with sprinkler or flood irrigation. A network of laterals
with drippers supply the water and fertilizer to the plant roots. Water is generally discharged at very low rate in
order of 1 – 2 liter per hours, although higher rate up to 8 liter per hours or more can be achieved using special
dripper. This type of irrigation can be adopted in the arid regions for fruit and nut trees, grapes, and other vine
crops, sugarcane, pineapples, strawberries, flowers and vegetables.

Figure 1.12: Drip irrigation system

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 Introduction

Advantages Disadvantages
• Only the root zone of the plant is supplied with • Frequent clogging of dripper; constant
water, with proper system management deep supervision may be needed in hill area where
percolation losses can be minimized. the spring water may carry sediment,
• Evaporation losses are minimized because biological or chemical matter.
only a portion of the ground area is wetted. • This type of irrigation may not be suitable to
some crops as salinity can develop as salts
• Effective weed control especially for ground
tend to accumulate along the fringes of the
area that is not wetted.
wetted surface strip.
• Reduced percolation and evaporation losses
• Root development may be restricted to the
resulting in greater economy of water use.
wetted soil volume near each emitter.
• Bacteria, fungi and other pests and diseases
• Not suitable for very closely seeded crops
that depend on the moist environment are
such as carrots, radishes etc.
reduced as above ground plant parts are
completely dry. • Initial cost can be more than overhead
systems.
• Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to
localized application and reduced leaching. • The sun can affect the tubes used for drip
irrigation, shortening their usable life.
• Water application efficiency is high if
managed correctly • For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the
water that is applied. This may lead to the
• Field levelling is not necessary.
farmer either applying too much water (low
• Fields with irregular shapes are easily efficiency) or an insufficient amount of water,
accommodated. this is particularly common for those with less
• Moisture within the root zone can be experience with drip irrigation.
maintained at field capacity. • Waste of water, time and harvest, if not
• Soil type plays less important role in installed properly. These systems require
frequency of irrigation. careful study of all the relevant factors like
• Soil erosion is lessened. land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-
• Weed growth is lessened. climatic conditions, and suitability of drip
irrigation system and its components.
• Water distribution is highly uniform,
controlled by output of each nozzle. • In lighter soils subsurface drip may be unable
to wet the soil surface for germination.
• Labor cost is less than other irrigation
Requires careful consideration of the
methods.
installation depth.
• Variation in supply can be regulated by
• The PVC pipes often suffer from rodent
regulating the valves and drippers.
damage, requiring replacement of the entire
• Foliage remains dry, reducing the risk of tube and increasing expenses.
disease.
• Drip irrigation systems cannot be used for
• Usually operated at lower pressure than other damage control by night frosts (like in the case
types of pressurized irrigation, reducing of sprinkler irrigation systems)
energy costs.

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Sustainability of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems in the Hills of Nepal (Hill Irrigation
Engineering, 1995)
• Sprinklers and drips need pressure head and sediment free water which is easily available in
the Hills of Nepal. In the hilly region the source of water is spring or small stream with small
catchment area which have relatively clean water.
• The cropping pattern in the hills are suitable for sprinkler and drip irrigation. Sprinkler can be
used for scattered crops like carrot, radish, wheat, mustard, millet etc. which are cultivated in
hills. Drip can be used for row crops like tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, chilly etc. which are
grown in hills of Nepal.
• These systems require network of pipe lines hence the construction of the canal and other
costly structures like headworks, river training works, drops, cross-drainages etc. as in canal
irrigation system, are not required and the construction cost for sprinkler and drip is
comparatively very low as well as operation and maintenance cost also reduced.
• Due to steep slope in hills the construction of canal is difficult and costly hence the
conveyance of water through the pipe system is most suitable in hilly region. The pipes can be
easily transported by yak, donkey and/or human effort.
• The flexible tubing, quick connecting couplers and sprinkler heads and lateral pipes can be
easily transported to remote areas hence sprinkler and drip are appropriate.
• In case of blockage which can be very frequent in system suing spring water sources, the
flexible tubing quick connecting couplers and sprinkler heads can be easily dismantled and
refitted after cleaning. Hence operation and maintenance cost is reduced.
• All movable components (the main pipe from the collection tank to the irrigated area will
usually be buried and anchored to the ground to prevent theft) can be removed for safety each
day at the end of irrigation. (Hills farmers of Nepal live several hours walking distance up hills
of their cultivated land.)
• Sprinkler and Drip can also be used on land with slope and undulations of the hilly terrain.

1.10 Planning of Irrigation Projects

Planning is essential in every sphere of development, including irrigation development. Plans give a sense
of direction and put time frames on development activities. They help to control expenditure and provide
a basic for the evaluation of progress and achievement.
Economic growth in an agricultural sector can be slow because it is influenced by the growth of several
other related sectors. It is therefore necessary to set long term strategies for irrigation development and to
constantly monitor the effect of a given strategy on the national economy. These strategies can then be
translated into short term investment programs depending on the availability of resources. To be effective
the plan must fulfill the following objectives:
• It must provide a long term strategy for the development of the irrigation sector that is
consistent with availability of land, water and investment resources, and with the development
policies of the government.

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• It must provide a basis for the preparation of short term investment programs that are
consistent with the long term strategy, based on identification and ranking of investment
opportunities and on assessment of urgent needs and of the implementation capabilities of
government institution.
• It must provide a sound database and planning methodology to facilitate regular updating, to
incorporate new data as they become available, to reflect changing policies and priorities, and
to reflect actual progress achieved in the irrigation sector.
The process of planning of an irrigation project can be divided into the following two stages:
(i) Preliminary planning (ii) Detailed planning
Preliminary plans, based on available information, are generally approximate but set the course for
detailed planning. Based on preliminary planning, the detailed measurements are taken and the detailed
plans are prepared. Obviously, detailed plans are more accurate. Alterations in the detailed plans may be
necessary at all stages of the project. The preparation of plans of an irrigation project in an undeveloped
region is a complicated task and needs the expertise of specialists in areas of engineering, agriculture, soil
science, and geology. The following are the main factors which must be determined accurately during the
planning stage of an irrigation project:
• Type of project and general plan of irrigation works,
• Location, extent and type of irrigable lands,
• Irrigation requirements for profitable crop production,
• Available water supplies for the project,
• Irrigable (culturable) areas which can be economically supplied with water,
• Types and locations of necessary engineering works,
• Needs for immediate and future drainage,
• Feasibility of hydroelectric power development,
• Cost of storage, irrigation, power, and drainage features,
• Evaluation of probable power, income, and indirect benefits,
• Method of financing the project construction,
• Desirable type of construction and development,
• Probable annual cost of water to the farmers,
• Cost of land preparations and farm distribution systems, and
• Feasible crops, costs of crop production, and probable crop returns.
Most of these elements of project planning are interrelated to some extent. Hence, the studies of the factors
listed above should be carried out concurrently so that necessary adjustments can be made promptly as
planning progresses. The preliminary planning of an irrigation project consists of collecting and analyzing
all available data for the current study, securing additional data needed for preparing preliminary plans for
major project features by limited field surveys, and determining the feasibility of the proposed development

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by making the preliminary study of major features in sufficient detail. While investigations for the
preliminary planning of irrigation projects should be conducted with minimum expenditure, the results of
the preliminary study must be sufficiently accurate. For preliminary investigations, hydrological studies can
be based on the records of stations in the vicinity of the proposed project site. Suitability of land for
cultivation purposes can be examined at representative sample areas. Foundation conditions at major
irrigation works can be determined from surface and a few subsurface explorations. For detailed planning,
accurate data on all aspects of the proposed irrigation project are required to work out the detailed plans and
designs of various engineering works and to determine their economic site locations. Physical data needed
for detailed planning are collected by topographic and location surveys, land and soil investigations and
geological explorations (surface as well as subsurface) at the sites of major engineering works. Results of
such surveys are suitably tabulated or plotted for convenient use in design offices and for planning further
field work, if necessary. Hydrological data are usually determined by extensive studies of all available
records and collecting additional data, if possible. Photographic records of pre-construction (and also during
construction) condition at locations of all engineering works and aerial surveys for dams and reservoir sites
must be supplemented by accurate ground surveys. Geological explorations are also needed at the sites of
dams, reservoirs, and major structures. Such data are useful in studies of water loss due to leakage and
foundation designs. Sources of suitable amounts of building material (such as earth material, concrete
aggregates, etc.) must be located and explored. In case of insufficient supplies at the site, additional sources
must be located. Having collected the required data for detailed planning, general plans for irrigation
structures are prepared. Such plans are dependent on topography, locations of irrigable areas, available water
sources, storage requirements and construction costs. There can be different types of possible feasible plans
for a particular project. Advantages and disadvantages of all such possible alternatives must be looked into before
arriving at the final plan for the project. Possibilities of using irrigation structures (dams and canal falls) for the
development of hydroelectric power should also be examined in project planning. (Asawa, 2005).

1.11 Basin Transfer Projects

Inter – basin transfer or Trans – basin diversion are the terms used to describe man-made conveyance
schemes which move water from one river basin where it is available, to another basin where water is less
available or could be utilized better for human development. The purpose of such designed schemes can
be to alleviate water shortage in the receiving basin and/or to generate electricity through the created head
between two basins. Rarely as in the case of the Glory River which diverted water from the Tigris to
Euphrates River in modern Iraq, have interbrain transfer been undertaken for political purposes. Since
conveyance of water between natural basins are described as both a subtraction at the source and as an
addition at the destination, such projects may be controversial in some places and over time; they may
also be seen as controversial due to their scale, costs and environmental or developmental impacts. Some
proposed inter – basin diversion projects in Nepal are:
• Sunkoshi Kamala Diversion Multipurpose
• Bheri Babai Diversion Multipurpose
• Sankoshi Marine Diversion Multipurpose
• Kaligandaki Tinau Diversion

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 Introduction

Exercise 1

1. Define irrigation and drainage. What are the advantages and disadvantages of irrigation?
2. Describe the different types of irrigation methods with neat sketches.
3. Explain status and need of irrigation development in Nepal.
4. Explain methods of field irrigation and their suitability.
5. Define the importance of irrigation in Nepal.
6. What are the challenges and opportunities of irrigation development in Nepal?
7. Discuss about the suitability and appropriateness of drip and sprinkler irrigation system in Nepal.
8. What are the factors which must be determined during the planning stage of an irrigation project?
9. What do you understand by cropping pattern and cropping intensity?
10. Define different commanded area used in irrigation.

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Engineering

CHAPTER

2 Crop Water Requirement

2.1 Introduction
Delta
Each crop requires certain amount of water per hectare for its maturity. If the total amount of water
supplied to the crop (from first to last watering) is stored on land without any loss, then there will be a
thick layer of water standing on the land. This depth of water layer is known as Delta for the crop. It is
denoted by ∆ and expressed in cm.
Example 2.1
If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the base period for wheat is 140
days. Find ∆.
Solution:

140 days
28 days 28 days 28 days 28 days 28 days
7.5cm 7.5cm 7.5cm 7.5cm 7.5cm
Number of watering required = 140/28 = 5
The depth of water required in 140 day = 5 × 7.5 = 37.5 cm
Hence ∆ for wheat = 37.5 cm.
Duty
The duty of water is defined as the number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at
the rate of one cumecs (m3/sec) throughout the base period. It is expressed in hectares/ cumecs, and is
denoted by D. The duty of water is not constant, but it varies with various factors like soil condition,
methods of ploughing, methods of application of water etc.
For particular crop,
Area of land = 10 ha
Quantity of water = 5 m3/sec
10
Duty = = 2 ha/cumecs
5

Base Period
It is define as the period from the first to the last watering of the crop just before its maturity. It is denoted
by B and expressed in no of days.

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 Crop Water Requirement

Crop Period
Crop period is the total time that elapse between the sowing the crop and its harvesting. Thus crop period
represent the total time during which crop remains in the field. It is expressed in days.
Last watering
First watering Base period

Crop period
Seeding or sowing Harvesting

Relation between Duty and Delta

Let D be the duty of water on the field in ha/cumecs, ∆ be the delta or total depth of water in m supplied
to a crop growing on the field during the entire base period and B be the base period of the crop in days.

Let 1 cumecs of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days.

Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days (V) = 1 × (60 × 60 × 24) × B=86400 m3.

By definition of duty (D); one cumecs supplied for B days matures D hectare of land.

This quantity of water V matures D ha. of land or 104 × D sq.m. of area.

Volume 86400B 8.64B

Total depth of water applied on this land.= = = m
Area 104 D D

8.64B
This total depth of water is called delta (∆)= m
D

Example 2.2

Find the ∆ for sugarcane when its duty is 730 ha/cumec on the field and base period of crop 110 day.

Solution:

8.64B
We have the relation, ∆ = m
D

8.64 × 110
Now, = = 1.302m = 130.2 cm
730

Example 2.3:

Wheat requires total depth of water 1.230m. The duty at the field is 1400 ha/cumecs, Compute the
base period.

Solution:

∆.D 1.23 × 1400

The base period is given by: B = = = 199.3 days.
8.64 8.64

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Engineering

Example 2.4:
Three distributaries are used for irrigation. The details are given below. Find which one is more
efficient.
Discharge 15 m3/sec 20 m3/sec 25 m3/sec
C.C.A 15000 ha 25000 ha 30000 ha
Irrigation intensity 60% 80% 50%
Base period 200 days (cotton crop) 120 days (Wheat crop) 365 days (Sugarcane)
Solution:
1. Area under the cotton crop = 1500 × 0.6 = 9000 ha
900
Duty = = 600 ha/cumecs
15
2. Area under the wheat crop = 25000 × 0.80 = 20000 ha
20000
Duty = = 1000 ha/cumecs
25
3. Area under the sugar cane crop = 30000 × 0.50 = 15000 ha
15000
Duty = = 600 ha/cumecs
25
The distributary with a higher duty will be more efficient. So distributary II is more efficient.

2.2 Crop Water Requirement (CWR)

Water requirement of crop is the total quantity of water required by crop from the time it is sown to the
time it is harvested (crop period). The water requirement of crop will vary with the crop as well as with
the place depending upon the variation in climate, types of soil, method of cultivation and useful rainfalls.
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is actually the combination of two terms – evaporation and transpiration. The first of
these, that is, evaporation is the process of liquid converting into vapour, through wind action and solar
radiation and returning to the atmosphere. Evaporation is the cause of loss of water from open bodies of
water, such as lakes, rivers, the oceans and the land surface. It is interesting to note that ocean evaporation
provides approximately 90 percent of the earth’s precipitation.
Transpiration is the process by which water molecules leaves the body of a living plant and escapes to
the atmosphere. The water is drawn up by the plant root system and part of that is lost through the tissues
of plant leaf (through the stomata). In areas of abundant rainfall, transpiration is fairly constant with
variations occurring primarily in the length of each plants growing season. However, transpiration in dry
areas varies greatly with the root depth.
Factor affecting Evapotranspirations (Consmptive use of water)
1. Evaporation which depends upon humidity.
2. Surrounding temperature.
3. Growing season of crop and cropping pattern.

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 Crop Water Requirement

4. Precipitation in the area.

5. Irrigation depth or the depth of water applied for irrigation.
6. Wind velocity.
7. Soil and topography.
8. Irrigation practices and methods of irrigations.
Evapotranspiration, therefore, includes all evaporation from water and land surfaces, as well as
transpiration from plants.
Determination of Evapotranspiration for reference crop (Hill Irrigation Engineering, 1995)
(i) Blaney- Crindle Method
This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only
(Adama, 2012),
ETo = C [P (0.46T + 8)] mm/day
Where ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered
T = mean daily temperature in °C over the month considered.
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual daytime hours obtained from tables
C = adjustment factor which depends on minimum relative humidity, sunshine and daytime
wind estimates.
(ii) Radiation Method
This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data include measured air temperature
and sunshine, cloudiness or radiation but not measured wind and humidity.
ETo= c(W.Rs) mm/day
Where ETo= reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered
Rs= Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
W= weighting factor which depends on temperature and altitude
C= adjustment factor which depends on mean humidity and daytime wind conditions.
(iii) Penman Method
For the area where measured data on temperature, humidity and sunshine duration or radiation area
available, an adaptation of the penman method is suggested; compared to other method presented it
is likely to provide the most satisfactory results.
ETo = C [w Rn+ (1 – w) × f (u) × (ea – ed)]
Where ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
W = temperature-related weighting factor
Rn = Next radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
f(u) = wind relation function
ea – ed = difference between the saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature and
mean actual vapor pressure of the air, both in bar.
C = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions.

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Engineering

(iv) Pan Evaporation Method

Evaporation pan provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind, temperature and
humidity on evaporation from a specific open water surface.
ET0 = Kp × Epan
Where,
Kp = pan coefficient
Epan = Pan evaporation in mm/day and represents the mean daily value of period considered.

2.3 Irrigation Water Requirement (IWR)

Irrigation Water Requirement is defined as the sum of crop water requirement plus all types of water
losses.
IWR= CWR + Losses
(i) Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)
It is the quantity of water actually required by the plant. If a part of the consumptive use is provided
by the natural rainfall, the consumptive irrigation requirement is given by,
CIR = Cu – Re
Cu = Consumptive Use
Re = Effective rainfall
(ii) Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
It is defined as the amount of irrigation water required to be delivered at the field to meet the
evapotranspiration needs a crops as well as the other needs such as leaching, pre-sowing
requirement and nursery water requirement (if any). Thus we have
NIR = CIR + LR + PSR + NWR
Where,
LR = Leaching requirement
PSR = pre-sowing requirement
NWR= Nursery water requirement
(iii) Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR)
It is defined as the amount of water required to meet the net irrigation requirements plus the amount
of water lost as surface runoff and through deep percolation.
FIR = NIR + water Application loss
NIR
FIR =
ηa
ηa = water application efficiency which accounts for losses of irrigation water by surface
runoff and through deep percolation.

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 Crop Water Requirement

(iv) Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)

It is defined as the amount of water required to meet the field irrigation requirements plus the amount of
irrigation water lost in conveyance through the canal system by evaporation and by seepage.
FIR
GIR = FIR – Conveyance loss =
ηc
ηc = Conveyance efficiency

2.4 Effective Rainfall

Part of the rain water percolates below the root zone of the plants and part of the rain water flows away
over the soil surface as run-off. This deep percolation water and run-off water cannot be used by the
plants. In other words, part of the rainfall is not effective. The remaining part is stored in the root zone
and can be used by the plants. This remaining part is the so-called effective rainfall. The factors which
influence which part is effective and which part is not effective include the climate, the soil texture, the
soil structure and the depth of the root zone.
The actual estimate of the effective rainfall is cumbersome, however approximately it can be estimated as
80 % of the measured rainfall for the designed time.

Deep percolation
Run off
Figure 2.1: Process of rainfall and effective rainfall for crops
Example 2.5
2.5
An irrigation project has 6000 Ha of CCA and ETo is 150 mm/day, effective rainfall is 30
mm/month and overall efficiency of the project is 30%. Calculate the irrigation demands in cumecs
for Rice Crop.
Solution:
Here,
CCA= 6000 Ha
ETo= 150mm/day

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 Irrigation and
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Engineering

Effective Rainfall= 30mm/month=30/30=1 mm/day

Efficiency= 30%
We have, ETcrop= ETo × Kc
For rice Kc = 1.1 – 1.3
Take Kc = 1.1
ETcrop = 1.1 × 150= 165 mm/day
Irrigation requirement = ETcrop – Re = 164 mm/day
164 × 10-3
Irrigation demand= × 6000 × 104 = 113.89 m3/sec
86400
Project efficiency is 30%
113.89
So, Irrigation demand = = 379.63 m3/sec
0.3

2.5 Water Loss due to Seepage and Evaporation

When water comes in contact with an earthen surface, whether artificial or natural, the surface absorbs
water. This absorbed water percolates deep into the ground and is the main cause of the loss of water
carried by a canal. In addition, some canal water is also lost due to evaporation. The loss due to
evaporation is about 10 per cent of the quantity lost due to seepage. The seepage loss varies with the type
of the material through which the canal runs. Obviously, the loss is greater in coarse sand and gravel, less
in loam, and still less in clay soil. If the canal carries silt-laden water, the pores of the soil are sealed in
course of time and the canal seepage reduces with time. In almost all cases, the seepage loss constitutes
an important factor which must be accounted for in determining the water requirements of a canal.
Between the headworks of a canal and the watercourses, the loss of water on account of seepage and
evaporation is considerable. This loss may be of the order of 20 to 50 per cent of water diverted at the
headworks depending upon the type of soil through which canal runs and the climatic conditions of the
region. For the purpose of estimating the water requirements of a canal, the total loss due to evaporation
and seepage, also known as conveyance loss is expressed as m3/sec per million square meters of either
wetted perimeter or the exposed water surface area.
Evaporation

Figure 2.2: Seepage loss and deep percolation

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2.6 Operational Water Requirement for Paddy Crops

Paddy cultivation in the hills requires water for land preparation, initial flooding of field, and for
percolation losses when the fields are flooded. During land preparation the plough layer must be saturated
and the soil puddled. The amount of water needed for this operation depends on the soil types and the
initial moisture content of the soil. For spring paddy, 150mm of water is suggested while for main paddy
110mm is considered adequate. If follow paddy is grown after spring paddy the soil is the soil is already
in a good state of preparation can be reduced to 55mm. For all paddy crops an initial amount of 100mm of
water is required for initial flooding after land preparation. Percolation loss in the paddy fields is usually
assumed to be 3 to 5 mm per day. However, these values apply to ideal soil having a heavy clay content.
Soil in the hills of Nepal, are somewhat coarse textured and percolation losses of these soils can increase
up to 10- 20 mm/day. Considering that each 5 mm of water lost per day is equivalent to about 0.6 l/s/ha it
is obvious that percolation losses are an important part in the total field water requirement for paddy. It is
therefore recommended that infiltration values (percolation) are actually measure in the field. If no
infiltration measurements are available the following average suggested values can be used.
Table 2:1 average percolation for different soil (mm/day)

Soil type Percolation rate

Clay and clay – loams 3
Loams , silt – loams, or very fine sandy loam 10
Sandy – loams 16

2.7 Soil – Moisture – Irrigation Relationship

Both soil and water are essential for plant growth. The soil provides a structural base to the plants and
allows the root system (the foundation of the plant) to spread and get a strong hold. The pores of the soil
within the root zone hold moisture which clings to the soil particles by surface tension in the driest state
or may fill up the pores partially or fully saturating with it useful nutrients dissolved in water, essential for
the growth of the plants. The roots of most plants also require oxygen for respiration. Hence, full
saturation of the soil pores leads to restricted root growth for these plants. (There are exceptions, though,
like the rice plant, in which the supply of oxygen to the roots is made from the leaves through
aerenchyma cells which are continuous from the leaves to the roots).
Since irrigation practice is essentially, an adequate and timely supply of water to the plant root zone for
optimum crop yield, the study of the inter relationship between soil pores, its water-holding capacity and
plant water absorption rate is fundamentally important. Though a study in detail would mostly be of
importance to an agricultural scientist, in this lesson we discuss the essentials which are important to a
water resources engineer contemplating the development of a commanded area through scientifically
designed irrigation system.
2.7.1 Soil properties
Soil is a complex mass of mineral and organic particles. The important properties that classify soil
according to its relevance to making crop production (which in turn affects the decision making process
of irrigation engineering) are:
• Soil texture
• Soil structure
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Soil Texture
This refers to the relative sizes of soil particles in a given soil. According to their sizes, soil particles are
grouped into gravel, sand, silt and day. The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay is a soil mass
determines the soil texture. Figure 2.3 presents the textural classification of 12 main classes as identified
by the US department of agriculture, which is also followed in Nepal.
According to textural gradations a soil may be broadly classified as:
• Open or light textural soils: these are mainly coarse or sandy with low content of silt and clay.
• Medium textured soils: these contain sand, silt and clay in sizeable proportions, like loamy soil.
• Tight or heavy textured soils: these contain high proportion of clay.

Figure 2.3: USDA Textural Classification of Soil

Soil Structure:
This refers to the arrangement of soil particles and aggregates with respect to each other. Aggregates are
groups of individual soil particles adhering together. Soil structure is recognized as one of the most
important properties of soil mass, since it influences aeration, permeability, water holding capacity, etc.
The classification of soil structure is done according to three indicators as:-
• Type: there are four types of primary structures-platy, prism-like, block like and spheroidal.
• Class: there are five recognized classes in each of the primary types. These are very fine, fine,
medium, coarse and very coarse.
• Grade: this represents the degree of aggradation that is the proportion between aggregate and
non-aggregated material that results when the aggregates are displaced or gently crushed.
Grades are termed as structure less, weak, moderate, strong and very strong depending on the
stability of the aggregates when disturbed.

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Root Zone Depth

It is define as the maximum depth of soil in which the crop spreads its root system. From this depth the
soil absorbs water.
2.7.2 Classification of Soil Water
As stated earlier, water may occur in the soil pores in varying proportions. Some of the definitions related
to the water held in the soil pores are as follows:
• Gravitational water: A soil sample saturated with water and left to drain the excess out by
gravity holds on to a certain amount of water. The volume of water that could easily drain off
is termed as the gravitational water. This water is not available for plants use as it drains off
rapidly from the root zone.
• Capillary water: The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has
drained off from the soil is known as the capillary water. This water is held in the soil by
surface tension. Plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and thus constitute the
principle source of water for plant growth.
• Hygroscopic water: The water that an oven dry sample of soil absorbs when exposed to moist air is
termed as hygroscopic water. It is held as a very thin film over the surface of the soil particles and is
under tremendous negative (gauge) pressure. This water is not available to plants.
The above definitions of the soil water are based on physical factors. Some properties of soil water are not
directly related to the above significance to plant growth.
2.7.3 Soil Water Contents
For a particular soil, certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether the water is
available or not for plant growth. These are called the soil water constants, which are described below.
• Saturation capacity: This is the total water content of the soil when all the pores of the soil are
filled with water. It is also termed as the maximum water holding capacity of the soil. At saturation
capacity, the soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero.
• Field capacity: This is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of gravity.
Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the field capacity.
At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water is retained in the micro-
pores. Though the soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to soil, it is normally
between 1/10 (for clayey soils) to 1/3 (for sandy soils) atmospheres.
Field capacity is expressed as the ratio of weight of water contained in the soil to the weight of the
dry soil retaining that water i.e.
Weight of water retained in a certaion volume of soil
Field capacity = × 100%
Weight of the same volume of dry soil
If 1m2 area and d meter depth of root zone, then the volume of soil is 1 × d= dm3
If dry unit weight of soil is γd KN/m3, then
The weight of dm3 of soil is γd × d KN
Weight of water retained in a certaion volume of soil
Field capacity = × 100%
γd × d

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Weight of water retained in unit area of soil = FC × γd × d KN/m2

FC × γd × d
Volume of water stored in unit area of soil= m
γw
FC × γd × d
The total water storage capacity of soil = m
γw
• Permanent Wilting Point: Plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is
saturated up to field capacity. However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content
diminishes and the negative (gauge) pressure increases. At one point, the plant cannot extract any
further water and thus wilts.
Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:
– Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil water content at which the plant wilts at day
time, but recovers during right or when water is added to the soil.
– Ultimate wilting point: at such a soil water content, the plant wilts and fails to regain life even
after addition of water to soil.
It must be noted that the above water contents are expressed as percentage of water held in the soil
pores, compared to a fully saturated soil.
available
moisture
Readily
Available
moisture
Moisture Content

Field Capacity

Non available
moisture

Time

2.8 Depth and Frequency of Irrigation

The irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls up to this optimum level (fixing
irrigation frequency) and its quantity should be just sufficient to bring the moisture content up to its field
capacity, making allowance for application less (thus fixing water depth). The following factors may be
taken into consideration for scheduling of irrigation:
• Precipitation rate of the irrigation equipment – how quickly the water is applied, often expressed in
inches or mm per hour.
• Distribution uniformity of the irrigation system – how uniformly the water is applied, expressed as a
percentage, the higher the number, the more uniform.

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• Soil infiltration rate- how quickly the water is absorbed by the soil, the rate of which also decreases
as the soil becomes wetter, also often expressed in inches or mm per hour.
• Slope (topography) of the land being irrigated as this affects how quickly runoff occurs, often
expressed as a percentage, i.e. distance of fall divided by 100 units of horizontal distance (1 m of fall
per 100m would be 1%).

• Soil available water capacity, expressed in units of water per unit of soil, i.e. inches of water per foot of soil.

• Effective rooting depth of the plants to be watered, which affects how much water can be stored in
the soil and made available to the plants.

• Current watering requirements of the plant (which may be estimated by calculating

evapotranspiration, (or ET), often expressed in mm per day.

• Amount of time in which water or labor may be available for irrigation.

• Amount of allowable moisture stress which may be placed on the plant. For high value vegetable
crops, this may mean no allowable stress, while for a lawn some stress would be allowable, since the
goal would not be to maximize production, but merely to keep the lawn green and healthy.

• Timing to take advantage of projected rainfall

• Timing to take advantage of favorable utility rates

• Timing to avoid interfering with other activities such as sporting events, holidays, lawn
maintenance, or crop harvesting.

Irrigation interval
FC
Moisture Content

RAM

PWP

OMC = FC – RAM

Time

The frequency of irrigation should be worked out in advance so that it can be applied in proper intervals.
The frequency of irrigation may be ascertained by the following expressions

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γs × d γs
Depth of water to be applied in each watering = × [FC – OMC] = × d × RAM
γw γw

Allowable soil moisture depletion

Frequency of Irrigation =
Rate of consumptive use

Here FC stands for Field Capacity and OMC stands for Optimum moisture Content and d is root zone depth.
Example 2.6
The field capacity of a certain soil is 20% and its apparent specific gravity is 1.6. Before applying
irrigation water, a wet sample of soil was taken and its mass was found as 150 gm. The same sample
weighed as 136 gm after oven drying. Determine the depth of water that must be applied to irrigate
the soil to a depth of 0.9m.
Solution:
150 – 136
Moisture content before irrigation = × 100 = 10.29%
136
∴ Depth of water required to bring the moisture up to field capacity
γd
= × d [FC - Moisture content before irrigation]
γw
= 1.6 × 0.9 [0.2 – 0.1029]
= 0.14m = 140 mm.
Example 2.7
2.7
During a particular stage of the growth of a crop, consumptive use of water is 2.8 mm/day.
Determine the interval in days between irrigations, and depth of water to be applied when the
amount of water available in the soil is:
(i) 25%, (ii) 50%, (iii) 75% (iv) 0% of the maximum depth of available water in the root
zone which is 80mm. assume irrigation efficiency to be 65%. Field Capacity
Solution:
80 × (1 – 0.25)
(i) Frequency of irrigation = = 21.43 days = 21 days (say)
2.8
80 × (1 – 0.25)
(ii) Depth of water to be applied = = 92.31 mm = 93.00 mm (say)
0.65
Other calculations have been shown in the following table:
Amount of soil moisture depleted to
25% 50% 75% 0%

Frequency of irrigation (days) 21 14 7 28

Depth of water to be applied (mm) 93 62 31 124

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Example 2.8
2.8:
After how many days will supply water to soil in order to ensure sufficient irrigation of the given
crop if,
i. Field capacity of the soil= 28%
ii. Permanent wilting point= 13%
iii. Dry density of soil=1.3 gm/cc
iv. Effective depth of root zone=70 cm
v. Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop=12mm
Solution:
Available moisture = Field Capacity – Permanent wilting point
= 28% – 13% = 15%
Assume that Readily Available Moisture = 80% of Available Moisture
RAM = 0.8 × 15% =12%
Optimum moisture = 28% –12% = 16%
It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 16% and 28%.
γd
Depth of water stored in the root zone between these two limits = × d × (FC – OMC)
γw
1.3
= × 0.7 × (0.28 – 0.16) = 10.92 cm
1
Here, water available for Evapotranspiration =10.92 cm.
Given that; 1.2 cm of water will be utilized by the plant in 1 day.
1 × 10.92
10.92 cm of water will be utilized by the plant in = = 9.1 days ≈ 9 days
1.2
Hence, after 9 days, water should be supplied to the given crop.
Example 2.9
2.9:
Find the field capacity of a soil for the following data:
(i) Depth of root zone = 2m
(ii) Existing water content = 5%
(iii) Dry density of soil = 1500 kg/m3
(iv) Water applied to the soil = 600 m3
(v) Water lost due to Evaporation and Deep Percolation =10%
(vi) Area of land irrigated = 900 m2
Solution:
Total water applied = 600 m3
Loss of water = 10%
Water retained in the soil = 600 × 90/100 = 540 m3
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Weight of water retained = 540 × 9810 = 5297400 N

Total dry weight of soil = 900 × 2 × 1500 × 9.81 = 26487000 N
5297400N
% of water retained in the soil = = 0.2 = 20%
2648700N
Existing water content = 5%
Field capacity = 5% + 20% = 25%

2.9 Irrigation Efficiencies

Irrigation system efficiency, implies minimum loss from the time water is taken from the canal outlet till
it becomes available in the root zone for plant utilization. The objective of the efficiency concept is to
show where improvements can be made so as to have more efficient irrigation. Method of measurement
and evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency are prerequisites for proper use of irrigation water.
Generally speaking water use in an irrigation project under development has lower efficiency. However,
as water becomes more and more scarce and as the need for it becomes more pressing, its utilization
improves. Various concepts of irrigation efficiencies are as under:
1. Irrigation Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the ratio or percentage of the irrigation
water consumed by the crops of an irrigated farm, field or project to water losses occurring at various
stages before the plants ultimately utilize it, several partial efficiencies should individually be maximum:
Wc
ηi = × 100%
Wr
Where,
ηi = irrigation efficiency (%),
Wc = irrigation water consumed by crop during its growth period in an irrigation project, and
Wr = water delivered from canals during the growth period of crops.
In most irrigation projects, the irrigation efficiency ranges between 12 to 34 per cent.
2. Water Conveyance Efficiency:
It is a measure of efficiency of water conveyance system from canal network to watercourses and
field channels. It is the ratio of water delivered in fields at the outlet head to that diverted into the
canal system from the river or reservoir. Water losses occur by water conveyance efficiency as
under:
Wf
ηc = × 100%
Wr
Where, ηc = water conveyance efficiency, percent,
Wf = water delivered to the farm from conveyance system (at field supply channel), and
Wr = water introduced into the conveyance system from the point of diversion.
Water conveyance efficiency is generally low; about 21% losses occur in earthen watercourses only.

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3. Water Application Efficiency

It is a measure of efficiency of water application in the field. It is the ratio of volume of water that is
stored in the root zone of crops and ultimately consumed by transpiration or evaporation or both to
the volume of water actually delivered at the field. Alternatively, it may be defined as the percentage
of water applied that can be accounted for as increase in soil moisture in soil as occupied by
principal rooting system of the crop. It is also termed as farm efficiency as it takes into account
water lost in application at the farm.
Ws
ηa = × 100%
Wf

Where, ηa = water application efficiency, percent,

Ws = irrigation water stored in the root zone of farm soil, and
Wf= irrigation water delivered to the farm (at field supply channel).
In general, water application efficiency decreases as the amount of water during each irrigation
increases. Water losses due to inefficient application of water in the field vary from 28 to 50 percent.
Common sources of losses of irrigation water during application are represented as Rf = surface
runoff from the farm, and Df = deep percolation below the farm root zone soil. Neglecting
evaporation losses during application:
ηf = Ws + Df + Rf
Wf – Df + Rf
ηa = ×100%
Wf

4. Water Use Efficiency

Having conveyed water to the point of use and having applied it, the next efficiency concept of
concern is the efficiency of water use. It is expressed in kg/ha cm. The proportion of water delivered
and beneficially used on the project can be calculated using following formula:
Wu
ηu = × 100%
Wd
Where, ηu = water use efficiency, percent,
Wu = water beneficially used, and
Wd = water delivered.
Water use efficiency is also defined as (i) crop water use efficiency and (ii) field water efficiency.
(i) Crop Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the amount of water depleted
by crop in evapotranspiration (ET) i.e., Y/ET.
(ii) Field Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the total amount of water used
in the field i.e., Y/WR.

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5. Water Storage Efficiency

Also termed as water storage factor. It is defined as the ratio of the water stored in the root depth by
irrigation to the water needed in the root depth to bring it to the field capacity
Ws
i.e.ηs = x 100%
Ww
Where, ηs = water storage efficiency, percent,
Ws = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation and
Wu = water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation, i.e., field capacity available moisture.
6. Water Distribution Efficiency
It is expressed for distribution efficiency to evaluate the extent to which the water is uniformly
distributed i.e. ηd = 1–  ×100% = 1 –
d Average Deviation
× 100%
 D Average Depth Applied
Where, ηd = water distribution efficiency, percent,
d = average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth stored during
irrigation, and
D = average depth of water stored along the run during irrigation.
A water distribution efficiency of 80% means that 10% of water was applied in excess and
consequently 10% was deficient in comparison to the average depth of application.
7. Consumptive Use Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of consumptive water use by the crop of irrigated farm or project and the
irrigation water stored in the root zone of the soil on the farm or the project area. After irrigation
water is stored in the soil, it may not be available for use by the crop because water may evaporate
from the ground surface or continuously move downward beyond the root zone as it may happen in
a wide furrow spacing. The loss of water by deep penetration and by surface evaporation following
and irrigation is evaluated from the following expression:
Wcu
ηcu = x 100%
Wd
Where, ηcu = consumptive use efficiency, percent,
Wcu = normal consumptive use of water,
Wd = net amount of water depleted from root zone soil.
Consumptive use efficiency is useful in explaining the difference in crop response from different
methods of irrigation.
Example 2.10
2.10:
10:
A stream of 125 l/s was diverted from a canal and 100 l/s were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6
ha was irrigated in 8 hrs. Effective depth of root zone was 1.7 m. The runoff loss in the field was
420 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.7 m at the head end of the field to 1.3
m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm per m depth of soil.
Determine water conveyance, water application, water storage and water distribution efficiencies.
The irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture.

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Solution:

Wf
(i) Water Conveyance efficiency ηc = × 100%
Wr

Wf = 110lps

Wr = 125 lps

ηc = 80%

Ws
(ii) Water application efficiency ηa = × 100%
Wf

Water supplied to field during 8 hrs @ 100 lps= 100/1000 × 8 × 60 × 60 = 2880m3.

Runoff loss in the field= 420 m3

The water stored in the root zone Ws = 2880 – 420 = 2460 m3

2460
Now, water application efficiency = × 100% = 85.4%
2880

Ws
(iii) Water storage efficiency ηs = × 100%
Ww

Moisture holding capacity of soil = 20 cm/m × 1.7 m= 34cm

Moisture already available in the root zone

At the time of start of irrigation = 34 × 50%=17cm.

Additional water requirement in the root zone = 34 – 17 =17 cm = 0.17m × 1.6 × 104 m2 = 2720 m3

But actual water stored in the root zone = 2460 m3

2460
Water storage efficiency = × 100%
2720

(iv) Water distribution efficiency ηd =1–

d
× 100%
 D

= 1 –
Average Deviation 
× 100%
 Average Depth Applied

1.7+1.3
D = Mean depth of water stored in the root zone = =1.5m
2

(1.7 – 1.5) + (1.5 – 1.3)

d= = 0.2
2

ηd = 1 –
0.2
× 100% = 86.66%
 1.5

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2.10 Design Discharge of Canal

Kor watering and Kor Depth
The total quantity of water required by a crop is applied through a number of watering at certain interval
during the base period of crop. However, the quantity of water required to be applied during each of these
watering is not same. In general for all the crop during the first watering after the plant have grown a few
centimeter is high, the quantity of water required is more than during the subsequent watering. The first
watering after the plant have grown a few centimeter is known as Kor watering and the depth of water
during this watering is known as Kor depth. The kor watering must be done in limited period which is
known as kor period. Since during kor watering certain quantity of water is required to be applied in a
relatively short duration, the discharge capacity of canal supplying irrigation water has to be maximum
during this period. For example:-
Total water depth of certain crop= 375 mm
Base period B= 182 day
8.64B
Duty (D) = m = 4193 ha/cumecs
∆
Area= 1000 Ha
1000
Discharge Q= = 0.2384 m3/sec
4193
Again if;
Kor depth Kd = 135mm
Kor period (Kp) = 3 weeks = 21 days
8.64B 8.64 x 21
Duty (D) = m = m = 1344 Ha/cumecs
∆ 0.135
Area = 1000 Ha
Q = 0.744 m3/sec
Then design discharge for canal= 0.744 m3/sec
Example 2.11
2.11:
11:
The gross area of irrigation project is 50000 ha. Out of these about 5000 ha have been utilized for
construction of dwellings roads, bridges etc. The area to be cultivate during Rabi (winter season) is
25000 ha and during Kharif (summer) is 24000 ha. If the duty of canal water for winter crop is 5000
ha/cumecs and for summer crops is 3000 ha/cumecs, find the design discharge for the canal after
giving 10% allowance for peak discharge and loss of water in transit. What would be canal intensity
of irrigation?
Solution:
Here,
GCA = 50,000 ha
CCA = 50000 – 5000 = 45000 ha

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Kharif (summer) Rabi (winter)

Area of cultivation = 24000 Ha Area of cultivation = 25000 ha.
Duty (D)= 3000 ha/cumecs Duty (D) = 5000 ha/cumecs
Discharge (Q) = 24000/3000 = 8 cumecs Discharge (Q) = 5 cumecs
Take higher value for design discharge Qd= 8 + 8 × 10%= 8.8 m3/sec
CCA=45000 Ha
24000
In summer; Intensity of irrigation = × 100% = 53.33%
45000
25000
In winter; Intensity of irrigation = × 100% = 55.55%
45000
Now, Irrigation intensity = 53.33% + 55.55% = 108.88%
Example 2.12
2.12:
12:
Water course has a CCA of 15000 Ha. The irrigation intensity for crop A = 45% and for Crop B = 40%,
both the crops being rabi crops. Crop A has a kor period of 20 days and Crop B has a 15 days. Calculate
the discharge of water course if the kor depths of A & B are 10 cm and 16 cm respectively.
Solution:
Here,
CCA= 15000 ha.
Crop A Crop B
Kp = 20 days Kp = 15 day
Kd =10 days Kd = 16 cm
Irrigation Intensity = 45% Irrigation Intensity= 40%
8.64B 8.64 ×15
We have (∆) = m Duty B = = 810 ha/cumec
D 0.16
8.64 × 20 CCA × Irrigation Intensity
Duty A= = 1728 ha/cumec Discharge QB=
0.1 Duty of B
CCA × Irrigation Intensity 15000 × 0.4
Discharge QA= = = 0.39 m3/sec
Duty of A 810
15000 × 0.45
= = 0.39 m3/sec
1728

Since both the crop has same season, design discharge = QA + QB = 1.13 m3/sec
Example 2.13
2.13:
13:

The culturable commanded area for a distributary channel is 10,000 hectares. The intensity of
irrigation is 30 per cent for wheat and 15 per cent for rice. The kor period for wheat is 4 weeks, and
for rice 3 weeks. Kor watering depths for wheat and rice are 135 mm and 190 mm, respectively.
Estimate the outlet discharge.

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Solution:

Quantity Wheat Rice

Area to be irrigated (ha) = 10,000 × 30% = 3000 10,000 × 15% = 1500

Outlet factor or Duty
8.64B 8.64 (4 × 7) 8.64 (3 × 7)
D= ha/cumecs = = = 1792 = = 954.95
∆ 0.135 0.19
Outlet discharge (m3/sec) = 3000/1792 = 1.7 1500/954.95 = 1.6

Since the water demands for wheat and rice are at different times, these are not cumulative.
Therefore, the distributary channel should be designed for the larger of the two discharges i.e.
1.7m3/sec. The above calculations exclude channel losses and the water requirement of other major
crops during their kor period.
Example 2.14
2.14:
With the following data, FC = 80%, PWP = 35%, root depth= 60 cm, dry density of soil = 1.58
gm/cc, ETc = 5 mm/ day, application efficiency=80%, Conveyance loss = 55% and Distribution
loss=65%. Calculate,
i. Available moisture content
ii. Readily available moisture content
iii. Depth of irrigation at the outlet of the field.
iv. Irrigation interval
v. Irrigation requirement at the headwork.
Solution:
i. Available moisture content (AMC) = FC – PWP = 45%
ii. Readily available moisture content (RAM)
Assume RAM = 80% of AMC
Then, RAM = 0.8 × 45%= 36%
γd
iii. Depth of water available for consumptive use = × d × RAM
γw
1.5
= × 0.6 × 0.36 = 0.324m = 324mm
1
324mm 324mm
Depth of water required at the out let of the field= = = 405mm
Application Efficiency 0.8
324 324
iv. Irrigation interval= = = 64.8 days adopt 64 days
ETc 5
405mm
v. Irrigation water required at head work = = 2571.42 mm
0.45 × 0.35

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Example 2.15
2.15:
Table below gives the necessary data about the crop, duty of water and the area under each crop
Commanded by a canal taking off from a storage reservoir. Taking a time factor for the canal to be
12/20, calculate the discharge required at the head of the canal. If the capacity factor is 0.8,
determine the design discharge.
Duty of water at the head of the
Crop Base Period (days) Area (ha)
canal (ha/cumecs)
Sugarcane 320 900 580
Overlap for sugarcane in 90 150 580
hot weather
Wheat (winter) 120 750 1600
Rice (summer) 120 600 2000
Vegetable (hot weather) 120 320 600
Solution:
Here,
900
Discharge required for sugarcane = = 1.552 m3/sec
580
150
Discharge required for overlapping sugarcane = = 0.259 m3/sec
580
750
Discharge required for wheat = = 0.469 m3/sec
1600
600
Discharge required for rice = = 0.3 m3/sec
2000
320
Discharge required for vegetable = = 0.533 m3/sec
600
Since sugarcane has a base period of 320 days, it will required water during winter, summer and hot
weather. Thus
Discharge required in winter = 1.552+0.469 = 2.021 m3/sec
Discharge required in summer = 1.552+0.3 = 1.852 m3/sec
Discharge required in hot weather =1.552 + 0.259 + 0.533 = 2.344 m3/sec
Out of three demands the maximum demand is 2.344 m3/sec which is during the hot weather.
The time – factor is the ratio of the number of days the canal has actually run to the number of days
the canal was supposed to run. In this case time factor is 12/20.
Discharge required at the head of the canal = 2.344 × 20/12= 3.907 m3/sec
Mean dischaege required 3.907
Design discharge = = = 4884 m3/sec
Capacity factor 0.8

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Example 2.16
2.16:
The base period, intensity of irrigation & duty of various crops under a canal irrigation system are
given in the table below. Find the reservoir capacity if the canal losses are 18% and reservoir losses
are 14%.
Crop Base periods (days) Duty at the field (ha/Cumecs) Area under the crop (hectares)

Rice 120 850 3000

Wheat 120 1700 4500
Sugarcane 360 750 5400
Vegetables 120 650 1200
Cotton 200 1300 2200
Solution:
Calculations are done in the following table:
Crop Base Duty at the Delta Area under the Volume of water
periods field (m) crop (hectares) required (ha-m)
(days) (ha/Cumecs)
Rice 120 850 1.22 3000 3660
Wheat 120 1700 0.61 4500 2745
Sugarcane 360 750 4.15 5400 22395
Vegetables 120 650 1.60 1200 1915
Cotton 200 1300 1.33 2200 2925
Total = 33640

Total volume of water required by the crops = 33640 ha - m

Required capacity of the reservoirs = 33640/(0.82 × 0.86)
= 47702.78 ha - m
Example 2.17
2.17:
Determine the rate of application, if daily consumptive use of the crop is 6 mm and the canal may
operates from 8 AM to 6 PM only. Available moisture for the given soil is 22% and maximum depth
of root zone for the given crop is 1.2 m. Assume that only 50% of soil moisture is available to the
crop. Application efficiency is 60%. Also calculate the required discharge if CCA is 350 ha.
Solution:
Given, Consumptive use = 6mm/day
Available water for soil= 22% = 220mm/m
Available water for crop = 220 × 50% = 110mm/m
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 Crop Water Requirement

Root depth of crop = 1.2m

Operation hrs of canal = 10 hrs (8 AM to 6 PM)
Application efficiency = 60%
Now,
Water available to crop with in root zone = 110 × 1.2 = 132 mm
water available to crop 132
Irrigation interval = = = 22 days
consumptive use 6
Number of days x consumptive use 22 × 6
Required application= = =220mm for every 22 days
application efficiency 0.6
required application 220
Now, Rate of application = = = 22 mm/hrs
operation hrs 10
22 × 10-3m
Required discharge = × 350 × 104 m2 = 21.39 m3/sec.
3600 sec
Example 2.18
2.18:
Write down the step wise procedure to determine the crop water requirement and Irrigation
Requirement.
Solution:
Crop water requirements

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Irrigation requirements

Example 2.19

Wheat is to be grown n field having a field capacity equal to 27% and the permanent wilting point
15.13%. Find the storage capacity is 80cm depth of soil, if the dry unit weight of the soil is
1.58m/cc. If the irrigation water s to be supplied when the average soil moisture falls to 18%, find
the water depth required to be supplied to field if the field application efficiency is 80%. What is the
amount of water needed at the canal outlet if the water lost in the water course and the field channel
is 15% of the outlet discharged?
Solution:
(i) Maximum storage capacity = Available moisture

γd.d
= [FC – PWP]
γw

1.5 × 80
= [0.27 – 0.13]
1

= 16.8 cm
1.5 × 80
(ii) Depth of irrigation water = [FC – OMC]
1

1.5 × 80
= [0.27 – 0.18]
1

10.8
(iii) Field irrigation requirement = = 13.5 cm
0.8

(iv) Amount of water needed at the canal outlet.

13.5
= = 15.9 cm.
0.85
Example 2.20
2.20:
20:

The consumptive use requirements of a crop are 0.2 cm/day for days 1 to 15, 0.3 cm/day for days 16
to 40, 0.5 cm/day for days 41 to 50 and 0.1 cm/day for days 51 to 55. Effective rainfall of 3.5 cm,
distributed uniformly during the 36th and 45th days (both inclusive) is predicted. Compute the total
quantity of water (in cu. m) to be delivered to a 50 hectares area for the whole crop season with a pre
- sowing requirement of 5 cm of water.

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 Crop Water Requirement

Solution:
Water Requirements per hectare
15 × 0.2
(i) 1 to 15 days i.e. 15 days @ 0.2 cm/day = × 104 = 300 m3
100
25 × 0.3
(ii) 16 to 40 days i.e. 25 days @ 0.3 cm/day = × 104 = 750 m3
100
10 × 0.5
(iii) 41 to 50 days i.e. 10 days @ 0.5 cm/day = × 104 = 500 m3
100
5 × 0.1
(iv) 51 to 55 days i.e. 5 days @ 0.1 cm/day = × 104 = 50 m3
100
5
Pre - sowing Requirement = × 104 = 500 m3
100
Total = 2100 m3
3.5
Effective rainfall/ hectare during 36th and 45th day (i.e. 10 days)= × 104 = 350 m3
100
Net water quantity to be delivered per hectare = 2100 – 350 = 1750 m3
Now, Total quantity of water to be delivered to 50 hectares = 50 × 1750 = 87500 m3

Exercise
1. Define Delta, Duty, base period, and crop period. Establish a relationship between duty and delta.
2. Write down the steps for calculating irrigation requirement for Rice crop.
3. Explain all types of irrigation efficiencies and Project efficiency.
4. Write down the methods to calculate Crop water requirement using Penman’s method.
5. Explain Operational water requirement for paddy crops.
6. Explain evaporation and seepage losses in a canal.
7. Explain steps of irrigation water requirement for rice and wheat.
8. Define Soil moisture irrigation relationship with neat sketches.
9. Explain depth and frequency of Irrigation.
10. Explain how to estimate the design discharge for canal.
11. Describe different calculation methods of reference crop evapo-transpiration.
12. What do you understand by crop coefficient? What are the factors that affect the value of crop coefficient?
13. Calculate the optimum soil moisture and permanent wilting point of the silty loam soil, for following data:
Density of soil =1.38 gm/cm3; Depth of the irrigation= 6.15 cm; Field capacity=22.6%; Depth of
root cone= 95 cm; Available moisture holding capacity= 12.36 cm.
14. If FC = 35cm/m; PWP = 15cm/m; root depth = 90cm; soil density = 1.5 gm/cc; Etc = 5 mm/day;
application efficiency = 60% and RAM = 80% of AMC, than calculate:
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(i) Available moisture content

(ii) Readily available moisture content
(iii) Depth of irrigation at the outlet of the field
(iv) Irrigation interval
15. If FC= 80%; PWP = 35%; root depth = 75cm; soil density = 1.5 gm/cc; ETc = 5 mm/day; application
efficiency = 80% and RAM = 50% of AMC, than calculate:
(i) Available moisture content
(ii) Readily available moisture content
(iii) Depth of irrigation at the outlet of the field
(iv) Irrigation interval
16. The culturable Commanded area of a Water Course is 750 ha. Intensity of irrigation for wheat is 45% and
that of Sugarcane is 20%. The duties of the crops at the head of water course are 1500 ha/Cumecs and 800
ha/Cumecs respectively. Find the discharge required at the head of the water course.
17. The transplantation of rice usually takes 15 days and ∆ of water required is 60cm on field. Due to
rain about 15cm demand is fulfilled. Taking 12% losses from the distributary head to water course
head and 20% losses in water course, compute
• Duty of water at the head of the water course.
• Duty of water at the head of distributary.
18. A canal takes off from a reservoir. Data for irrigated crops are given in table below:
Base periods Area under the crop Duty at the head of the
Crop
(days) (hectares) canal ( ha/cumecs)
Rice (summer) 120 240 775
Wheat (winter) 130 180 900
Sugarcane(overlap) 300 125 650
Vegetables (summer) 90 60 1000
Vegetable (winter) 110 90 1200
(i) Compute discharge required at the head of canal. Assume time factor as 0.7
(ii) Compute gross storage capacity of the reservoir. Assume losses due to absorption and
evaporation as 10%, carry over storage (due to irregular monsoon) as 7% and dead storage as
10% of gross storage.
19. A stream of 130 lps was diverted from a canal and 100 lps were delivered to the field. An area of 1.5
ha was irrigated in 7.5 hrs. Effective depth of root zone was 1.6 m. The runoff loss in the field was
410 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.65 m at the head end of the field to
1.25 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 25 cm per m depth of soil.
Determine water conveyance, water application, water storage and water distribution efficiencies.
The irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 60% of the available moisture.

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CHAPTER

3 Canal Irrigation System

A conveyance subsystem for irrigation includes open channels through earth or rock formation, flumes
constructed in partially excavated sections or above ground, pipe lines installed either below or above the
ground surface, and tunnels drilled through high topographic obstructions. Irrigation conduits of a typical
gravity project are usually open channels through earth or rock formations. These are called canal. A
canal is defined as an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry water from a river or another
canal or a reservoir to the fields. Usually, canals have a trapezoidal cross-section. The slope of an
irrigation canal is generally less than the ground slope in the head reaches of the canal and, hence, vertical
falls have often to be constructed. Power houses may be constructed at these falls to generate power and,
thus, irrigation canals can be used for power generation also.

3.1 Classification of Canals

Canals can be classified in many ways (Basak, 2007).
1. Based on nature of sources of supply
(i) Permanent canal
A permanent canal has continuous sources of water supply. It is well graded channel and is provided
with permanent regulation and distribution works. Such canals are further classified as:
– Perennial canal
Perennial canals are those canals which get continuous supplies from the sources
throughout the year. The sources of supplied from these canal is a perennial river. These
canal can supply water for irrigation throughout the year during the crop seasons.
– Non – perennial canal
Non perennial canals are those canals which get their supplies only for a part of the year.
The source of supply for these canals is evidently a non-perennial river. These canals can
therefore supply water for irrigation only during some of the crop season.
(ii) Inundation canal
The canal which is excavated from the banks of the inundation river to carry water to the
agricultural land in rainy season only when the river flows to its full capacity is known as
inundation canal as shown in Figure 3.1(a). No regulator is provided at the head of such canal.
The flow of water through the canal depends on the fluctuation of water level in the river.
When the water level rises above the bed level the water starts flowing through the canal as in
Figure 3.1(b). When water level falls below the bed level of canal, the flow of water through
the canal stops as in Figure 3.1(c).

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
HFL
Canal

(b)
Canal

River
(c)
Canal

(a)
Figure 3.1: Nature of sources of supply
2. Based on their function (Purpose)
(i) Irrigation canal
The canal which is constructed to carry water from the sources to the agricultural land for the
purpose of irrigation is known as irrigation canal.
(ii) Navigation canal
The canal which is constructed for the purpose of inland navigation is known as navigation
canal. This type of canal is also utilized for irrigation.
(iii) Power canal
The canal which is constructed to supply water with very high force to the hydroelectric power station
for the purpose of moving turbine to generate electric power is known as power canal or hydel canal.
(iv) Feeder canals
The canal which is constructed to feed another canal or river for the purpose of irrigation or
navigation is known as feeder canal.
3. Based on carrying capacity
(i) Main canal
The main canal takes its supplies directly from the river through the head regulator and acts as
a feeder canal supplying water to branch canals and major distributaries. Usually, direct
irrigation is not carried out from the main canal.
(ii) Branch canal
Branch canal take their supplies from the main canal. Branch canals generally carry a discharge
higher than 5 m3/sec and acts as feeder canals for major and minor distributaries. Large
branches are rarely used for direct irrigation. However, outlets are provided on smaller
branches for direct irrigation.

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(iii) Major distributary
Major distributary carry 0.25 m3/sec to 5 m3/sec discharge. These distributaries take their
supplies generally from the branch canal and sometimes from the main canal. The distributaries
feed either watercourses through outlets or minor distributaries.
(iv) Minor distributary
Minor distributaries are small canals which carry a discharge less than 0.25 m3/sec and feed the
water courses for irrigation. They generally take their supplies from major distributaries or
branch canals and rarely form the main canals.
(v) Water courses
A water course is a small channel which takes its supplies from an irrigation channel (generally
distributaries) through an outlet and carries water to the various parts of the area to be irrigated
through the outlet.

River

Main Canal

Branch canal

Water course

Distributaries

Figure 3.2: Based on carrying capacity

4. Based on alignment
Depending upon the alignment, the canals are designated as
a. Ridge or watershed canal
b. Contour canal
c. Side slope canal
(i) Ridge or water shed canal
The canal which is aligned along the ridge line (watershed line) is known as ridge canal or
watershed canal. The advantage of this type of canal is that it can irrigate the areas on both
sides. Again there is no possibility of crossing any natural drainage and hence no cross-
drainage work is necessary.

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(ii) Contour canal
The canal which is aligned approximately parallel to the contour lines is known as contour
canal. This canal can irrigate the areas on one side only. This canal may cross natural drainage
and hence cross- drainage works are necessary.
(iii) Side slope canal
The canal which is aligned approximately at right angle to the contour lines is known as side
slope canal. It can irrigate the areas on one side only. Again, it doesn’t cross any natural
drainage and hence the cross drainage works are not necessary.

1302

1298

1294

1290

Figure 3.3: Side slope canal

5. Based on construction material

(i) Lined canal
Canals with an intention to reduce seepage are lined with different materials includes, concrete,
shotcrete or plaster, brick or concrete tile, asphaltic concrete, boulder compacted earth and soil
cement.
(ii) Unlined canals
Such canals are aligned and excavated either in alluvial soil or non - alluvial soils. An alluvial
soil is one which is formed by the continuous silt deposition. The area of alluvial soil is
comparatively even and has flat slope.
Rocky plain area formed due to disintegration of mountainous region is called non - alluvial
area. Canals passing through such area are called non - alluvial canals.

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6. Based on financial output
(i) Productive canal
It is one which earns revenue to the nation.
(ii) Protective canal
It is one which is constructed with an idea of saving a particular region from famine.

3.2 Component of Canal irrigation System

(i) Headwork
(ii) Canal network
1. Main canal 2. Branch canal
3. Distributaries 4. Minor 5. Water course
(iii) Canal Structures
1. Cross drainage structures 2. Canal fall or Drops
3. Cross regulators and head regulators 4. Outlets
5. Escapes for excess water 6. Village road bridges (VRB)
7. Via ducts (canal crossing)

Figure 3.4: Component of Canal Irrigation System

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3.3 Selection of Alignment of Canal
Desirable locations for irrigation canals on any gravity project, their cross-sectional designs and
construction costs are governed mainly by topographic and geologic conditions along different routes of
the cultivable lands. Main canals must convey water to the higher elevations of the cultivable area.
Branch canals and distributaries convey water to different parts of the irrigable areas.
On projects where land slopes are relatively flat and uniform, it is advantageous to align channels on the
watershed of the areas to be irrigated. The natural limits of commanded of such irrigation channels would be
the drainages on either side of the channel. Aligning a canal (main, branch as well as distributary) on the
watershed ensures gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal. Besides, the drainage flows away from the
watershed and, hence, no drainage can cross a canal aligned on the watershed. Thus, a canal aligned on the
watershed saves the cost of construction of cross-drainage structures. However, the main canal has to be
taken off from a river which is the lowest point in the cross-section, and this canal must mount the watershed
in as short a distance as possible. Ground slope in the head reaches of a canal is much higher than the
required canal bed slope and, hence, the canal needs only a short distance to mount the watershed.
In general following points should be kept in mind while marking the tentative alignment of a canal:
• The alignment should not pass through the valuable lands, religious places, villages etc. to
avoid unnecessary compensation and unwanted conflict.
• The alignment should be short as far as possible, but to make it short the alignment should not
be taken through the area where irrigation is not at all possible.
• The alignment should be straight as far as possible.
• If the curve is unavoidable in the alignment, then it should be provided according to IS 5968-1970
Some references are given in the following table:
Discharge (m3/sec) Radius (m)
80 – 100 1200 – 1500
30 – 80 800 – 1000
15 – 30 400 – 600
5 – 15 100 – 150
• The alignment should cross the natural stream, drainage etc approximately at right angles. At the
crossing point, the width of the drainage should be minimum and the banks should be well defined.
• The alignment should not involve heavy cutting or banking. It is preferable if balancing depth
of cutting and banking may be achieved.
• The alignment along the ridge line or watershed line is very good as the watershed canal can
irrigate the areas on both sides. Moreover, the cross drainage works may be avoided.
• The alignment should be such that the maximum area may be irrigated with minimum length of canal.
• The alignment should not pass through the marshy land or water logged area, because the canal
may collapse due to heavy moisture in the area.
• The alignment should not pass through sandy soil as the percolation loss will be more and the
duty of canal will be less.

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3.4 Alluvial and Non-alluvial canals
1. Alluvial canals
The soil which is formed by transportation and deposition of silt through the agency of water, over a
course of time is called the alluvial soil. The canals when excavated through such soils are called
alluvial canals. Canal irrigation (direct irrigation using a weir or a barrage) is generally preferred in
such areas, as compared to the storage irrigation (i.e by using a dam).
2. Non alluvial canals
The soil which is formed by disintegration of rock formation is known as non – alluvial soil. It has an
uneven topography, and hard foundations are generally available. The rivers, passing through such
areas, have no tendency to shift their courses, and they do not pose much problems for designing
irrigation structures on them. Canals, passing through such areas are called non – alluvial canals.

3.5 Canal Standards and Balancing Canal Depth

3.5.1 Canal Standards
Bank
FB

Berm

Filling

Bed Level
Figure 3.5: Elements of canal
A typical and most desired section of a canal is shown in Figure 3.5. This section is partly in cutting and
partly in filling, and aims at balancing the quantity of earth work in excavation with that in filling.
Sometimes, when the ground level is above the top of the bank, the entire canal section will have to be
built in cutting, and it is called canal in cutting.
And if the ground level is below the bed level of canal, the entire section will be in filling and it is called
canal in filling.
1. Side slopes
Side slopes in an unlined channel depend mainly on the nature of geological formations through
which the channel is excavated. Side slopes in an unlined channel should be flatter than the angle of
repose of saturated bank soil so that portions of side slopes will not slough into the channel. For
similar conditions, the prevalent practice is to keep side slopes flatter for channels in filling than the
side slopes for channels in cutting. However, there is no justification for this practice as a natural
earth fill should not behave differently from an earth fill compacted sufficiently and having the same
characteristics as those of the natural earth fill. Initially, flatter slopes are provided for reasons of
stability. Later, with the deposition of fine sediments, the side slopes become steeper and attain a
value of (1/2) H : 1V irrespective of the initial side slope provided. These steeper side slopes are
stable and the design is usually based on these slopes. Side slopes for unlined channels in different
types of soil, generally recommended are given in Table 3.1.

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Table 3:1 Side slope for unlined channel

Type of soil Side slopes (H:V)

Loose sand to average sandy soil 1.5:1 to 2:1 (in cutting)
2:1 to 3:1 (in filling)
Sandy loam and black cotton soil 1:1 to 1.5 :1 (in cutting)
2:1 (in filling)
Gravel 1:1 to 2:1
Hard soil 0.75 : 1 to 1.5 :1
Rock 0.25:1 to 0.5:1
2. Berm
A berm is a narrow horizontal strip of land between the inner toe of the bank and the top edge of cutting.
Berms between water section and inner bank slopes are required along the channels where bank materials
are susceptible to sloughing. Berms slope towards water section is to facilitate drainage.
Because of irregular changes in the ground level and regular changes in the channel bed level, the
depth of cutting d1 and the depth of filling, (d2 – d1) (Figure. 3.6) would vary. This will cause
variation in the horizontal distance between the bed and top of the bank (i.e., between X and Y). If
r1: 1 is the side slope in cutting and r2 : 1 is the inner side slope of embankment, then the berm width
is kept equal to (r2 – r1) d1. This will ensure that the horizontal distance between the bed and top of
the bank (i.e., between X and Y) will remain constant. As can be seen from Figure. 3.6, this distance
is equal to r1d1 + (r2 – r1) d1 + r2 (d2 – d1) which equals r2d2. Since the total height from the bed to top
of the bank, d2, remains practically constant, the horizontal distance between X and Y (i.e., r2d2) also
remains constant if the berm width is equal to (r2 – r1)d1.
r2:d2
Y
FSL
r2:1

d2 h
d1 r1:1

X
Figure 3.6: Berm
For usual side slopes of 1.5:1(H:V) (in filling) and 1:1(H:V) (in cutting), a berm of width equal to
half the depth of cutting will make the horizontal distance between the bed and top of the bank (i.e.,
XY) equal to 1.5 times the height of the top of the bank with respect to the channel bed. As a result
of silting on berm, an impervious lining is formed on the banks. This helps in reduction of seepage
losses. In addition, the berm protects the banks against breaches and the eroding action of waves.
These berms break the flow of rain water down the bank slope and, thus, prevent guttering. An
additional berm may also be provided in channel sections which are in deep cutting.

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3. Freeboard
Freeboard is the vertical distance from the water surface at full supply level to the top of bank.
Freeboard provides the margin of safety against overtopping of the banks due to sudden rise in the
water surface of a channel on account of improper operation of gates at the head regulator, accidents
in operation, wave action, landslides, and inflow during heavy rainfall. The excessive growth of
vegetation or accumulation of sediment deposits may also result in the gradual rise of water surface
levels above the design levels. Design of channels should specify adequate freeboards to prevent
overtopping of the banks during sudden rises in water surface. Adequate freeboard would depend on
dimensions of the flow section, flow condition, bank material, method of construction of banks, and
resulting damage due to failure of banks.
Freeboard in unlined channels vary from about 0.3 m in small channels to about 2 m in large
channels. For channels of intermediate size, freeboard is sometimes estimated by adding 0.3 m to
one quarter of the flow depth.
Table 3:2 Freeboard in irrigation canal (Singh, 1988)
Bed width (m) Discharge (m3/sec) Freeboard (m)
Less than 1.0 - 0.30
1 to 1.5 - 0.35
Greater than 1.5 Less than 3.0 0.45
- 3 to 30 0.60
- 30 to 60 0.75
- Greater than 60 0.90
USBR has proposed the following formula for the estimation of freeboard F (in meter) in canals.
F = CD
Where, C is a constant varying from 0.45 (for discharge up to 0.07 m3/sec) to 0.76 (for discharge
greater than 85 m3/sec) and D is the water depth in meter.
4. Canal Banks
Canal banks hold water within the water section of a channel. Suitable bank dimensions of an earth
channel depend on size of channels, height of water surface above natural ground, amount and
nature of excavated earth available for bank construction, and need of inspection roads along the
channel. Bank widths at all elevations must provide stability against water pressure at the sides of
the channel section. They should also keep percolating water below ground level outside the banks
and prevent piping of bank materials.
A canal bank should be of such width that there is a minimum cover of 0.5 m above the saturation
line. For large embankments of major canal projects, the position of the saturation line is determined
as in case of earth dams and the stability of slope is computed using principles of soil mechanics.
The saturation line for small embankments is drawn as a straight line from the point where full
supply level meets the bank. The slope of the saturation line, i.e., the hydraulic gradient, may vary
from 4H: 1V for relatively impermeable material (such as ordinary loam soil) to 10H: 1V for porous
sand and gravel. For clayey soils, the hydraulic gradient may be steeper than 4(H): 1(V). If the bank
section does not provide a minimum cover of 0.5 m above the saturation line, a counter berm, shown
in Figure. 3.7 (b), is provided. Alternatively, the outer slope of the bank is flattened.

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(a) Canal in cutting

Service road Dowla Counter berm

(b) Canal in filling

(c) Canal in partly cutting and partly filling

Figure 3.7: Typical cross section of canal

(i) Dowels/ Dowla

A Dowel or Dowla is provided on the side of a service road between the service road and
channel. The top of the dowel is kept above the FSL in the channel the Dowel are provided as a
measure of safety for automobile driven on the service road. They acts as a kerb on the side of
the road way towards the canal.

(ii) Spoil bank

When the quantity of earth obtained from excavation or cutting is deposited near the cutting in
the form of bank is known as spoil bank.

(iii) Borrow pits

When the earth work in filling exceeds excavated quantity at particular section borrow pit are
required to make good requirement of filling.

3.5.2 Balancing Canal Depth

In constructing a canal section, if the quantity of excavated earth can be fully utilized for making the
banks on both sides, then that canal section is known as economical section. The depth of cutting for that
ideal condition is known as balancing depth. In this case, no borrow pit on spoil bank needs to be
constructed. This condition may not occur in all the cases. It happens only when the canal section is partly
in cutting and partly on banking. The cost of earth work will also be balanced.

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t
n:1 FSL
h−y h−y n:1

z:1
Filling z:1 y
D h

B
Figure 3.8: Balancing depth
Let h be the height of bank above the channel bed
D be the full supply depth
B be the bed width of channel
Y be the balancing depth
t be the top width of canal
n:1 be the side slope of the channel in filling
z:1 be the side slope of the channel in cutting.
Thus, area of cutting = By + zy2
Area of filling = 2[ t (h – y) + n (h – y)2]
Equating area of cutting and filling we get
By + zy2 = 2[ t (h – y) + n (h – y)2]
y2 (2n – z) – (B + 4nh + 2t) y + h(2t + 2nh) = 0
Solving this equation and determine balancing depth.
The method of finding the balancing depth is described here.
Example 3.1
Find the balancing depth for canal section having the following data.
Base width of canal B = 8m
Side slope in cutting z = 1:1
Side slope in banking n = 1.5:1
Top width of bank t = 3m
Total height of canal = 3m
3m 3m
1.5:1 FSL
3−y 3−y 1.5:1
8 + 2d
15m 1:1 15m
1:1 y 3

8m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Solution:
From figure:
Equating the area of cutting and filling we get
(B + zy) y = 2 [t + n (h – y)] (h – y)
Substituting the values and we get
(8 + y) = 2 [3 + 1.5 (3 – y)] (3 – y)
Solving we get, y= 1.92m
Hence the balancing depth is 1.92m.

3.6 Canal Distribution System

The distribution system of an irrigation scheme is defined as the network of canals (or pipe) and
associated structure which conveys water from the sources (head works) to the cropped area in a
controlled way. Many schemes have a drainage system, complementary to the distribution system for
removal of surplus water, particularly excess rainfall and canal escape flows.

Ridge line

Main canal

River

B
M

River

B = Branches
D = Distributaries
M = Minors

Figure 3.9: Canal distribution system

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 Canal Irrigation System
System
3.7 Methods of Water Distribution System
The objectives of the distribution system operation are to deliver the right amount of water to the right
place, at the right time to meet crop needs. Ideally, water should be distributed equitably among farmers
according to their needs. Irrigation systems in Nepal are generally of small to medium size, taking water
from rivers origination in the non – snow fed mountains. This results in large variation in the supply,
often with adequate supplies during the monsoon and insufficient water to feed the whole commanded
area between November and May. This makes distribution difficult, and the design of the distribution
system needs to be able to cope reasonably with large variations in the water available for delivery. In
many cases, where all year cropping is required, there will be little alternative other than to supplement
low river flows by groundwater abstraction, and to use this conjunctively with the available surface water.
Schemes fed from the larger rivers which have more reliable, perennial flows have other problems,
principally siltation. Flood damage can be a problem on all types of schemes. While silt and flooding are
best managed at the head of the system, the problem of low water availability has to be accommodated
throughout.
There are many types of distribution system which differ according to the requirements and constraints
placed on them. Some of the water distribution systems are as follows:
(i) On demand
(ii) Continuous flow
(iii) Scheduled
The advantages and disadvantages of some common types of distribution systems are summarized in
Table below.
Types Advantages Disadvantages
On – demand Farmers can take the water they Storage, high peak canal
want, when they want it. capacities and sophisticated
structures usually mean high cost.
Water is often wasted.
Continuous flow Simple to operate, minimal Farmers get the same flow
number of control structures regardless of what crop they are
needed. Well suited to come growing or the crop needs at the
crops, especially rice which time. Flows are often small, so
grows in puddled conditions. that losses are unacceptably high.
Scheduled Farmers receive water according Difficult to manage – requires a
to a schedule which takes account lot of calculation, canal operations
of crop type and growth stage and and cooperation between farmers.
thus meets (theoretical) crop Farmers perceived water needs
needs. are often different form
calculated/ delivered needs,
creating conflict.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Some of the principal factors affecting distribution system are described in table below. (M.8 Distribution
systems, 1990)

Factor Impact on distribution system

Scheme size Affects number of levels in the canal hierarchy

(typically two for small scheme)

Sources of water Schemes fed form one (usually surface) source are a
single entity with a canal hierarchy. Schemes fed
from multiple sources (e.g. groundwater) normally
comprise a number of discreet sub – systems.

Topography Hill schemes often comprise a long canal feeding

small pockets of land along its length, tending to
give a “one – dimensional” effect. Terai schemes
tend to more “two – dimensional”. Features such as
natural channels, village boundaries, etc. will often
determine the forms of the distribution units.

Demand / supply driven The components of the system are determined by

weather water is to be supplied continuously
according to a schedule or “on demand”, in which
case storage may need to be provided to cope with
peaks and variations in demand, along with
appropriate structures.

Flow variation Large variations in flow availability will influence

the rotational system chosen.

Management If the management’s capability to operate the

system is low, it may be preferable to provide semi
– automated system (e.g. proportional distribution)
so that gate operations objectives are partly
compromised.

Charging Charging farmers for water by volume may require

the installation and operation of measurement
devices.

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 Canal Irrigation System
System
Exercise 3:

1. What are the different types of canals?

2. How irrigation canals are classified? Explain in details.

3. Describe briefly the various considerations made in the alignment of an irrigation canal.
4. Explain with sketches the components of canal irrigation system.
5. How the canal is aligned in an irrigation system?
6. Define balancing depth of a canal with neat sketch.
7. An irrigation channel has a bottom width of 20m and side slopes of 1.5H: 1V in cutting and 2H: 1V
in filling. The width of the crest of bank is 3m and its height above the ground level is 4.5m.
Compute the balancing depth.
8. The following data refer to an irrigation canal.
Bed width = 1.0m; side slopes = 2:1 (in filling) & 1:1 (in cutting)
Top width of embankment on either side of canal = 3m
Full supply depth = 5m; Free board = 1m

Determine the balancing depth. Draw a neat x-section of the canal illustrating the various
dimensions and levels.
9. Draw the typical cross sections of canal in (i) Filling (ii) Cutting (iii) partial cutting & filling.
10. Explain the canal distribution system and water distribution system.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

CHAPTER

4 Design of Canal
4.1 Design Capacity of Canals
The design discharge of the main canal off taking from a diversion headwork is fixed so as to achieve the
optimum utilization of available water in the river during different parts of the year. The transit losses in
the canal are estimated to determine the discharge that will be available at the canal outlets. (Arora, 2011)
Knowing the available discharge, the cropping pattern and duty of water, the culturable Commanded area
can be worked out as follows:
1. Determine the water requirement of different crops for each month from the cropping pattern
and the consumptive use.
2. Determine the outlet discharge required for each month for a culturable Commanded area.
3. Estimate the discharge available in the river for each month.
Allowing for suitable transit losses, determine the discharge available at the outlets.
4. Determine the CCA which can be irrigated in each month from the available discharge found
in step 3 and the required outlet discharge found in step 2.
5. The minimum of CCA found in step 4 is the designed CCA of the canal.
6. Determine the head discharge from the designed CCA and the maximum outlet discharge in
step 2.
The above procedure is explained below with an example:
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Outlet
discharge
required for 15.1 9.2 13.5 8.6 11.1 17.5 20.6 27.0 19.2 18.4 16.2 14.9
1 lakh ha
(m3/sec)
Available
discharge 65 59 56.5 54.2 65.2 108.2 201 310.2 210 130 110 85
(m3/sec)
C.C.A in
4.3 6.4 4.19 6.3 5.87 6.18 9.76 11.49 10.94 7.07 6.79 5.70
Lakh ha

Maximum outlet discharge required (In Aug.) = 27.00 cumecs for 1 lakh ha.
Designed C.C.A. (In March) = 4.19 Lakh ha.
Assume transit losses = 30%
27.0 × 4.19
Head discharge of main canal= = 161.61 cumecs.
0.7

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 Design of Canal

4.2 Sediment Transport in Canals

The transport of sediment in irrigation canals influences to a great extent the sustainability of an irrigation
and drainage network. Unintentional or unwanted erosion and/or deposition of sediment in canals will not
only increase the maintenance costs, but also lead to an unfair and inadequate distribution of irrigation
water to the end users. Proper knowledge of the behavior and transport of sediment in these canals will
help to plan efficient and reliable water delivery schedules to supply water at the required levels, to have a
controlled deposition of sediments, to estimate and arrange the required maintenance activities, and to
determine the type of desilting facilities and their efficiency, etc.
The study of sediment transport is mainly focused on the sediment and erosion processes in irrigation
canal networks. In view of maintenance activities the head works should be designed in such a way that
they prevent or limit the entrance of sediment into canals. In addition, the design of the canal network
should be based upon the transport of all the sediment to the fields or to specific places in the canal
system, where the deposited sediment can be removed at minimum cost. Sedimentation should be
prevented in canals and near structures, as it will hamper and endanger a correct irrigation management,
the main objectives of which are to deliver irrigation water in an adequate, reliable, fair and efficient way
to all the farmers at the required water level, at the right time and at the proper rate. Inadequate
management will result in low efficiency and unnecessary loss of the already scarce resource.
Irrigation canals are usually designed upon the assumption that the water flow is uniform and steady and
that the canals are able to carry the water and sediments to the fields. The design supposes that an
equilibrium situation exists where the sediments and water entering into the irrigation network will be
transported to the fields without deposition or erosion. However, a perfectly uniform and steady flow is
seldom found. In the operation of irrigation systems the flow is predominantly non-uniform, with varying
discharges and very often with a constant water level at the regulation points where the water is supplied
to the off – takes. The sediment transport capacity of the canals greatly depends on the flow conditions,
which are variable. Although the water flow can be modelled with a high degree of accuracy, sediment
transport behavior is only understood to a limited extent. The predictability of sediment transport
equations and models in view of the quantity of sediment that needs to be removed is still rather poor.
Computations of the effects of the non-equilibrium flow conditions on sediment transport are required to
determine whether deposition and/or entrainment will occur and to assess the amount and distribution of
the sediment deposition and/or entrainment along the canals. Mathematical modelling of sediment
transport offers the possibility of estimating the distribution of sediment deposition or entrainment rates
for a particular flow and a specific situation.
The main criterion for a canal design is the need to convey different amounts of water at a fixed level
during the irrigation season in such a way that the irrigation requirements are met. Furthermore, the
design must be compatible with the sediment load of a particular location in order to avoid silting and/or
scouring of the canal. The water supply should meet the irrigation requirements and at the same time the
supply should result in the least possible deposition in and/or scouring of the canals. The design process
becomes more complicated when canals are unlined and pass through alluvial soils.
Sediments are fragmented material formed by the physical and chemical disintegration of rocks and they
can be divided into cohesive and non-cohesive sediments. Non-cohesive sediments do not have physical-
chemical interaction and their size and weight are important in view of their behavior. The total sediment
transport in rivers and canals can be divided in suspended load and bed load as figure below.

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4.3 Tractive Force Approach of Canal Design

When water flows in a channel, a force is developed that acts in the direction of flow on the channel
perimeter. This force exerted by the flowing liquid on the channel perimeter is called tractive force or
force drag or shear force. In uniform flow the tractive force is equal to the component of gravity force
acting on the body of water parallel to the channel bottom (Durga P. Sangraula, 2017). Let us consider a
uniform flow through an open channel with longitudinal slope so as shown in Figure 4.1.
Let’s consider two sections 1 and 2. Let τo be the shear stress acting on the channel boundary and let W
be the weight of the water inside the control volume.

P1

P2
τo
W
1
2
L
Figure 4.1: Forces Acting on a Flowing Fluid
Since the flow is uniform there is no acceleration, sum of forces acting in the flow direction must be zero
(flow direction be x).

∑F x =0
P1 - P2 + W sinθ - τ0 × wetted area = 0
P1 = P2 (Equal and opposite hydrostatic pressure force).
W sinθ = τ0 ×P × L
W sinθ
τ0 =
P×L

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 Design of Canal

γ A × L × S0
τ0 = For small angle sinθ = tanθ = slope of the bed.
P×L
τ0 = γ R S0 . . . 4.1
Equation 4.1 represents the equation for the unit tractive force or some time it is called normal shear
stress. In a wide open channel, the hydraulic radius is equal to the depth of flow y: hence
τ0 = γ y S0
Unit tractive force in canal except for wide rectangle is no uniformly distributed along the wetted
perimeter. A typical distribution along with its pattern on unit tractive force acting on the bed and side
slops of the trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 4.2. As an approximation for a trapezoidal channel τ0 at
the bottom be assumed to equal to γ y S0 , and along the side slope to be equal to 0.75 γ y S0 . Figure 4.3
shows maximum unit tractive force on sides and bottom of various canal sections.

y
4y

Figure 4.2: Tractive force distribution in a Trapezoidal canal Section

Figure 4.3: Maximum Unit Tractive Force on Sides and Bed Incipient Motion Condition

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Equation 4.1 is developed on the assumption that no any particle on the bed and banks are moving.
However, for the given configuration of channel section if we increase the shear stress the time comes
when the particles will just start to move. The shear stress at which the channel materials (particles) just
move from the stationary condition is called critical shear stress τc and fine motion is called incipient
motion or motion is impending. In such condition of motion the particle diameter (generally d60) on the
bed is called critical particle diameter.
The particle size is usually denoted by d. For the identification of a particular grain size distribution its
“percentage finer” value is used as sub index. The size is thus diving between equal weights of finer and
coarser particles in a sample. It is some time erroneously termed as “mean diameter”.

1. The Tractive Force Ratio

Scour on the perimeter of channel occurs when the particles on the perimeter are subjected to forces
of sufficient magnitude to cause particle movement. Consider a trapezoidal channel section as
shown in Figure 4.4. Let Ws be the submerged weight of the particle and θ be the angle of side slope
of channel.

T = B + 2zy
Free surface

y
1
Ws cos θ θ
Ws Z
B
Figure 4.4: Trapezoidal channel section with forces

As shown in Figure 4.4, particles on the side slope of channel are less stable than those on the bed
with similar condition of flow. This is because the component of weight of submerged particles (Ws
sinθ) along the side slope tends to roll the material down the slope, thereby causing instability. If the
resultant of two forces (force of flowing fluid and Ws sinθ) are more than the resisting force the
erosion of canal slope may occur.
In the bottom of channel only the force of flowing fluid may scour the element. So bottom surface is
more safety for scour than side slope. If the resistance force is less than that force scour may occur.
So for designing mobile boundary channel the stability of side slope is the major concern.
Let’s calculate these forces for channel at side slope and bed. Consider a particle of projected area “a
“resting on the sloping side of a trapezoidal channel as shown in Figure 4.5. Let τs be the shear
stress on the side, which will just cause the particle to move and let τs be the shear stress on the bed
which will just cause the particle to move. Let Ws be the submerged weight of particle, θ be angle
of side slope and ϕ be the angle of internal friction (angle of repose, property of soil forming the
channel boundary)

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 Design of Canal

Flow
τs. a

Wssinθ R

τb.a
θ
Ws

Figure 4.5: Analysis of forces acting on particle resting on sloping side

Resultant critical tractive force R on the side slope can be expresses as:
R= Ws2 sin2θ + τs2 a2 . . . 4.2
If the resultant is large enough particles will move. By the laws of frictional motion, for the incipient
motion, the resistance to motion of the particles is equal to the force tending to cause the motion.
The resistance to motion of the particles is equal to the normal force multiplied by the coefficient of
friction (coefficient of friction is tanϕ where ϕ - angle of repose or angle of internal friction and
normal force is equal to Ws cosθ)
Ws cosθ tanφ = Ws2 sin2θ + a2 τs2
Ws2 cos2θ tan2 φ = Ws2 sin2θ + a2 τs2

Ws tan2θ
τs = cosθ tanφ 1- . . . 4.3
a tan2φ
Similarly, when motion of particle on the bed level is impending owing to the tractive force τb x a,
the following equation may be written (θ =00).
τb × a = Ws tan φ
Ws
τb = tanφ . . . 4.4
a
τs
Ratio of is called tractive force ratio K and it is very important factor for design mobile boundary
τb
channel.
τs tan2 θ
K= = cosθ 1- . . . 4.5
τb tan2Ф
sin2 θ
K= 1- . . . 4.6
sin2Ф
Equations 4-5 and 4-6 are mathematical identical. For given value of θ and ϕ we can calculate the
tractive force ratio K, and this is important factor for designing mobile boundary channel. Figure 4.6
gives the angle of repose with particle size.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Figure 4.6: Angle of Repose for Non – Cohesive Material

The tractive force ration K is also known as the reduction factor for the critical stress on the channel
side slopes. The value of K is always less than one but for horizontal slope K = 1 so that τs = τb . In
the design of stable channel, the values of k(θ) normally controls the design values because the grain
on the side slope tends to be more unstable than the grain of the bed. As mentioned above that
critical stress is a function of material size and the sediment concentration. Furthermore, the critical
shear stress at the channel sides is less than that at a level surface (bed), because the component of
the weight along the side slope tends to roll the material down the slope, thereby causing instability.
Figure 4.7 shows the variation of K with the angle of internal friction Ф and side slope of the
channel α (in the text it is denoted by θ).

Figure 4.7: Reduction factor for critical shear stress for side slope

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 Design of Canal

The maximum tractive stresses or permissible tractive stresses on the bed and sides τmax.b and τmax.s
can be obtained for known values of B, y and z (bottom width, depth and side slope) from Figure
4.3. The design requires the determination of a section in which
τmax.s < τs ; τmax.b < τb; . . . 4.7
The design capacity of such channel can be obtained by using Manning’s coefficient in which the
rugosity coefficient is defined by Strickler’s equation as
d901/6
n= . . . 4.8
24
The design is usually carried out by using a trial and error process. The first step in the design of
mobile boundary channels by this method is to select an approximate channel section i.e. B/y ration
and z by experiences or from the design table given in the literature, collecting material forming the
channel boundary and determining the coefficients (angle of repose). With these data, the designer
investigates the section by applying tractive force analysis to ascertain probable stability by reaches
and to determine the minimum section that appears stable.
One thing it must be noted that for trapezoidal channel as already mention above, the maximum
tractive force on the sloping sides is always less than that on the bottom: hence, this force is the
controlling value in the analysis. The section dimension of channel is carried out for the maximum
tractive force on the sides; however, it is necessary to checking the proportioned dimensions for the
maximum unit tractive force on the bottom.
The tractive force method of designing mobile boundary channel is more rational, than the regime
theory, because it utilizes the laws governing sediment transport and resistance to flow. The regime
theory is purely empirical
2. Shield’s Tractive Force Theory
For particle purpose it is convenient to use Shield diagram for designing mobile boundary channel.
Shields combined expressions for the destabilizing forces, drag and lift, against weight or friction as
the stabilizing force into a general formula for the equilibrium of particles;
τ0 γ R S0
Cs = = . . . 4.9
(γs – γw)d
( ρs −ρw ) g d
Here Cs is the dimension Shields number, ρs and ρw are density of dry particle and density of water
and d is the diameter of the particle and generally consider as d50. According to Shields, magnitude
of the tractive force on the grain size depends on the fact whether the grain size outside or inside of
the laminar sub-layer. If the thickness of the laminar sub-layer δ is more than the d50 i.e., grain is
completely submerged in laminar sub-layer then tractive force on the grain depends on viscous or
laminar flow (case when δ/d50 < 1). If δ/d50 > 1, grain size remains outside the laminar sub-layer,
then tractive force depends on turbulent flow outside laminar sub – layer.
τ0
Thus, the tractive force is directly related to d50/δ, i.e., = . . . 4.10
(γs – γw) d
The equation of laminar sub-layer in boundary layer theory as given by Nikuradse’s experimental
data is (refer boundary layer for explanation):
µ
δ = 11.6 . . . 4.11
v*

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Where δ is the thickness of laminar sub-layer, µ is the kinematic viscosity of water and V* is the
shear velocity equal to

τ0
V* =
ρ . . . 4.12
µ
From equation 4.11 we can see that laminar sub-layer is directly proportional to . Or we rewrite
V*
this as:
1
δ ∞V*µ » dδ ∞ V*µ d . . . 4.13

Comparing equation 4.9 and 4.12 results:

τ0 V *d
∞
(γ s − γ w ) d ν
V* × d
Here Re* = µ is called particle Reynolds number or roughness Reynolds number
τ0
So it indicates that = f (Re*) . . . 4.14
(γs - γw)d
Plotting equation 4.13 on a log-log paper the well-known Shields curve (Figure 4.8) in sediment
transport theory is obtained. This curve was found by experiments, using particles of different
densities. It is therefore valid also for other materials than ordinary rock and other fluids than water.

Figure 4.8: Shield Diagram for Incipient Motion Condition

When the value of particle Reynolds number Re* is less than 11.6, entrainment function depends on
viscous force. When the value of particle Reynolds number Re* is more than 11.6, the curve slowly

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 Design of Canal

rises and becomes horizontal at about Re* ≈ 400. When Re*>400 than the value of
τ0
Cs = ≈0.06
(γs - γw) × d

Becomes independent of Re* i.e., flow is fully turbulent. Value of Cs below the curve indicates
stability against motion. Values on the curve indicate start of motion and are labeled critical Shields
number Cs.
The corresponding shear stress is labeled as critical shear stress τc. The diagram is made for uniform
sediments, but may be used for mixed sediments with good accuracy using d60 (60% finer) for d. For
practical use Cs =0.06 can be used for grain diameters larger than 1 mm. For gravel Bed Rivers or
rivers with coarse bed material the bed will not form. For gravel bed rivers or if the river bed is flat
the flow resistance can be estimated based on Strickler’s formula for the Manning’s number n as
(Lysne, Glocer, & Teskar, 2003):
d901/6
n= and d90 = (1.75 to 2.0) d60 . . . 4.15
24

Mittal and Swamee has worked out a general relation between τc and d which gives results within
+5% of the values given by Shild’s curve, for all values of d. The relation for water and soil of Ss =
2.65, is given by equation
0.409 d2mm
τc(N/m2) = 0.155 + . . . 4.16
1+0.177d2mm
Example 4.1:
Water flows at depth of 0.6m in a wide stream having a bed slope of 1 in 2500. The median
diameter of the sand bed is 1.0mm. Determine whether the soil grains are stationary or moving,
and comment as to whether the stream bed is scouring or non – scouring.
Solution:
Since the given size of bed particles is 1.0 mm, which is less than 6mm, we cannot use shield’s
equation, since Re* in this case will be less than 400. We will, therefore, use the general
equation by mittal and swamee as follows:
0.409 d2mm
τc(N/m2) = 0.155 +
1+0.177d2mm

0.409 × 12
= 0.155 + = 0.53 N/m2.
1+0.177 ×12

Also, we have
τ0 = γ R S0
=9810 × 0.6 × 1/2500 = 2.35 N/m2 which is greater than τc ,
Since τ0 > τc, the soil grain will move and scouring and sediment transport will occur.

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2. Relationship of grain diameter, hydraulic radius

For incipient motion condition i.e., the shear stress has reached its critical values τc, let’s say
particle diameter also as critical diameter dcr. In this situation the expression for Cs would be:

τ0
Cs = ≥ 0.06 ⇒ τ 0 ≥ 0.06(γ s − γ w )d cr
(γ s − γ w ) × d

But τ =γ
0 w RS0, where R being the hydraulic radius and S0 is the bed slope.

γ w RS 0 R S0
d cr ≈ =
(γ s − γ w ) × 0.06 γ 
0.06 s − 1
γw 
γs
We know that γ is the specific gravity of the sediment ≈ 2.65
w

RS0 R S0 RS0
dcr ≈ = =
(2.65 −1) × 0.06 0.06×1.65 0.099

d cr ≈ 10 R S 0
For safety propose dcr = 11 RSo
Example 4.2
A canal is to be designed to carry a design discharge as 50 m3/sec. The slope of the canal is
1:1000 and passes through medium with mean particles as 50mm. Assuming a trapezoidal
section, determine the stable depth of canal assuming angle of repose of canal bed and side
particles as 360.
Solution:
Given Q = 50 m3/sec
S0= 1:1000
d= 50mm
Ф=360
Assume that side slope of the channel θ = 300 ( θ should be less than Ф)

sin2 θ
Calculate tractive force ratio K = 1–
sin2Ф
τs
= 0.525
τb
Minimum shear stress required to remove the grain on the side slope is
τs = 0.525τb

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 Design of Canal

This means that for stability;

τs ≤ 0.525τc … (i)
Actual shear stress on side slope
τs ≤ 0.75γ R S0 …. (ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii)
0.75γ R S0 ≤ 0.525τc
We know; dcr = 11RS0
RS0 = dcr/11
For critical; τc = γwRS0 = γw dcr/11

0.75γ R S0 ≤ 0.525 γw dcr/11

R ≤ 3.181m
Assume y = 80% of R= 2.54m
Adopt y = 2.5m
Now; A = By + zy2 = 2.5(B+4.33)

P = B + 2y 1+z2 = B+10
d901/6
Manning’s coefficient n =
24

But we have, d90 = (1.75 to 2.0) d60

Assume d90 = 1.75d60 = 87.5mm
0.08751/6
Now n = = 0.0277
24

From Manning’s equation

1
Q= A R2/3S01/2 …. (iii)
n

A 2.5 (B + 4.33)
R= =
P B + 10

Put the values in equation (iii) and solving we get

B = 6.083m
Adopt B = 6.1m
y =2.5m
Freeboard = 0.15 m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Example 4.3
Using tractive force approach, design a channel in alluvial soil for the following data:
(i) Discharge Q = 45 cumecs,
(ii) Bed slope = 1/4800
(iii) Manning's n = 0.0225,
(iv) Permissible tractive stress = 0.0035 kN/m2
Side slope = 0.5:1
Solution:
τc 0.0035
R= = = 1.713 m
γw × S 9.81 × 1/4800
1 2/3 1/2 1
V= R S = × 1.7132/3 × (1/4800)1/2 = 0.918 m/sec
n 00225
A = Q/V = 45 / 0.918 = 49 m2
P = A/R = 49/ 1.713 = 28.61 m
P = 28.61 = B + 2.236 D
A = 49 = BD + 0.5 D2
Solving these, we get D =1.94 m and B = 24.27 m

4.4 Design of Stable Canal

Stable channels refer to those channels, whose boundary (bed and side slope) are composed of hard
material like rock cuts or artificial lining. Such channels can resist erosion satisfactorily. The design
simply computes the dimensions of the channel by a uniform flow formula and then decides the final
dimensions on the basis of hydraulic efficiency or empirical rule of best section, practicability and
economy. Technique of minimizing the lined material, the minimum permissible velocity to avoid
deposition of silt and debris on the channel bottom and side slope are the major criteria for designing of
non – erodible channel. In designing stable canal, such factors as the maximum permissible velocity and
the permissible tractive force are not the criteria to be considered.
The minimum permissible or non – silting velocity is the lowest velocity of the flow that doesn’t allow
sedimentation and growth of aquatic plants. Such velocity will prevent both sedimentation and vegetation
growth. This velocity is very uncertain and its exact value cannot be easily determined.
The maximum permissible non - erosive water velocity in earthen canal should be such that on the one
hand the canal bed does not erode and that on the other hand the water flows at a self-cleaning velocity
(no deposition). A heavy clay soil will allow higher velocities without eroding than will a light sandy soil.
A guide to permissible velocities for different soil is presented in Table 4.1 in winding canals, the
maximum non - erosive velocities are lower than in straight canals.

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Table 4.1 Maximum permissible velocity ranges (sources: FAO module 7)

Soil type Maximum flow velocity (m/sec)

Sand 0.3 – 0.7

Sandy loam 0.5 – 0.7
Clayey loam 0.6 – 0.9
Clay 0.9 – 1.5
Gravel 0.9 – 1.5
Rock 1.2 – 1.8
Concrete 6.0
Steel lining 10.0

Lined canal can made a range of velocities, as erosion in not an issue. However, for easy management of
water, the permissible velocities should be critical or sub - critical.
Bed width to water depth (B/D) ratio for trapezoidal canals
The recommended bed width and water depth (B/D) ratio for earthen trapezoidal canals are given in table
below:
Table 4.2: Recommended B/D ratio

Water depth B/D ratio

Small (D < 0.75 m) 1 (clay) - 2 (sand)

Medium (D = 0.75 - 1.5 m) 2 (cay) - 3 (sand)
Large (D > 1.5 m) >3

The bed width should be wide enough to allow easy cleaning. A bed width of 0.2 - 0.25 m is considered
to be the minimum, as this still allows the cleaning of the canal with small tools such as a shovel. Lined
trapezoidal canals could have similar B/D ratios as given table.
The design procedure is as follows:
1. Assume suitable permissible velocity (non silting and non scouring). If the amount of silt
transport is low, it is recommended to assume higher side of maximum permissible velocity.
This will also increase the discharge.
2. Longitudinal or bed slope can be fixed out considering the topography of land through which
the channel has to pass.
3. Select Manning’s co – efficient based on the material lining on the bed and side slope. It can be
found in the literature.
4. Side slope of the channel z:1 (H:V) is to be assumed. It is recommended to select z =1.

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5. If B is the bottom width and y is the full supply depth, then cross - section area can be
calculated as (for trapezoidal channel section)
A = ( By + z y2) . . . (i)
6. Once discharge Q and velocity V are known, it means A is also known.
7. Using Manning’s formula write the equation in terms of V and B as
1 A 2/3 1/2
V= S . . . (ii)
n P
Here V, A, z, n and S are known. Unknown values are B and y, which can be found by solving
(i) and (ii).
8. Finally a free board is necessary to provide. Generally it is consider as 5% for low flow and
30% for high flow.
Free board of the channel is the vertical distance between full supply level to the top of the
bank. It prevents over toppling of bank when wave is produced due to the wind.
Example 4.4
4.4:
Design a rigid boundary irrigation channel laid on a slope of 0.0016 with discharge 9.1 m3/sec.
assume Manning’s n = 0.015 with permissible velocity 1.3 m/sec.
Solution:
Given, Q= 9.1 m3/sec, n = 0.015, S= 0.0016, V= 1.3 m/sec. and assuming side slope z = 0.5.
Q= AV
A= Q/V = 9.1/1.3 = 7.0 m2
Also A = (By + z y2) = 7 m2 . . . (i)
2
1  A  3 S1/2
V=
n B + 2y 1+0.52

2
1  7  3
1.3 = 0.00161/2
0.015 B + 2y 1+0.52

7
0.34 = . . . (ii)
(B + 2.236y)
Solving (i) and (ii)
y= 0.35m
b= 19.8m
Assume free board = 25% of y = 0.125m
Bottom width B = 19.8m

Total depth y = 0.5m

And side slope z : 1= 0.5 : 1

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 Design of Canal

4.5 Design of Alluvial Canals (Kennedy’s & Lacey’s Theory)

As already mentioned above that an alluvial channel is defined as channel in which the flow transports
sediment having the same characteristics as that of material in the channel boundary. Such a channel is
said to stable if the sediment inflow into a channel reach is equal to the sediment outflow. This indicates
that the cross sectional area as well as the longitudinal slope do not change due to the erosion or
deposition. The basic of designing such ideal canal is that whatever silt has entered to settle at its canal
head is kept in suspension and is not allowed to settle anywhere along its course.
Empirical approaches of designing alluvial channel were made by Kennedy (1895), Lindely (1919) and
Lacey (1930 – 1946), Ranga Raju – Misri’s simplified design of Kenney’s theory (1979). Some of the
methods of designing erodible channel with regime theory are explained herewith.
4.5.1 Kennedy’s Theory
Robert Kenney was an engineer in Punjab irrigation department. He made extensive study in 22 irrigation
canals and their distributaries in Upper Bari Doab area in Punjab, India and found that the non – scouring,
non – silting velocity Vc is related to the depth of flow y as
Vc = 0.55 y0.64
Here y is the flow depth in m and the Vc is the critical velocity (non – silting and non – scouring) in m/ sec.
Kennedy claimed that sediment size plays an important role and so he defined a critical velocity ratio (CVR).
V
CVR =
Vc
V = CVR x Vc
V = CVR x 0.55 y0.64
Where V is the mean velocity of flow can be calculated by Manning’s equation of Kutter’s equation.
Kennedy found that CVR > 1 (1.1 to 1.2) to sediment coarser than Upper Bari Doab and CVR < 1 (0.8 to
0.9) for sediment finer than his canals.
To design the channel by Kennedy’s methods, the item which must be known are:
i. Discharge
ii. Rugosity coefficient n (either Manning’s or Kutter)
iii. Critical velocity ratio
iv. Either bed slope or B/D ratio.
Limitations of Kennedy's theory
1. Limitations of Kutter's equation is also incorporated in Kennedy's method
2. No separate equation for slope has been suggested. The slope is decided according to the slope of
the ground available. So a range of slope can be given and for every slope, a separate channel can be
designed. It can be shown that for a given discharge, n and m as slope varies, b and y vary and so
b/y also varies. It is found that larger is the slope, smaller the b/y ratio. Kennedy's theory does not
indicate as to which channel is the best for a given discharge.
3. He consider only average regime
4. No consideration was made of silt grade, silt charge, silt concentration and bed load.
5. Kennedy's theory is strictly applicable to the region for which it was developed even after the
introduction of critical velocity ratio. So several regional formula were developed.

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Case I:
Given Q, n, CVR and S
The procedure of designing alluvial channel by this method is as follows:
Assume a trial value of flow depth y
1. Determine the critical velocity V0 by using equation V0 = CVR x 0.55 y0.64
2. Determine area by dividing discharge by velocity A = Q/V0
3. Determine the channel cross section i.e. wetted perimeter.
4. Finally compute the actual mean velocity V that will prevail in the channel of this cross
section, by using Kutter’s formula, Manning’s formula etc.
a. Kutter’s equation
V = C R S0
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
C=
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
Now, V = RS
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
b. Mannings’ equation
1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
n
5. Repeat the calculation till the two values of velocities determine in step 2 and 5 are nearly the
same.
Case II
Given Q, n, CVR and B/D
i. Calculate A interms of D as indicated below.
Let, B/D = x (which is given)
B = Dx
Since A = BD + z D2
A = xD2 + zD2 = D2(x + z)
ii. Substitute the value of A from step 1 and the value of V from equation V0 = 0.55 x CVR x D0.64
in Q = A × V.
Q = D2(x + z) (0.55 CVR D0.64)
Solve for D;
In this equation Q, CVR , x and z are known. Hence D is determine.

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 Design of Canal

iii. Knowing D, calculate B and R from following relation.

B=xD
BD +zD2
R=
B + 2D 1 + z2
iv. Calculate velocity V from V0 = 0.55 CVR x D0.64
v. Knowing V, R & n determine bed slope S from Kutters equation or Manning’ equation.
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
V= RS
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
1 2/3 1/2
or, V= R S
n
Example 4.5
4.5:
Design an irrigation canal to carry 30 cumecs of discharge. The channel is to be laid at a slope of 1
in 5500. The critical velocity ratio for the soil is 1. Use Manning’s rugosity coefficient as n= 0.0225,
channel side slope is 1:2 (H:V).
Solution:
Given, Q = 30 cumecs
CVR = 1
n = 0.0225
s = 1:5500
H: V= 1:2 i.e. z: 1 = 0.5:1
Step 1: V0 = 0.55 CVR y0.64
Step 2: A = Q/V0 = 30/V0
Step 3: A = By + zy2
P = B + 2y 1 + z2
R= A/P
1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
n
Step 4: Compare V0 to V
Y V0 A B P R V
2 0.857 35.005 16.502 20.974 1.669 0.843
1.5 0.713 42.075 27.3 30.65 1.372 0.74
1.8 0.801 37.453 19.907 23.931 1.565 0.807≈V0
Hence adopt, Bed width of canal = 19.91m
Depth of canal = 1.8m
Free board = 0.2m

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Example 4.6
4.6:
Design an irrigation canal to carry a discharge of 5 cumecs. Assume Kutter rugosity n = 0.0225,
CVR = 1 and B/D= 3.24.
i. B/D = 3.24
A = BD + z D2 assume z = 0.5
A= D2(3.24 +0.5) = 3.74D2
ii. V0 = 0.55 CVR × D0.64
Q = A.V
5 cumecs = 3.74 D2 (0.55 × 1 × D0.64)
D = 1.40m
iii. B = 3.24x 1.40 = 4.54m
BD +zD2
R= = 0.956m
B + 2D 1 + z2
iv. V0 = 0.55 CVR x D0.64 = 0.682 m/sec.
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
v. V= RS
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
Where n = 0.0225; R =0.956 and, using calculator
s= 1/4000
Example 4.7
4.7
Design an irrigation channel to carry a discharge of 5 cumecs. Assume n = 0.0225 and critical
velocity ratio m = 1. The channel has a bed slope of 0.2m per kilometer.
Solution:
Step 1: Assume a trial depth of D = 1.0m
Step 2: V0 = 0.55 x m x D0.64 = 0.55 m/sec
Step 3: Area A = Q/v = 5/0.55 = 9.09 m2
Step 4: A = BD + D2/2
or, 9.09 = B × 1.0 + 12/2
B = 8.59m
Step 5: Perimeter P = B + D 5 = 8.59 + 1.0 5
R = A/P = 9.09/10.83 = 0.84m
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
Step 6: V= RS [Where R = 0.84; S= 0.2/1000; n = 0.0225]
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
Now v = 0.555m/sec
Step 7: Ratio of velocities found in steps (6) and (2) = 0.555/0.55 = 1.009 ≈1
Hence the assumed D is satisfactory.

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Example 4.8
4.8
Determine the dimensions of the irrigation canal for the following data:
B/D ratio =3.7; n = 0.0225; m = 1.0; s= 1:4000. Side slope of the channel is ½ horizontal to 1
vertical. Also determine the discharge which will be flowing in the channel.
Solution:
Here,
B/D = 3.7
B = 3.7D
For a channel with side slopes ½ :1
2
 BD + D 
2  3.7D2 + 0.5D2
R= = = 0.708D
 B + D 5  3.7D + D 5 
From Kennedy’s equation V0 = 0.55 × m × D0.64 =0.55D0.64
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
n S
From Kutter’s formula V= RS
0.00155 n
1 + (23 + )
S R
1
+ 23 + 0.00155 × 4000
0.0225 0.708D
V=
0.0225 4000
1 + (23 + 0.00155 × 4000)
0.708D
0.975D1/2
V=
1 + 0.781D-1/2
Equating the two values of V, we get
0.975D1/2
0.55D0.64 =
1 + 0.781D-1/2
On solving we get, D = 1.0m
B = 1 × 3.7 = 3.7m
V=0.55m/sec
A = 4.2 m2
Q = A × V = 2.31 cumecs.
4.5.2 Lacey’s Regime Theory
Better and modified method of designing alluvial channel by empirical method was developed by Lacey.
His regime theory considered the dimensions of bed width, depth and shape attain a state of equilibrium
called regime state. In other word, a regime channel may be defined as a stable channel whose width,
depth and bed slope have undergoes modification by silting and scouring and are so adjusted that they
have attained equilibrium. Lacey also differentiated between initial and final regime condition of channel.

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The initial condition is attained shortly after it is put into operation after construction and the canal begins
to adjust its bed slope either by silting or scouring although bed widths in snot altered. The canal then
appears to have attained stability, but it is not actually the final state of stability and hence: it still
represent the initial regime condition.
Eventually continuous action of flowing water overcomes the resistance of the banks and setup a
condition such that the canal that the canal adjust its complete section, the final or true regime condition is
attained. After analyzing the large number of data of stable irrigation canal in Indo – Gangetic plains, he
obtained a relation which in its converted from F.P.S to SI or metric units is as follows

2
V= fR . . . 4.17
5
Where, V = mean velocity of flow in m/sec.
f = silt factor
R= hydraulic mean radius in m.
This was the first regime equation given by Lacey.
For determining the channel dimension second equation would be necessary giving either cross sectional
area A or perimeter P. lacey on the basis of plotted data thus evolved a relationship between A and V
which is as follows.
Af2 = 140 V5 . . . 4.18
2
[Where A= cross sectional area in m ]
Other Derived Equations
1. Silt factor – Grain size relation
According to Lacey the silt factor f is dependent on the mean particle size of the boundary material
in the channel. The value of f may be determined by the following relation given by Lacey.

f = 1.76 mr = 1.76 dmm

d = mean particle size in mm = d50 in mm.
2. V – Q – f relation
A relation between V – Q – f may be obtained from equation 4.18
We have Af2 = 140 V5
Multiplying this equation by V on both side
A V f2 = 140 V6
From continuity equation
Q = AV
Qf2 = 140 V6

2
1
i.e. V = 
Qf 6
 140 

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 Design of Canal

3. P – Q relation (Perimeter – Discharge Relation)

We have
2
V= fR . . . (i)
5
And Q f2 = 140 V6 . . . (ii)
Squaring both side of equation (i) by two times;
4 2 2
V4 = f R
25
25 V4
f2 =
4R2
Now from (ii)
25 V4
Q× = 140 V6
4R2
We know R=A/P
Now we get,
25 Q
= 140 V2
4(A/P)2
560 V2 A2
P2 Q =
25
P2Q = 22.4Q2
P = 4.75 Q . . . 4.19
Where P = perimeter in m.
Equation 4.19 gives a direct relation between P and Q. It indicates that for a stable channel the
perimeter P depends only on discharge Q and involves no other channel characteristic. This equation
is commonly used for determining the waterway in the design of several hydraulic structures. The
power or index of Q doesn’t vary but the coefficient 4.75 seems to vary 3.6 to 6.15 depending on the
nature of the transported material.
4. Regime flow equation
After determining the dimensions of a regime channel the bed slope of the channel is required to be
determined. Thus by plotting a large number of data lacey obtained the following flow equation.
V= 10.8 R2/3S1/3 . . . 4.20
Where S = Bed slope
Equation 4.20 is called general regime equation which doesn’t involve co – efficient of rugosity, as
it is considered that rugosity is implicit in R and S. This equation is of considerable practical
importance in evaluating flood discharge of rivers. In order to determine the flood discharge of
rivers usually Manning’s or Kutter’s equation is used in which the coefficient of rugosity N is
assigned a value on the basis of experience. However, the value of N cannot be specified with a
higher degree of accuracy since it depends upon a large number of factors. As such the

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determination of flood discharge by the use of Manning’s or Kutter’s equation is unreliable. At the
time of floods river is temporarily in regime and hence equation 4.20 may be applied which would
give quite accurate and reliable results.
From these equations for determining the bed sloe of a regime channel three equations may be
obtained as indicated below.
5. Regime slope equation
(i) S – f – R relation
We have the equation V= 10.8 R2/3S1/3
Cubing both side of equation
V3 = 1260 R2 S . . . (i)
Also we have another equation
2
V= fR
5
Again cubing this equation
V3 = (2/5)3/2 f3/2 R3/2 . . . (ii)
Hence from equation (i) and (ii) we have
1260 R2S = (2/5)3/2 f3/2 R3/2
On solving,
0.0002 f3/2
S= . . . 4.21
R1/2
(ii) S – f – Q relation
We have
2
V= fR . . . (i)
5
Q f 2  1/6
V= . . . (ii)
 140 
Equating equation (i) and (ii)
Q f 2 1/6
fR=
2
5  140 
5 1/2 Q f 2 1/6
R2/3 = . . . (iii)
2f  140 
Substituting the value of R1/2 from equation (iii) in equation 4.21, we get
1
f3/2 8.96f 6
S=
4980  Q 
f5/3
S= . . . 4.22
3340 Q1/6
S – f – q relation

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 Design of Canal

We have V3 = 1260 R2 S
This can be written as
5
V2 3
S=
1
. . . (i)
 R  1260 (RV)1/3
2
Again squaring both side of equation V = fR
5
2
V2 = fR
5
V2 2
= f . . . (ii)
R 5
Further if q is discharge per unit width of the channel, then assuming it to be a wide channel,
we have
q = RV . . . (iii)
Introducing equation (ii) and (iii) in equation (i) we get
2 5/3
S = f 
1
 
5 1260 q1/3
0.000178 f5/3
S= . . . 4.23
q1/3
Summary of Lacey’s Formulas
(i) P = 4.75 Q . . . 4.24
(ii) f = 1.76 dmm . . . 4.25
1
f2 Q 6
(iii) V = . . . 4.26
 140
1
5 V2
= 0.48   3
Q
(iv) R = . . . 4.27
2 f f
3 × 10-4 f 5/3
(v) S = . . . 4.28
Q1/6
Here P is the wetted perimeter in m, R is the hydraulic radius in m, Q is the discharge m3/sec, d is the
diameter of sediment particle and f is the silt factor which depended on the types and size of sediment.
Example 4.9
4.9
A channel section is to be designed for the following data.
Discharge Q = 5 cumecs.
Silt factor f = 1.
Side slope (H:V) = 0.5:1
Also determine the bed slope of channel.

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Solution:
1
f2 Q6
Step 1: Velocity V =
140 = 0.574 m/sec
Step 2: Area A= Q/V = 8.71 m2
Step 3: Perimeter P = 4.75 Q = 10.62m
Step 4: A = BD + zD2
8.71 = BD + 0.5 D2 . . . (i)
P=B+ 5D
10.62 = B + 5 D . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get
B = 8.44m
D = 0.98m
Step 5: R =A/P = 0.823
5 V2
Let’s check with R = = 0.824m ≈ 0.823 m hence Ok.
2 f
f5/3 15/3 1 1
Step 6: Bed slope s = 1/6 = = ≈
3340 Q 3340 × 51/6 4368 4400
Hence, the channel has bed width B = 8.44m, D = 0.98m and bed slope S = 1:4400.
4.10
Example 4.10
Design a stable irrigation canal carrying a discharge of 50 m3/sec, which passes through alluvium
dmean = 0.50mm. Draw sketch of the designed section.
Solution:
Step 1: f = 1.76 dmm = 1.244
2
1
Velocity V =
f Q 6
Step 2:
 140 = 0.906 m/sec
Step 3: Area A= Q/V = 50/0.906 = 55.187 m3/sec.
Step 4: Perimeter P = 4.75 Q = 33.587m
Step 5: A = BD + zD2 assume side slope z = 0.5
55.187 = BD + 0.5 D2 . . . (i)

0.75m

1.81m

29.53m

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 Design of Canal

P=B+ 5D
33.587 = B + 5 D . . . (ii)
Form (i) and (ii), we get
B = 29.53m
D = 1.81m
Adopt free board = 0.75m
Overall depth = 2.56m
Step 6: R = A/P = 1.643m
5 V2 5 0.9062
Let’s check with R = = × = 1.649m ≈ 1.643m. Hence Ok.
2 f 2 1.244
f5/3 1.2445/3 1 1
Step 7: Bed slope s = 1/6 = = ≈
3340 Q 3340 × 501/6 4455.27 4500
Example 4.11
4.11
Design an irrigation channel in alluvial soil according to Lacey’s silt theory for the following data.
Full supply discharge = 10 cumecs
Lacey’s silt factor = 0.9
Side slopes of channel = 0.5:1 (H:V)
Solution:
2
1
Velocity V =
f Q 6
Step 1:
 140
2
1
V =
0.9 x 10 6
 140  = 0.62m/sec
Step 2: Area A = Q/V = 10/0.62 = 16.13 m2
5 V2 5 0.622
Step 3: Hydraulic mean radius R = = x = 1.07m
2 f 2 0.9
Step 4: Perimeter P = A/R = 16.13/1.07 = 15.07m
Step 5: P = B + 5 D =15.07 . . . (i)
2 2
Step 6: A = BD + 0.5D = 16.13m . . . (ii)
Form (i) and (ii), we get
B = 12.27m; D = 1.25m
Step 7: Check P = 4.75 Q = 15.02m
P = B + 5 D = 15.07m
These two values of P are nearly equal and hence the computations are correct.
f5/3 0.95/3
Step 8: Bed slope s = 1/6 = = 1/5844≈ 1/5850
3340 Q 3340 × 101/6

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Example 4.12
4.12
The slope of a channel in alluvium is 1/4000, Lacey’s silt factor is 0.9 and side slopes are 0.5:1 (H:
V). Find the channel section and maximum discharge which can be allowed to flow in it.
Solution:
f5/3
We have the S – f – Q relation S = Form this equation,
3340 Q1/6
Q = 1.03 m3/sec
f3/2
We also have S – f – R relation S =
4980 R1/2
R = 0.47m
We also have; P = 4.75 Q = 4.82m
A = PR = 4.82 x 0.47 = 2.27m2
A = BD + 0.5D2 = 2.27 . . . (i)
P = B + 5 D = 4.82 . . . (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get
B = 3.48m
D = 0.60m

4.6 Design of Lined Canals with Economic Analysis

Canal Lining
An irrigation channel is said to be lined when the bed and sides of the canal are protected by means of
impervious or fairly impervious material of sufficient strength.
Necessity of lining
- To minimize seepage loss
- Prevention of water logging
- To increase discharge of canal section by increasing velocity
- To prevent erosion of bed and sides of the canal
- To reduce maintenance
Advantages
- Prevention of loss of water
- Prevention of water logging
- Low maintenance cost
- Less breaches
- Smaller cross sectional area
- Saving in canal structure

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 Design of Canal

- Less silting and scouring

- Reduction of weed growth
- Increase value of land
Harmful salt from adjoining soil doesn't get dissolved in canal
Disadvantages
- High initial cost
- Difficult to repair
- Difficult to set outlets
Types of canal lining
1. Hard surface lining
a. Cement concrete lining
b. Shotcrete lining
c. Pre - cast concrete lining
d. Cement mortar lining
e. Brick lining
f. Stone blocks or undressed stone lining
g. Asphalt concrete lining
2. Earth type lining
a. Soil - cement lining
- Cement 2 - 8 % added to fine soil
- First dry mixed and water is added up to optimum moisture content
- Placed, compacted and keep wet for few days
b. Clay puddle lining (30 cm thick)
c. Compacted earth lining
- Soil graded with fine are thoroughly mixed
- Water is added upto optimum moisture content and compact
d. Sodium carbonate lining
- Mixture prepared with soils by mixing 10% clay and 6% sodium carbonate
Economics of lining
Economics of lining is justified by B/C > 1
Where B = Annual Benefits
C = Annual Cost

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Calculation of benefits
The major benefit then can be readily assessed in terms of money is from the saving of seepage water
which would have been lost from unlined channel. This water when supplied to farmers will yield
revenue.
Let q cumecs be the water saved in the lined reach and R1 rupees be the cost of water per cumecs. Then
the total saving = q × R1 rupees.
The other benefit is through a considerable reduction in the maintenance cost of a lined channel,
compared to that of an unlined channel. Let p be the percentage saving in annual maintenance cost which
is rupees R2 for unlined channel. Then the saving in annual maintenance cost = p × R2 rupees.
Thus total benefit (B) per year = q × R1 + p × R2 rupees.
Saving in maintenance cost is usually taken to be around 40% so that p = 0.4
Besides the above benefits, there will be a considerable indirect benefits accrued from the prevention of
water logging caused due to excess seepage, but as these are difficult to assess in terms of money, the
minimum annual benefit (B) is considered as B = q×R1 + p×R2
Annual cost of extra expenditure on lining
Let the extra expenditure on canal lining be C rupees. If Pt is the total perimeter of lining, L is the length
of lining and c is the cost of lining in rupees per m2 , Cost C = c × Pt × L. The extra expenditure is to be
calculated by subtracting the saving in land cost, cost of drainage works, cost of bridges and earthwork
etc. form the total cost of lining.
Let the life of lining be N years and i be the percentage rate of interest expressed as fraction per year.
Then the capital recovery factor or annual cost of extra expenditure on lining equal to
i ( i + 1 )N 
=C
 ( 1 + i )N – 1 
Therefore benefit cost ratio B.C.R. is given by
[q R1 + p R2] [ (1 + i)N – 1] B [(1 + i)N – 1]
B.C.R. = =
C × i ( 1 + i )N C i (1 + i )N
Example 4.13
4.13
An unlined channel in alluvial soil has a seepage loss of 2.5 cumecs / million sq. m. of wetted perimeter.
The channel has a wetted perimeter of 25 m and has maintenance cost of Rs. 1 per sq. m of wetted
perimeter. There is a huge scarcity of water in the area and as such the canal is to be lined with cement
concrete lining 12 mm thick so as to reduce seepage loss to 0.02 cumecs/ million sq. m. of wetted
perimeter. The lined channel will have a wetted perimeter of 20 m. The extra cost of lining work out to be
Rs. 100 per sq. m. If the average annual revenue per cumecs of water is Rs. 20 lakhs and percentage
reduction in annual maintenance cost is 40%, decide whether it is economically feasible to provide canal
lining. Assume the life of canal lining as 50 years and the interest rate is 6% per year.
Solution:
For the purpose of calculations assume 1 km length of channel
(i) Annual benefit
(a) Seepage
Area of wetted perimeter for unlined channel in 1 km = 25 × 1000 = 25000 sq. m.

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 Design of Canal

Seepage loss = 25000 × 2.5 × 10-6 = 0.0625 cumecs

Area of wetted perimeter for lined channel in 1 km = 20 × 1000 = 20,000 sq. m.
Seepage loss = 20000 × 0.02 × 10-6 = 0.0004 cumecs
So, saving in water loss = 0.0625 - 0.0004 = 0.0621 cumecs
Annual revenue saved = Rs. 0.0621 × 25 × 105 = Rs. 155250
(b) Maintenance
Annual maintenance cost of unlined channel = 1 × 25000 = Rs. 25000
Saving in maintenance cost = 0.4 × 25000 = Rs. 10000
Total annual benefit = Rs. 155250 + 10000 = Rs. 165250
(ii) Annual cost
Area of lining per km = 20 × 1000 = 20000 sq. m.
Cost of lining C = 100 × 20000 = 2000000
Interest rate = 6% per year. Hence i = 0.06, also N = 50 year.
i ( i + 1 )N 
Annual cost of lining or capital recovery factor =C =
 ( 1 + i )N – 1 
0.06 ( 0.06 + 1 )N
= 2000000   = Rs. 126888
 ( 1 + 0.06 )N – 1 
165250
Benefit cost ratio = = 1.302 which is more than 1. The provision of canal lining is
126888
economically justifiable.
The lined canal can withstand much higher velocity than that of alluvial and non - alluvial channels.
Design procedure is similar to non - alluvial channels.
The fundamental equations used for the designing of rigid boundary channel are the continuity equation
and Manning’s formula.
Q=AV
1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
n
Where Q is the discharge, A is the area of flow, V is the mean velocity of flow, R is the hydraulic radius,
n is the Manning’s resistance coefficient (Manning’s roughness or rugosity coefficient) and S is the
longitudinal slope or it is also called a bed slope.
2
1 A 3 1/2
V= S . . . 4.29
n P
The continuity equation can be written as,
2
Q = A   3 S1/2 = 5/3 1/2 = 2/3
1 A Qn 1
n P A S P
S3/4
P= A5/2 . . . 4.30
(Q n)3/2

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

We can see from the Equation 4.30 that for a given discharge Q, Manning’s n and bed slope S, the wetted
perimeter P is minimum when the flow area A minimum. For minimum P and A, cost of excavation as
well as lining used to prevent seepage and erosion will be minimum. Thus in the design of canal
considering P to be minimum is termed as method of economic section. Further when discharge Q is
maximum, P is minimum for a given value of n, S and A.

Most of the channels which are in practice are trapezoidal in shape, in lined channel side slope is taken
0.5:1 or 1: 1 (H: V). Thus, the method requires only finding best hydraulic sections i.e. the relationship of
flow depth y with respect to bottom width B.

Theoretically, a semi - circular section is the best for open channel. For practical consideration, a
trapezoidal or triangular section rounded corners is usually selected. Generally triangular section is
selected for design discharge < 85 cumecs.

Generally, two types of channel sections are adopted.

(i) Triangular channel section

In order to increase R = A/P, the corners ra rounded and attempts are θ θ

made to use deeper section by limiting depth, etc. y 2θ y

Let’s central depth = radius of circle = y

θ 1
Area A = π y2 π + 2 y (y cotθ) = y2 (θ + cot θ)
2

Perimeter P = 2π y θ/π + 2y cotθ = 2y (θ + cotθ)

y2 (θ + cot θ)
Hydraulic mean depth = 2y (θ + cotθ) = y/2 . . . 4.31

(ii) Trapezoidal

1
Area = By + 2 (πy2 θ/2π) + 2 y (y cotθ) FSL
2
θ θ
A = By + y2θ +y2cot θ . . . 4.32 θ y
y θ
A = y(B + yθ + y cotθ)

Perimeter P = B + 2(2πy θ/2π) +2y cotθ B

P = B +2yθ + 2y cotθ . . . 4.33

The channel is, then designed, according to Manning’s formula. The value of rugosity coefficient (n)
depends upon the roughness of the channel boundary, and is different for different kinds of linings.
Different values of n for different types of lining materials are as shown is in table below.

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 Design of Canal

Table 4.3: Values

Values of Manning’s (n) for Lined channels

Type of lining Values of n for straight alignment

Cast in situ concrete trowel finish 0.015 – 0.018

Cement plastered masonry 0.012 – 0.015

P.C.C. Slab or tiles 0.018 – 0.020

Brick lining 0.018 – 0.020

Split Boulder lining 0.020 – 0.025

Round Boulder lining 0.025 – 0.035

Example 4.14
4.14:

Design an economical concrete lined trapezoidal channel to carry a discharge of 200 cumecs at a
slope of 30 cm/km. The side slope of the channels is 1.5:1. The value of n may be taken as 0.017.
Assume limiting velocity in the channel as 2m/sec.

Solution:

Given: Q = 200 m3/sec

S= 0.3/1000 = 0.0003

V= 2m/sec

n= 0.017

Step 1: Calculate R;

1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
n

R= 2.75 m

Step 2: Calculate A & P

A = Q/V = 200/2=100m2

P = A/R = 100/2.75 = 36.36m

Now, A = BD + D2(θ+cotθ)

Cot θ = 1.5

θ = cot-1(1.5) × π/180= 0.588 radian

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Substituting the above value

100 = BD + D2 (0.588 +1.5)

100 = BD + D2 × 2.088 . . . (i)

P = B + 2D (θ + cotθ)

Substituting above value we get

36.36 = B + 2D (θ + cot θ)

36.36= B + 4.176D . . . (ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)

B = 22.04 m

D = 3.43m
Example 4.15
4.15:
Design a triangular shaped lined channel to carry a discharge of 15 cumecs. The available and
accepted slope is 1 in 900. Assume suitable values of side slopes and good brickwork in lining.
Solution:
Given that: Q = 15 cumecs
S0 = 1/900
Assume; side slope 1.25: 1 [H: V]
n = 0.018 for brick lining.
Tan θ = 1/1.25
θ = 38.659 × π/180 = 0.675 rad.
Using A = y2 (θ + cotθ)
P = 2y (θ + cotθ)
We get, A =y2 (0.675 +1.25) = 1.925y2
P = 2y (0.675 +1.25) = 3.85y
R=A/P = y/2
Using Manning’s equation
1 2/3 1/2
Q=A R S
n
1
15 = (1.925y2) (y/2) 2/3 (1/900)1/2
0.018
y = 2.04m

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 Design of Canal

Adopt free board = 0.5

Adopt the overall depth of canal = 2.54m
Side slope = 1.25:1
Example 4.16
4.16:
Using tractive force approach, design a channel in alluvial soil for the following data:
(i) Discharge Q = 45 cumecs,
(ii) Bed slope = 1/4800
(iii) Manning's n = 0.0225,
(iv) Permissible tractive stress = 0.0035 kN/m2
(v) Side slope = 0.5:1
Solution:
Here,
τc 0.0035
R= = = 1.713 m
γw × S 9.81 × 1/4800

1 2/3 1/2 1
V= R S = × 1.7132/3 × (1/4800)1/2 = 0.918 m/sec
n 00225

A = Q/V = 45 / 0.918 = 49 m2
P = A/R = 49/ 1.713 = 28.61 m
P = 28.61 = B + 2.236 D
A = 49 = BD + 0.5 D2
Solving these, we get D =1.94 m and B = 24.27 m

Exercise 4:

1. Explain sediment transport and tractive force approach in canal design.

2. Explain semi theoretical approach of canal design.
3. Briefly describe the different methods of canal design.
4. Differentiate Lecey’s and Kenney’s silt theories.
5. An irrigation channel with protected sides is carrying a discharge of 2.7cumecs. The channel is
constructed in course alluvium gravel of size 42mm and laid at a slope of 1 in 110. What is the
minimum width to be provided? Compare critical shear using Shield’s equation & Mittal &
Swamee’s equation.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

6. A wide irrigation channel is laid at a slope of 1 in 4000. The size of the sand is 3.0mm. Water flows
at a depth of 0.8m. Find whether the bed is moving or stationary. If the size of the sand is increased
to 7mm, and the slope to 1in 1000 what will happen to the channel bed?
7. An irrigation channel is to be constructed in course alluvium gravel with 5mm particle size. The
channel has to carry 2.9cumecs of discharge and the longitudinal slope is 0.01. The banks of the
channel will be protected by grass against scouring. Find the minimum width of the channel.
8. Water flows at a depth of 0.7m in a wide stream having a bed slope of 1 in 2500. The diameter of
the sand bed is 1.0mm. Determine whether the soil grains are stationary or moving. Also comment
whether the stream bed is scouring or non-scouring.
9. An irrigation channel is to be constructed in course alluvium gravel with 4cm size. The channel has
to carry 5 cumecs of discharge & the longitudinal slope is 0.04. The banks of the channel will be
protected against scouring. Find the minimum width of the channel.
10. An irrigation channel is to be designed for the following data. Q = 35cumecs, S = 1 in 1400, d =
35mm, φ = 37°. The side slopes of the trapezoidal channel are unprotected.
11. A canal is to be designed to carry a discharge of 60cumecs. The bed slope is kept 1 in 1200. The soil
is course alluvium having a grain size of 5cm. Assuming the canal is trapezoidal and unlined with
unprotected banks, determine a suitable section for the canal. Assume φ = 37°.
12. An irrigation canal carries a discharge of 40m3/sec and is laid on a slope of 1 in 2500. If CVR = 1.2
and n = 0.025, design the channel.

13. Following dimensions were obtained while designing a trapezoidal canal.

14. Bed width = 21m, depth = 1.5m, Bed slope = 2.25 in 1000, Manning’s n= 0.022, Find whether the
chosen canal section is satisfactory.
15. A stable channel is to be designed for a discharge of 40 m3/sec and f =1.0. Calculate the dimensions
of the channel using Lacey’s regime equations. What would be the bed width of this channel if it is
designed on the basis of Kennedy’s theory? Adopt m = 1.0 and B/D ratio same as obtained from
Lacey’s equation.

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 Diversion Headworks
CHAPTER

5 Diversion Headworks
An irrigation channel takes its supplies from its source which can be either a river (in case of main canal)
or a channel (in case of branch canals and distributaries). The structures constructed across a river source
at the head of an off-taking main canal are termed as “canal headworks” or “headworks”. The headworks
can be either diversion headworks or storage headworks.
Diversion headworks divert the required supply from the source channel to the off-taking channel. The
water level in the source channel is raised to the required level so as to divert the required supplies into
the off-taking channel. The diversion headworks should be capable of regulating the supplies into the off-
taking channel. If required, it should be possible to divert all the supplies (at times of keen demand and
low supplies) into the off-taking channel. The headworks must have an arrangement for controlling the
sediment entry into the channel off-taking from a river. By raising the water level, the need of excavation
in the head reaches of the off-taking channel is reduced and the commanded area can be served easily by
flow irrigation. Storage headworks, besides fulfilling all the requirements of diversion headworks, store
excess water when available and release it during periods when demand exceeds supplies
The site selection of a barrage/weir depends mainly on the location and elevation of the off-take canal, and a
site must be selected where the river bed is comparatively narrow and relatively stable. The pondage
requirement and interference with the existing structures such as bridges, urban development, valuable
farmland, etc., must be considered, as well as available options to divert the flow during construction.

Function of Diversion Headworks

• It raises the water level on its upstream side
• It regulates the supply of water into canals
• It controls the entry of silt into canals
• It creates a small pond (not reservoir) on its upstream and provides some pondage.
• It helps in controlling the vagaries of the river.

5.1 Location of Headworks on River

Larger rivers, generally, have four stages, viz., the rocky, boulder, trough (or alluvial) and delta stages. Of
these, the rocky and delta stages are generally unsuitable for sitting of headworks. Usually, the
commanded area is away from the rocky stage, and it would, therefore, involve avoidable expenditure to
construct a channel from headworks located in the rocky stage to its commanded area. In the delta stage,
the irrigation requirements are generally less because of high ground water table and also the nature of the
river at this stage poses other problems, like meandering and braiding.
The boulder and alluvial stages of a river are relatively more suitable sites for locating headworks. The
choice between the boulder stage and the alluvial stage is mainly governed by the commanded area. If
both stages are equally suitable for sitting the headworks from commanded area considerations, the

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
selection of the site should be made such that it results in the most economical alternative. The following
features of the two stages should be considered while selecting the site for headworks.
i. The initial cost of headworks in the boulder stage is generally smaller than that in the alluvial stage
because of:
• Local availability of stones,
• Smaller width of river (requiring smaller length of weir),
• Smaller scour depths which reduce the requirements of cutoffs and other protection works, and
• Close proximity of higher banks which requires less extensive training works.
ii. An irrigation canal off-taking from a river in the boulder region will have a number of falls which
may be utilized for generation of electricity. There is almost no scope for the generation of
electricity in this manner in the alluvial reach of a river.
iii. If the existing irrigation demand is less but is likely to develop with the provision of irrigation
facilities, it is desirable to divert the river water into an irrigation channel by constructing a
temporary boulder bund across the river. This bund will be washed away every year during the
floods and will be reconstructed every year. This will, no doubt, delay the Rabi crop irrigation, but it
is worthwhile to use temporary bunds for a certain period; when the irrigation demand grows,
permanent headworks may be constructed. In this manner, it would be possible to get returns
proportional to expenditures incurred on the headworks. Construction of temporary bunds is
generally not possible in the alluvial stage of the river.
iv. An irrigation channel off – taking in the boulder stage of a river will normally require a large
number of cross-drainage structures. Because of the nature of the boulder region, there is always a
strong subsoil flow in the river bed. This causes considerable loss of water and is of concern during
the periods of short supply. Similarly, there will be considerable loss of water from the head reach of
the off-taking channel. In alluvial reach of the river this loss of water is much less.
v. The regions close to the hills usually have a wet climate and grow good crops. The irrigation
demand in the head reach of the channel off-taking in the boulder stage is, therefore, generally
small. However, this demand would increase with the provision of irrigation facilities. In alluvial
regions, the demand for irrigation is high right from the beginning.
For irrigation purposes, the site for headworks should result in a suitable canal alignment capable of
serving its commanded area without much excavation. For siting the headworks, the river reach should, as
far as possible, be straight and narrow and have well-defined and non-erodible high banks. In the case of
a meandering river, the headworks should be located at the nodal point.
From sediment considerations, the off – taking channel should be located at the downstream end of the
outside of a river bend so that it has the advantage of drawing less sediment. However, a curved reach
would need costly protection works against the adverse effect of cross currents. Moreover, if canals take
off from both the banks, the canal taking off from the inner bank draws relatively more sediment.
In order to ensure adequate supply to the off-taking canal at all times, the undersluice should be sited in
the deep channel. A river reach with deep channels on both banks and shallow channel at the center is
more suitable when canals take off from both sides.
Besides, the site must be accessible and suitable for making the river diversion and other related
arrangements at a reasonable cost.

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 Diversion Headworks
5.2 Component Parts of Weir and Barrage
u/s

9 9

5 A 1. Weir/Barrage
7
2. Undersluices
6 2 1 3. Divide wall
4. Fish ladder
5. Head regulator (intake)
6. Approach canal
8 7. Silt excluder
8. Silt ejector
10
4 9. River training works (GB and MB)
A 10. Stilling basin (energy dissipater)

d/s
(a)
Pond level Weir crest level

U/S cutoff wall D/S Bed level

Energy dissipating
structure

U/S cutoff wall Typical section of weir

D/S cutoff wall
(b)
Gated structure
Pond level
Barrage crest level
U/S Bed level
D/S Bed level
Energy dissipating
structure

U/S Cutoff wall

Typical section of barrage
D/S cutoff wall
(c)
Figure 5.1: Component of head works

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
1. Weir and Barrage
Weirs and barrages are relatively low-level dams constructed across a river to raise the river level
sufficiently or to divert the flow in full, or in part, into a supply canal or conduit for the purposes of
irrigation, power generation, navigation, flood control, domestic and industrial uses, etc. Figure 5.1
These diversion structures usually provide a small storage capacity. In general, weirs (with or
without gates) are bulkier than barrages, whereas barrages are always gate controlled. Barrages
generally include canal regulators, low-level sluices to maintain a proper approach flow to the
regulators, silt excluder tunnels to control silt entry into the canal and fish ladders for migratory fish
movements. Weirs are also used to divert flash floods to the irrigated areas or for ground water
recharging purposes. They are also sometimes used as flow measuring structures. Figure 5.1 (b)
shows the section of a weir and Figure 5.1 (c) shows the section of a barrage.
The basic differences between weir and barrage are provided in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Differences between
between Weir and Barrage

Weir Barrage
Function Weir is an impervious barrier which When adjustable gates are installed over a
is constructed across a river to raise weir to maintain the water surface at
the water level on the upstream side different levels at different times is known
is known as a weir. Here the water as a barrage. The water level is adjusted by
level is raised up to the required operating the gates or shutters. The gates are
height and the surplus water is placed at different tiers and these are
allowed to flow over the weir. operated by cables from the cabin. The gates
Generally it is constructed across an are supported on piers at both ends. The
inundation river. distance between the pier to pier is known as
Bay.
Sedimentation Chances of silting on upstream is Silting may be controlled by judicial
more operation of gates.
Flow control Low control on flow Relatively high control on flow and water
levels by operation of gates.
Back water Afflux created is high due to Due to low crest of the weirs (the ponding
effect relatively high weir crests being done mostly by gate operation), the
afflux during high floods is low. Since the
gates may be lifted up fully, even above the
high flood level.
Construction Low cost High cost
Cost
2. Under- Sluices
These are controlled opening in the weir and barrage (even if weir doesn’t have gated structure) with
crests at low level (river bed level). They are located on the same side near the off - taking canal. If
two canals take off on the either side of river, it would be necessary to provide under - sluices on
both sides.
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 Diversion Headworks
Discharge capacity of the under sluices in provided higher of the following:
• Two times the maximum discharge in the off – take canal.
• 20% of the maximum flood discharge
• Maximum winter discharge.
3. Divide Wall
The divide wall is constructed parallel (or nearly parallel) to the canal head regulator. It separates
the main weir bays from the bays of the under sluice as shown in Figure. 5.1. The wall extends on
both sides of the weir. Extension of the divide wall towards the downstream of the weir avoids
cross-flow in the immediate vicinity of the structure which, otherwise, may cause objectionable
scour. The divide wall is usually extended up to the end of either the impervious floor or the loose
apron on the downstream side. The divide wall serves the following purposes:
• It isolates the canal head regulator from the main river flow and creates a still pond of water in
front of the canal head regulator. This results in deposition of sediment in the pocket and entry
of relatively sediment - free water into the off taking canal. It also improves scouring of the
undersluices by ensuring straight approach.
• It separates the weir floor from the floor of the undersluices which is at a lower level than the weir floor.
• If the main current has a tendency to move towards the bank opposite to the canal head
regulator, the weir forces the water towards the canal head regulator. This causes cross-currents
which may damage the weir. Under such adverse flow conditions, additional divide walls at
equal intervals along the weir are provided to keep
• The cross-currents away from the weir.
When only one canal takes off from a river, the length of the divide wall should be half to two-thirds
the length of canal regulator. When more than one canal takes off from the same bank, the divide
wall should extend a little beyond the upstream end of the canal farthest from the weir. Some
experimental studies have shown that a slight divergence of the divide wall from the regulator
improves its efficiency. This divergence should not exceed 1 in 10. To reduce the scour at the nose
of the divide wall, the nose end of the wall is given a slope of 3(V):1(H).
The divide wall is generally constructed as a strong masonry wall with a top width of about 1.5 to
2.25 m and checked for safety for the following two conditions:
• For low stage of the river, the water levels on the two sides of the walls are the same but the silt
pressure is assumed to correspond to the sediment deposit up to full pond level on the pocket side.
• For the high stage of the river, the under sluice are discharging. At this condition, the water levels
on the two sides are assumed to be different; the weir side level being higher by about 1.0 m.
It the river curvature is not favorable to sediment-free entry of water into the off-taking canal by
inducing convex curvature opposite the head regulator, a second pocket of river sluice adjoining the
under sluice improves flow conditions considerably. Such provision is useful in case of wide rivers
to guide the river to flow centrally, minimizing cross-flow, and prevent shoal formation in the
vicinity of the head regulator. The location and layout of the river sluice should be decided by model
studies for satisfactory performance.

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4. Fish Ladder
This is an artificial upstream fish passage, most commonly used for heads up to 20 m consisting of
• A fish entrance
• A fish ladder proper and
• A fish exit. Sometimes an auxiliary (additional) water supply is also provided to attract fish to
the entrance.
The fish ladder proper consists of a series of traverses (cross-walls) and pools circumventing an
obstruction (such as a weir or dam) for the fish to migrate to the head waters in easy stages. This is
achieved by creating a series of drops of around 300mm – 450mm between pools Figure. 5.2 on a
gradient of around 1 in 8 to 1 in 15 (for high heads). Rest pools of a larger size (normally twice the
size of an ordinary pool) are also provided after every 5 – 6 pools.
The actual arrangement of pools and traverses is chosen according to a particular obstruction; a low
level weir or dam may need a fish pass of shallow gradient (corresponding to the surrounding
gradient of the land) whereas a tightly folded pass may be necessary in case of a high weir or dam.
The fish pass is designed to take a fixed proportion of the flow over the main weir or spillway. This
is normally achieved by sitting the invert level of the uppermost notch lower than the adjoining weir
or spillway crest; the discharge and head calculations may be achieved by using appropriate weir –
notch or orifice formulae.
The entrance to the fish pass (ladder) must be located in the downstream parallel to the main flow,
whereas the exit (at the upstream end) should be well within the reservoir away from the spillway
structure. The pools are usually 1 – 2 m deep, 2 – 5 m long and 2 – 10 m wide, depending on the
number of fish migrating. Cross-walls may be provided with staggered notches–orifices, with the
velocities in the ladder being around 0.5m/s. (Guiny, 2005) investigated the efficiency of different
passages through the baffles in a fish pass (orifice, slot, weir) and found – with limited data – a
strong preference of the migrating juvenile Atlantic salmon for the orifice type.
Head loss • 300 mm
Pool
Pool Flow

(a) Sectional elevation

Pool Pool Pool

Flow

(b) Plan
Figure 5.2: Fish ladder

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5. Canal Head Regulator (Intake)
The intake structure (or head regulator) is a hydraulic device constructed at the head of an irrigation
or power canal, or a tunnel conduit through which the flow is diverted from the original source such
as a reservoir or a river. In other word the structures controlling diversion into a supply canal are
called regulators. The design principles are the same as those used in the design of barrages, except
that the regulators are a smaller version of barrages. The entry sill of a regulator must be such that it
permits entry of the maximum flow at various poundage levels. Another important consideration in
designing the regulator is silt exclusion from canals. Silt-excluder tunnels are often provided in the
barrage bays adjacent to the regulator, so that the heavier silt-laden bottom layers of water bypass
through the tunnels Figure. 5.3. The main purposes of the intake structure are:
• To admit and regulate water from the source, and possibly to meter the flow rate,
• To minimize the silting of the canal, i.e. to control the sediment entry into the canal at its intake,
• To prevent the clogging of the entrance with floating debris.
In high-head structures the intake can be either an integral part of a dam or separate; for example, in
the form of a tower with entry ports at various levels which may aid flow regulation when there is a
wide range of fluctuations of reservoir water level. Such a provision of multilevel entry also permits
the withdrawal of water of a desired quality.
The layout of a typical intake structure on a river carrying a heavy bed load is shown in Figure. 5.3.
The following are its major appurtenances:
• The raised inlet sill to prevent entry of the bed load of the river.
• The skimmer wall (with splitter pier) at the inlet to trap floating ice and debris
• The coarse rack (trash rack) to trap subsurface trash, equipped with either manual or automatic
power-driven rack cleaning devices
• The settling basin (sand trap) followed by a secondary sill (entrance sill) diverting the bottom
(sediment-laden) layers towards the de-silting canal
• The flushing (de-silting) sluice to flush the deposited silt
• The intake (head regulator) gates to control the flow rate into the canal
• The scouring tunnel (silt excluder) or undersluices in the diversion weir to flush the bed load
deposited in upstream of the inlet sill.

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Figure 5.3: Canal intake on a river carrying heavy bed load (after Mosoni, 1987)

6. Approach Canal

The portion of canal from intake to settling basin is approach canal. Which drawn water from intake.
This canal should withstand the negative pressure created by water because the velocity of water at
this section is high. This canal should be stable against higher velocity for this purpose this canal is
design by using either Manning's relation or Chezy's relation.

7. Silt Excluders (See section 5.5.4)

8. Silt Ejector (See section 5.5.5)

9. River Training Works (Marginal Bunds and Guide Bunds)

River training works direct the main river flow as centrally as possible to the diversion structure. They
also safeguard the barrage from erosion and may be designed so that a desirable curvature is induced to
the flow for silt exclusion from the canals. The side slopes of the guide banks must be protected by
stone pitching, with a sufficient ‘self-launching’ stone apron at the lowest feasible level (Detail in
chapter 6). The top levels of the guide banks will depend on the maximum increase in the flood level
upstream of the barrage. The afflux (level difference between the headwater and tail water during the
passage of maximum flood flow) results in a backwater curve upstream of the barrage, and flood banks
have to be provided along the upstream reach of the river to contain the flood flow.

10. Stilling Basin (Energy Dissipater)

Stilling basins may be defined as the structure in which the energy dissipating action is confined. If
the phenomenon of hydraulic jump is basically used for dissipating this energy, it may be called a
hydraulic jump type stilling basin. The auxiliary devices like chute blocks, baffle piers, sill and
dented sills may be used as additional measures for controlling the jump. For the particular site, the
type of energy dissipater and its arrangement shall be decided based on the relationship between the
height of hydraulic jump vs the tail water depth.

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 Diversion Headworks

Figure 5.4: USBR stilling basin if (Fr1>4.5)

5.3 Bligh’s, Lane’s and Khosla’s Seepage Theory

5.3.1 Bligh’s Theory
In 1910, W.G. Bligh went a step forward and gave creep theory. According to this theory, the percolating
water creeps along the contact surface of the base profile of the structure with the subsoil. The length of
the path thus traversed by the percolation water is called the length of creep or the creep length. As the
water creeps from the upstream end to the downstream end, the head loss occurs. The head loss is
proportional to the creep distance travelled.
Bligh assumed that the water which percolates into the foundation creeps through the joint between the
profile of the base of weir and the subsoil. Of course water also percolates into the subsoil. He then stated
that this percolating water loses its head en-route. The seeping water finally comes out at the downstream
end. According to Bligh water travels along vertical, horizontal or inclined path without making any
distinction.
The total length covered by the percolating water till it emerges out at the downstream end is called a
creep length. It is clear from the knowledge of hydraulics that the head of water lost in the path of
percolation is the difference of water levels on the upstream and the downstream ends. Also, an imaginary
line which joins the water levels on the upstream and the downstream end is called a hydraulic gradient
line. Figure 5.6 (a, b) gives the full explanation of Bligh’s theory.
According to Bligh’s theory, the total creep length for first drawing: L = B and for second drawing: L =
B + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

(a) Only concrete floor (b)Method of increasing creep length with sheet piles
Figure 5.5: Creep Length due to Subsurface Flow
If H is the total loss of head, then the loss of head per unit length of the creep shall be
H H
C= = . . . 5.1
L [B + 2 (d1 + d2 + d3)]
Bligh called the loss of head per unit length of creep as Percolation coefficient. The reciprocal, (L/H) of
the percolation coefficient is known as the coefficient of creep C or Bligh's coefficient CB.

Assumptions:
• Hydraulic slope or gradient is constant throughout the impervious length of the apron.
• The percolating water creep along the contact of the base profile of the apron with the sub soil
head loss in creep path, proportional to length of its travel. The length is called creep length. It
is the sum of horizontal and vertical creep length.
• Stoppage of percolation by cut off or piles is possible only if it extends up to impermeable soil strata.

Safety against Piping

The length of creep should be sufficient to provide safe hydraulic gradient according to safe creep length = L = CB × H
Table 5.2: Values of Bligh's percolation
percolation gradient for different types of soils

Safe hydraulic gradient

Soil type Value of CB
should be less than
Silt and sandy clay 18 1/18
Misaceous sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder, Gravel 5 to 9 1/5 to 1/9
with shingle and Loamy soil
Gravel 5 1/5

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Safety against Uplift Pressure
The second criterion for the safe design of a hydraulic structure on a pervious foundation is that the weight of the
impervious floor must counterbalance the uplift pressure. The floor is usually designed as a gravity section.
Figure 5.6 (a) shows a simple horizontal floor length L, subjected to a seepage head of H. the residual
head (h) at any point P is given by
H
h= H – ×l . . . 5.2
L
Where l is the horizontal length from the entry point A to the point P.

The residual head (h) can also be obtained from the subsoil hydraulic gradient line. It may be noted that
the vertical intercept h of the subsoil HGL is measured from the top surface of the floor. It h’ the vertical
intercept measured above the bottom surface of the floor.

h' = h + t

Where t is the thickness of the floor.

From Figure 5.6 (b) shows the uplift pressure diagram on the bottom surface.

It is more convenient to measure the intercept h than the intercept h'. The intercept h' above the bottom
surface of the floor can be determined only after the thickness t has been determined or t has been
assumed. For the determination of the floor thickness t. let us consider the force acting on the unit area of
the floor (shown hatched).

The upward force U due to the uplift pressure is given by

U = γw h' = γw(h + t) . . . 5.3

The downward force W due to the weight of the floor material is given by

W = (G γw) × t . . . 5.4

Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material.

For equilibrium, the upward force should be counterbalanced by the weight. Hence from equation 5.3 and 5.4.

U=W

γwh' = G γw t

As h' = h + t, γw(h + t) = G γw t

t ( G – 1) = h

h
t= . . . 5.5
(G – 1)

4h
Generally a factor of safety of 4/3 is adopted. Thus t = . . . 5.6
3 (G – 1)

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Equation 5.6 gives required thickness t of the floor if the height h of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line
above the top surface of the floor is known. In this equation, G is the specific gravity of the floor material.
For plain concrete floor, the value of G usually varies from 2.0 to 2.30, depending upon the type of
aggregate used. For the design of irrigation structure, a value of 2.24 is generally adopted.
For portion of floor upstream of barrier only nominal thickness need to be provided since the weight of
water will counterbalance the uplift pressure. A certain minimum length of impervious floor is always
necessary to the downstream of the barrier (thickness of downstream floor for worst condition).

H' H
h h'' D/S BED
A P B No tail water
t
l
L
(a)

h'

H'

(b)
Figure 5.6: Bligh’s theory
Limitations of Bligh’s theory
Bligh’s theory has several limitations. They are:
i. In his theory Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep lengths.
ii. The idea of exit gradient has not been considered.
iii. The effect of varying lengths of sheet piles not considered.
iv. No distinction is made between inner or outer faces of the sheet piles.
v. Loss of head is considered proportional to the creep length which in actual is not so.
vi. The uplift pressure distribution is not linear as assumed but in fact it follows a sine curve.
vii. Necessity of providing end sheet pile not appreciated.
5.3.2 Lane’s Theory
Lane analyzed a large number of dams and weir founded on pervious foundations which failed or did not
fail. He brought out deficiencies in Bligh’s creep theory and gave a new theory on statistical basis. The
theory is known as Lane’s weighted creep theory. This theory gives the weightage factor of 1/3 for the
horizontal creep, as against 1.0 for the vertical creep.
From Figure 5.5 b. L = B/3 + (2d1+2d2+2d3)

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Safety against Piping
To ensure safety against piping, according to this theory, the creep length L, must not be less than C1HL,
where HL is the head causing flow, and CL is Lane’s creep coefficient given in table below.
Table 5.3: Values
Values of Lane’s safe Hydraulic Gradient for different types of soils.

Value of Lane’s Safe Lane’s Hydraulic gradient

S.N. Types of soil
Coefficient CL should be less than

1. Very fine sand or silt 8.5 1/8.5

2. Fine sand 7.0 1/7
3. Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
4. Gravel and sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
5. Boulders, gravels and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
6. Clayey soils 3.0 to 1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6
Example 5.1:
Figure shows a hydraulic structure built on fine sand. Determine, whether the percolation gradient is
safe? Also determine uplift pressure and floor thickness using G = 2.24 at point A, B and C. Assume
Bligh's CB = 15 and Lane's CL = 8.5.

4m
A B C

6m 15m 10m 10m

8m

Solution:
(a) From Bligh’s theory
i. Creep length L= 2 × 6 + 35 + 2 × 8=63m.
1 1
Hydraulic gradient i = H/L = 4/63 = < safe
15.75 15
ii. Uplift pressure head
1
At point A = 4 – (2 × 6 + 15) = 2.29m
15.75
1
At point B = 4 – (2 × 6 + 25) = 1.65m
15.75
1
At point C = 4 – (2 × 6 + 35) = 1.02m
15.75
1
Check uplift pressure head at point C from end point = × 2 × 8 = 1.02m OK
15.75

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iii.Thickness of floor
4h
We have, t =
3 (G – 1)
4 × 2.29
At point A, t = = 2.46 m
3 (2.24 – 1)
4 × 1.65
At point B, t = = 1.77 m
3 (2.24 – 1)
4 × 1.02
At point C, t = = 1.10 m
3 (2.24 – 1)
(b) From Lane’s theory
Weighted creep length, Lw = 35/3 + 2 × 6 + 2 × 8 = 39.67m
Hydraulic gradient = H/Lw = 4/39.67 = 1/9.92 < 1/8.5 (safe)
Uplift pressure at point A = 4 – (2 × 6 +15/3)/9.92 = 2.29m
At point B = 4 – (2 × 6 + 25/3)/9.92= 1.95m
At point C = 4 – (2 × 6 + 35/3) = 1.61 m
[Check uplift pressure at point C = (2 × 8)/9.92 = 1.61m Ok]
4 2.29
Thickness of floor At point A = = 2.46m
3 2.24 – 1
4 1.95
At point B = = 2.10m
3 2.24 – 1
4 1.61
At point C= = 1.73m
3 2.24 – 1
It may be noted that the uplift pressure are quite different from those obtained by Bligh’s theory
basically in down stream and Lane's thickness is in safe side.
5.3.3 Khosla’s Theory
The seeping water does not creep along the bottom contour as stated by Bligh and Lane, it moves along a
set of streamlines as shown in Figure 5.7.

H
h
A 1 B C D
12
2 11

3
4 5 6 10
Flow lines 7 8 9

Equipotential
lines Impervious strata

Figure 5.7: Khosla's flow net

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This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a homogeneous soil can be expressed by Laplacian equation:

d 2φ d 2φ
+ =0
dx 2 dz 2
Where, φ – flow potential. φ = kh; where, k is the coefficient of permeability as defined by Darcy and h
is the residual head at any print within the soil.
w + (∂w/∂z)* dz v + (∂v/∂y)* dy

u u + (∂u/∂x)* dx
dz
dy
v dx

Figure 5.8: Expression of Laplace equation

Quantity of water entering per unit time = u dz dy + v dx dz + w dx dy . . . . (i)
Quantity leaving per unit time:

 ∂u   ∂v   ∂w 
 u + dx  dzdy +  v + dy  dzdx +  w + dz  dxdy . . . . (ii)
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
If the flow is steady & incompressible, the quantity entering is equal to quantity leaving.

 ∂u ∂v ∂w 
 + +  dxdydz = 0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Since, dx dy dz ≠ 0;
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 . . . . (iii)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now, Darcy law is given by
dh
V=K
dx

∂h ∂h ∂h
Hence, u=k , v = , &w =
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Further, φ = kh, so that

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
u= ,v = , &w = ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
Putting their value in equation (iii)

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ + =0 . . . . (iv)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Equation (iv) is known as Laplace’s equation
For two-dimensional flows:

d 2φ d 2φ
+ =0
dx 2 dz 2
Above equation represents 2 sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally (see Figure: 5.7). AB is
the first equipotential line and CD is the last.
The residual head causes drag or seepage pressure at any point. The determination of residual pressure
(uplift) is possible by flowing methods:
• Trial and error or graphical method
• Mathematical solution of Laplace's equation
• Khosla’s method of independent variables
• Method of electrical analogy
• Method of relaxation
Why Khosla’s method is preferable than other methods?
• Difficult to plot the flow net graphically
• All other methods are complicated & time consuming
• Khosla's method is simple, quick & accurate
The usual barrage and weir section do not conform to a simple elementary form and a direct solution of
the Laplace equation not feasible. To apply the analytical solution to any practical composite profile of a
weir or a barrage, Khosla’s and his associates evolved the method of independent variables. In this
method a composite barrage or weir section is split up into a number of simple standard forms of known
analytical solutions. The most useful standard forms among these are.
a. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end (Figure 5.9 (a)
and (b))
b. A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but no vertical cutoff. (Figure 5.9 (c))
c. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some intermediate
position. (Figure 5.9 (d))

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H H

E1 C1 E C
d b b d

D1 (a) (b) D

H H

D1 D D D d E C
d
b b

D
(c) (d)
Figure 5.9: Standard forms – Khosla’s methods of independent variables
In general, the usual weir section consists of a combination of all the three forms mentioned above; the
entire length of the floor with any of the pile lines, etc. making up one such form. Each elementary form
is then treated as independent of the others. The pressures at the key points are then read off from the
Khosla’s curves (Annex I). These key points are the junction points of the floor and the pile line of that
particular elementary form, the bottom point of that pile line and the bottom corners in the case of
depressed floor.
The percentage pressure observed from the curves for the simple form into which the profile has been
broken up, is valid for the profile as a whole if corrected for:
(i) Mutual interference of sheet piles
(ii) The floor thickness
(iii) The slope of the floor
(i) Correction for mutual interference of piles
Let C, be the correction to be applied as percentage of head, b' be the distance between the two pile
lines. D be the depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on neighboring
pile of depth d. D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired. d be the depth
of pile on which the effect is to be determined.
D d + D
C = +19
b'  b 

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This correction is positive for points in the rear of back water and subtractive for points forward in
the direction of flow.
In the case of intermediate piling shallower than the end pile (D <d) and b' ≥ 2d the mutual
interference is negligible.

(ii) Correction for floor thickness

In the standard forms with vertical cut off the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible.
Thus as observed from the curves, the pressure at the junction point E and C pertain to the level at
the top of the floor whereas the actual junction is with the bottom of the floor. The pressures at the
actual points E and C are interpolated by assuming straight line variation from hypothetical point E
to D and also from D to C.

(iii) Correction for the slope of the floor

A suitable percentage correction is to be applied for a sloping floor, the correction being plus for the
down and minus for the up slopes following the direction of flow. The values of the correction are
given in Table 5.4
Table 5.4
5.4: Correction for the floor slope

Slope V:H Correction % of Pressure

1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3
1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 1

The correction is applicable to the key points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the end of the
slope. The percentage correction given by the above table is to be further multiplied by the
proportion of the horizontal length of slope to the distance between the two pile lines in between
which the sloping floor is located. The correction is minus for the up and plus for the down slopes in
the directions of flow.

Exit Gradient (GE)

It has been determined that for a standard form consisting of floor of length b, with a vertical cutoff of
depth, d, the exit gradient at its downstream end is given by the equation;
H 1
GE = d . . . 5.7
π λ

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 Diversion Headworks
1+ 1+ α2
Where, λ= 2 . . . 5.8

b
α=d

1
From the curves in Annex II for any value of α or b/d, the corresponding value of can be read off.
π λ
Knowing the values of H and d, the value of GE is easily calculated. It is obvious from equation 5.5 that if
d = 0, GE is infinite. It is therefore, essential that a vertical cutoff should be provided at the downstream
end of the floor. To safeguard against piping, the exist gradient of soils are given in Table 5.5. The uplift
pressures must be kept as low as possible consistent with the safety at the exit, so as to keep the floor
thickness to the minimum.
Table 5.5
5.5: Permissible
Permissible exit gradients for different types of soils

Types of soil Exit gradient

Find sand 1/6 to 1/7

Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Shingle ¼ to 1/5

Example 5.2:

A weir has a solid horizontal floor length of 40m with two lines of cutoff 5m depth below the river
bed at its two ends. The floor thickness is 5m at the upstream end and 2m at downstream end, with
its upper level being in flush with the river bed. For an effective head of 4m over the weir, calculate
the uplift pressure at the two inside corner points (junction of bottom of floor with the cutoff) and
also exit gradient.
Solution:

4m

1m 2m
5m C1
E2 5m

D1 D2
40m
Given: Maximum barrage head (Hs) = 4m
Length of weir (b) = 40m
U/S and D/S cutoff depth (d, and d2) = 5m

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For D/S cutoff:

b 40
α= = =9
d 5

1+ 1 + α2 1 + 1 + 82
λ= = = 4.531
2 2

cos–1 
λ – 2 1
= cos–1 
1 4.531 – 3
φE2 =
π  λ  π  4.531  = 0.3113 = 31.3%

cos–1 
λ – 1 1
= cos–1 
1 4.531 – 1
φD2 =
π  λ  π  4.531  = 0.2155 = 21.55%
φE – φD 31.13 – 21.55
Correction due to thickness = ×t= × 2 = 3.83%
d 5

Correction due to interference of U/S cutoff, given by,

D d + D 5 5 + 5
C = –19 = –19 = –1.68%
b'  b  40  40 

Hence, correct φE = 31.13 – 3.83 – 1.68 = 25.62%

Uplift pressure at E2 = 0.2562 × 4 = 1.02 %

For C/S cutoff,

Since, d1 = d2, α and λ are same as D/S cutoff

Hence, φC1 = φE2 = 100 – 31.13 = 68.87%

φD1 = 100 – φD2 = 100 – 21.55 = 78.45%

φD1 – φC1 78.45 – 68.87

Correction for thickness, = ×t= × 1 = 1.926%
d 5

Correction due to interference of D/S cut of given by

D d + D
C = 19 = 1.68%
b'  b 

Hence, corrected φC1 = 68.87 + 1.92 + 1.68 = 72.47%

Uplift pressure at C1 = 0.7247 × 5 = 3.62 m

Exit radiant,

H.S. 1 5 1 1
GE = = =
d π 8π 10.7
λ 4.531

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Example 5.3:
Calculate the uplift pressure at key points of the pile of the structure shown below. Also check the
thickness provided and safe exit gradient GE = 1/5.
RL 103.0 m

RL 100.0 m Q
1.0m 1.5m 1.25m 1.0m
2.0m
3.0m
1.5m

10m 20.0m
Solution:
Let split composite profile into simple profile,

ΦE ΦC ΦE ΦC ΦE ΦC
1 1 2 2 3 3

ΦD ΦD ΦD
1 2 3
Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3
For pile no 1 For pile no 2 For pile no 3
b= 30m b1= 10m b= 30m
d=2m b2=20m d=3m
α = b/d= 15 d=3m α = b/d= 10
1+ 1+α2 α1= b1/d =3.33 1+ 1+α2
λ= = 8.02 α2= b2/d = 6.67 λ= =5.52
2 2
100 0-λ 1+α12 - 1+ α22 100 λ-2
ФE1 = cos-1 = 100% λ1 =
2
= -1.634 ФE3 = cos-1 = 27.99%
π λ π λ
100 1-λ 1+α12 + 1+ α22 100 λ -1
ФD1 = cos-1 = 83.93% λ= = 5.11 ФD3 = cos-1 = 19.46%
π λ 2 π λ
100 2-λ 100 λ1-1 100 λ-0
ФC1 = cos-1 = 77.02% ФE2 = cos-1 = 67.24% ФC3 = cos-1 = 0%
π λ π λ π λ
100 λ1 - 0
ФD2 = cos-1 = 60.36%
π λ
100 λ1+1
ФC2 = cos-1 = 53.96%
π λ

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Correction for Corrected
HGL
Thickness (2)% Mutual Pressure Pressure
Pressure (masl)
ФD - ФC interference (3) Ф% Head (m)
Point Ф% = ×t Slope = 103
d % (5) = (1) + (6) = (5) ×
(1) % (4) - Hs+
ФD - ФE D d+D (2) + (3) + Hs/100
or × t =± 19 (6)
d b' b (4)
E1 100 0 0 0 100 3 103
D1 83.93 0 0 0 83.93 2.52 102.52
C1 77.02 3.46 0.85 0 81.33 2.44 102.44
E2 67.24 -3.44 -0.28 0 63.52 1.91 101.91
D2 60.36 0 0 0 60.36 1.81 101.81
C2 53.96 3.20 0.52 0 57.68 1.73 101.73
E3 27.99 -2.84 -0.80 0 24.35 0.73 100.73
D3 19.46 0 0 0 19.46 0.58 100.58
C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 100.0
Sample calculation
ФD – ФE 60.36 – 67.24
Correction for thickness at point E2 = ×t= ×1.5 = – 3.44
d 3
D d+D 0.5 1.5 + 0.5
Correction for mutual interference at point E2 = –19 = – 19 = – 0.28
b' b 10 30
1.0m
1.5m
2.0M
D = 0.5
d = 1.5

b' = 10.0m

RL 103.0m
102.44

101.91 Hs = 3.0m
100.73
101.73
100% 0%
Q
81.33% 24.35%
63.52% 57.68%

83.93%
19.46%
60.36%
10.0m 10.0m

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 Diversion Headworks
Thickness required
Pressure at point Q at the beginning of D/S floor = 1.91m [Take maximum pressure head at that point]
h 1.91
Thickness required = = = 1.56m
G – 1 2.24 – 1
Provided thickness = 1.50m < 1.56 hence unsafe.
0.73
Thickness at the end of floor = = 0.588
2.24 – 1
Provided thickness = 1m > 0.588. Hence safe.
Exit Gradient
H 1
GE = H = 3m
d π λ
d = 3m λ = 5.52 GE = 1/7.38 < 1/5 (safe)
Example 5.4:
5.4:
Find whether the section is safe against uplift at A, also determine the safe against piping.
Pond level 134.0

130.75

1:4
1:5
129.0
127.0
128.40 B
A 126.4
126.0
122.0 122.0
16m 25m 20m
120.0
Solution:
Let split composite profile into simple profile,

ΦE1 ΦC1 ΦE2 ΦC2

ΦE3 ΦC3
ΦD1 ΦD2
Pile 1 Pile 2
ΦD3

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
For pile no 1 For pile no 2 For pile no 3
b= 61m b1 = 16m b = 61m
d=129 – 122 = 7m b2 =45m d =127 – 120 = 7m
α = b/d= 8.714 d =129 – 122 = 7m α = b/d= 8.714
1+ 1+α2 α1 = b1/d 1+ 1+α2
λ= = 4.885 α2 = b2/d λ= =4.885
2 2
100 0-λ 1+α12 - 1+ α22 100 λ-2
ФE1 = cos-1 = 100% λ1 = = -2.0 ФE3 = cos-1 = 29.88%
π λ 2 π λ
100 1-λ 1+α12 + 1+ α22 100 λ -1
ФD1 = cos-1 = 79.26% λ= = 4.5 ФD3 = cos-1 = 20.73%
π λ 2 π λ
100 2-λ 100 λ1-1 100 λ-0
ФC1 = cos-1 = 70.11% ФE2 = cos-1 = 73.28% ФC3 = cos-1 = 0%
π λ π λ π λ
100 λ1 - 0
ФD2 = cos-1 = 64.70%
π λ
100 λ1+1
ФC2 = cos-1 = 57.171%
π λ

Correction for
Corrected Pressure HGL
Pressure Thickness (2)%
Poin ФD – ФC Mutual interference (3) % Pressure Ф% Head (m) (masl)
Ф% = ×t Slope
t d D d+D (5) = (1) + (2) (6) = (5) = 134 –
(1) = ± 19 % (4) × Hs/100
ФD – ФE b' b + (3) + (4) Hs + (6)
or ×t
d
E1 100 0 0 0 100 7 134.00
D1 79.26 0 0 0 79.26 5.54 132.54
C1 70.11 0.78 2.52 0 73.41 5.13 132.13
E2 73.28 – 0.73 – 2.52 0 70.02 4.90 131.90
D2 64.70 0 0 0 64.70 4.53 131.53
C2 57.17 0.64 1.99 – 0.51 59.29 4.15 131.15
E3 29.88 – 0.78 – 1.05 0 28.04 1.96 128.96
D3 20.73 0 0 0 20.73 1.45 128.45
C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 127.00
Sample calculation
64.70 – 57.17
Correction for thickness at point C2 = × 0.6 = 0.645%
7
Correction for mutual interference
Effect of pile no 3 on pile no 2
D =128.4 – 120 = 8.4m
d= 128.4 – 122.0 = 6.4m
b’= 45m
b = 61m
D d+D 8.4 6.4 + 8.4
Correction = 19 = 19 = 1.99%
b' b 45 61

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 Diversion Headworks
Correction for slope
bs
Slope correction at point C2 = Cs ×
b'
Vertical height = 130.75 – 129.0 = 1.75m
Sloping length bs= 1.75 × 4 = 7m
b' = 45m
Cs = 3.3 for 4:1 slope (from Table 5.4)
bs
Correction = Cs × = – 0.513% (negative for upward)
b'
134.0

131.900

131.149 130.75

1:4
1:5
129.0 128.968
127.0
128.40 B
A 126.4
126.0
122.0 122.0
16m 25m 20m
120.0
Check for uplift press at A

4.149
2.931 128.968
127.0 HGL
127.0
25m 20m
Now, uplift pressure at A, h = 2.931m
h 2.931
Thickness required at A, t = = = 2.363. But provided thickness is = 1m Hence unsafe.
G - 1 2.24 - 1
Now check for exit gradient
H 1
GE =
d π λ
H=7m
d = 127 – 120 = 7 m
λ = 4.18
7 1
GE = = 1/6.42 < 1/5. Hence, the weir is safe against piping.
7 π 4.18

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
5.4 Design of Sloping Glacis Weir Bay
Stepwise procedure for the design of the Barrage
Data needed:
i. Maximum flood discharge Q
ii. Stage discharge curve of the river at barrage site
iii. Minimum water level
iv. Cross – section of the river at barrage site.
The following have to be decided:
• Lacey’s silt factor f = 1.76 d where d = mean diameter of particles in mm.
• Length of waterway, discharge per meter and afflux.
• Safe exit gradient
• Depth of sheet piles in relation to
– Scour depth
– Exit gradient
• Level and layout of horizontal part of downstream impervious floor in coordination with hydraulic jump.
• Thickness of downstream impervious floor:
– With reference to uplift pressures.
– With reference to hydraulic jump or standing wave.
• Length and thickness of protection works beyond PCC floor upstream and downstream.
Procedure:
Step 1: Determine head loss HL for different flow conditions.
If there is no retrogression, HL = afflux.
If allowance for retrogression is taken in downstream bed level, then HL = Afflux +
retrogression. Usually 0.5m retrogression will be sufficient in most cases.
Step 2: For known values of q and HL, read corresponding values of Ef2 from Blench curves (Annex
III), with known values of Ef2 read corresponding values of d2.
Cistern level = downstream T.E.L. – Ef2
Step 3: Ef1 = Ef2 + HL, knowing Ef1, Ef2 and q read values of d1 and d2 from Annex IV energy of flow
curves. Provide minimum cistern length 5(d2 – d1); desirable 6(d2 – d1).
Step 4: Determine scour depths from the formula:
R= 1.35(q2/f)1/3 . . . 5.9
Depth of upstream sheet pile from scour consideration = (1 to 1.25) × R
Depth of downstream sheet pile from scour consideration = (1.25 to 1.5) × R.
An intermediate sheet pile line need not normally be provided. If at all provided, its depth
should not be less than that of the upstream pile line.
1 1 d
Step 5: Work out the value of from the equation = GE for the given value of GE and the
π λ π λ H
known value of d (downstream sheet pile) and H (maximum static head). Corresponding to the
1
value of , read the value of d from Annex II
π λ

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 Diversion Headworks
Step 6: Provide total length of floor b = α d.
Deposition of total floor length may be as follows:
– Cistern length = 5(d2 – d1) to 6(d2 – d1)
– Glacis length = 3 to 5 times (crest level – cistern level) from 3:1 to 5:1 slope of glacis plus
crest width.
– Upstream floor = the balance.
If the total length is excessive, it would be economical to reduce it by providing a deeper
downstream sheet pile.
Step 7: In order to determine uplift pressure acting on the floor, the % pressures at upstream and
downstream sheet pile lines are worked out. The pressure distribution from upstream sheet pile
line to downstream sheet pile line is assumed to be linear.
Correction due to floor thickness
The thickness of the floor at the location of the sheet piles are tentatively assumed for
correcting the values of ФC in the upstream and ФE in the downstream. If t1 is the floor
thickness at upstream sheet pile of depth d1, correction due to floor thickness = t1/d1 (ФD – ФC)
which is positive. If t2 is the floor thickness at downstream sheet pile of depth d2, the correction
= t2/d2 (ФE – ФD) which is negative.
Correction due to mutual interference of sheet piles
The correction due to mutual interference of sheet pile is worked out by the formula
D d + D
C = +19
b1  b 
Correction due to slope
This is applicable only in case where an intermediate pile line is provided. The values of
correction are discussed earlier.
Step 8: After knowing the corrected percentage pressures under the key points the sub – soil pressure
gradient line and hydraulic gradient line for surface flow is plotted with reference to the
corresponding downstream water level as datum. The corresponding water profiles before and
after the jump formation are also plotted for the given value of discharge intensity q.
Knowing q and Ef1 at different location of the glacis, corresponding values of d1 are read from
annex III and thus the water profile before jump formation can be plotted. For plotting water
profile after jump, the Froud number Fr is determined from the relation
q
Fr =
gd12
Knowing Fr relation between the abscissa and ordinate of the profile can be read from the Annex IV.
The uplift pressure which will occur with the maximum pond level upstream and no flow
downstream should also be determined. The requirement of floor thickness is worked out by
taking the larger of the two uplift pressure and dividing it by (G – 1), G being the density of
floor material and (G – 1) the submerged density of floor material.
Step 9: The protection works are designed for the scour depth will discussed in chapter 6.

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5.5 Sediment Control Measures and Devices at the Headwork
The rivers flowing in erodible valleys carry heavy sediment load during floods. The channel which take
off from these rivers draw heavy sediment which they cannot carry due to their slopes being milder than
that of the river. This results in silting of the channel in head regulators. The entry of coarse particles in a
power channel may in addition cause damage to the turbine blades.
In a flowing river the sediment concentration in the bottom portion is much higher and coarser than that
in the upper layers. If the bottom layers are removed without disturbing the natural sediment distribution
in the stream large quantity of sediment in suspension, saltation or moving on the bed shall be removed.
The aim of all sediment control and exclusion measures and devices is to prevent or remove sediment
concentrated in the bottom layers so that the channels are left with sediment near to their sediment-
carrying capacity. In power channels particles larger than 0.25mm is generally required to be removed to
prevent damage to the turbine blades (Varshney, 2001).
5.5.1 Classification of sediment control measures and devices
The various means of controlling sediment into the canal and ejecting that enter the canal may be
categorized as follows:
1. Sediment preventive measures
Entry of sediment into the channel can be discouraged by adopting certain preventive measures
which are generally incorporated in the layout of headworks itself. These include:
(i) River approach conditions. (ii) Alignment of head regulators
(iii) Alignment of guide bunds (iv) Length of divide wall
(v) Relative crest levels of under sluices and the head regulator and
(vi) River regulation
2. Sediment control devices
The bed load moves in the lower layer of flow. A number of devices in the form of submerged bars
have been evolved to diver the bed load away from the head regulator. Some devices have been
conceived with the idea of deflecting upper layers of flow from the main channel into the canal.
The devices may be classified as under:
• Guide vanes
• Skimming platform and
• Vortex tube
3. Sediment exclusion devices
The following devices are included in this category:
(i) Sediment excluder (ii) Sediment ejector
(iii) Settling basin
Sediment excluders are constructed in the river pocket adjacent to the head regulator in order to
exclude the coarse sediment by removing bottom layers of river water. Sediment ejector is
constructed in the head of the canal to eject the slit which may enter the canal inspite of sediment
control measures taken and sediment exclusion devices provided. Settling basins are found to be
quite effective in case of low dams which work on the principle that at a low velocity the sediment is
deposited in the basin and clear water is drawn into the canal or water conductor system.

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5.5.2 Sediment Preventive Measures
I. River approach condition
The curvature of the river flow approaching the canal head regulator is very important from the
point of view of sediment entry into the canal. It has been observed that the canal head regulator
located near the downstream end of a concave curvature is the best for minimum sediment entry.
The river channel leading to the head regulator should however not be very deep.
II. Alignment of head regulator
It has been observed that generally setting back of the upstream abutment of the head regulator from
the line at right angles to the barrage axis is helpful in reducing sediment entry into the canal.
In past, head regulators have been generally aligned at 100 to 105 degrees with barrage axis.
However recent model studies have indicated that the head regulators at an angle between 105 to
110 degrees with the barrage axis are optimum for minimum sediment entry into the canal.
III. Alignment of guide bunds
Suitable alignment of guide bunds helps in generating favorable curvature of flow for minimum
sediment entry into canal. It has been observed that the influence of guide bunds in reducing the
sediment is considerably reduced due to formation of islands upstream of the barrage which is a
common feature in wider barrages. The exact alignment depends on the river approach condition.
IV. Length of divide wall
A divide wall at the end of under sluices helps in creation of favorable flow conditions. In old headworks
very long divide walls have been provided. However, it has been observed that very long divide walls are
not advantageous. Divide wall extending up to 2/3rd the width of the head regulator in case of one head
regulator, and extending up to the end of second head regulator is considered optimum.
V. Relative crest levels of undersluices and head regulator
Crest level of undersluices are kept lower than other barrage bay about 1 m. this helps in maintaining
well defined channel in front of head regulator, the crest level of head regulator is kept 1 m to 4 m
higher than the crest of undersluices. Raised crest of the regulator is found effective in reducing
sediment entry into the canal in case the canal discharge is a small proportion of the river discharge.
VI. River regulation
The river regulation involves the sequence of gate operation for passing the flood discharge through
various barrage bays. The river regulation has a bearing on the sediment entry into the canal. The
usual practices of river regulation are:
(a) Still-pond – when the undersluices bays are entirely closed and flood is passed through other
barrage bays. The canal thus draws the discharge from the still pond in the pocket.
(b) Semi-still pond regulation- when the gates in the undersluices pocket are partially opened and
canal is drawing the discharge from a flowing stream.
(c) The open-flow regulation- when all the gates in the undersluices pocket are fully open. This
condition is conductive to more sediment entry in canal. Both the model and prototype
observations have proved the superiority of still-pond regulation over other methods.
If still pond regulation in which frequent flushing of the pocket is required cannot be adopted
especially on power channels, semi-still pond regulation with progressive increased opening of gates
away from the head regulator may be adopted.

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5.5.3 Sediment Control Devices
Guide vanes in the form of submerged bars may divert the bed load away from the head regulator. This
arrangement can be used for distributary heads. Descriptions of various types of vanes are as follows:
I. King's Vanes
These silt vanes are vertical diaphragm walls parallel to each other, starting in line with the current
and terminating at an angle with it. They are at low height, so as to diver bottom layers of water
loaded with sediment away from the head regulator.
II. Skimming Platform
It consists of a slab supported on piers so as to exclude silt laden bottom water and leaves such
quantity of top water that should fill the offtake. The best shape of the platform is as shown in
figure. However one or both ends can be made square.
The following criteria of design may be adopted.
(i) The minimum depth should be 0.6 m deeper tunnels are preferred.
(ii) Width of platform should be sufficient so that enough water passes over it to fill the offtake
with some spare say 20 to 25%.
(iii) Pier number may be decided from structural considerations. The pier noses should slope 1 in 3.
The noses should be cut water shape.
(iv) The downstream edge of the platform may be made at an angle of 60° to the center line of the
parent channel. The upstream edge may be parallel to the other edge but it should be at 1.5 to
3.0 m "upstream of the upstream" edge at the off-take.
III. Vortex Tube
It consists of an open tube placed across the bottom of the canal either normal to it or at an angle
greater than 30°. To control the flow out of the tube, its downstream end is regulated by a valve. The
upper portion of the tube is removed to trap the sediment. As water passes over the tube, a shearing
action across the open portion sets up a vortex motion within the tube, this has sufficient velocity to
prevent sediment deposition in tube.
5.5.4 Sediment Excluders
The first approach to control sediment entry into the canals was made by F.V. Elsden in 1922. He
suggested diversion of the bottom layers of flow through the tunnels back into the river by putting a
diaphragm at a suitable height without disturbing the sediment distribution. However, the idea took a
practical shape in 1934 when H. W.Nicholson constructed an excluder in the pocket of Lower Chennab
canal at Khanki head works. The design consisted of six tunnels of different lengths covering the full
length of the regulator and discharging into first two layers of the undersluices.
5.5.5 Sediment Ejectors or Extractors
Despite measures which may be taken to prevent sediment entry in the canal, a part of the suspended
sediment of the river would always enter the canal. If the sediment transporting capacity of the canal is
not adequate to carry this sediment, the canal would be silted. In such cases ejectors are provided in the
head reaches to eject part of the coarse sediment that entered the canal.
The the principle of design of various components of the ejector are the same as for excluder.

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5.5.6 Settling basins or sedimentation chamber
Provision of silt excluder is possible in barrages having their crests close to the river bed. In case of high
dams most of the sediment particles settle down in the reservoir and no exclusion devices are required. In
case of low dams which have very little trap efficiency, it is generally necessary to construct sediment
exclusion devices. In such dams, silt excluders cannot be provided and only silt excluders are possible.
When it is desired to exclude very fine suspended particles, settling basins or tanks are used for sediment
exclusion. The low lying area along the canal is converted into a basin by constructing bunds. Silt water
enters from one side and clear water flows back into the canal through the other end. The sediment which
drops down in the basin is either mechanically removed or is flushed out.
Settling tanks or sedimentation chambers have been provided on many irrigation and multipurpose
projects in the country to remove every particle. The recent examples being Seti multipurpose project
Kaski, Trisuli hydropower project and etc.
5.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Excluders and Ejectors
According to F.F Haigh (1934) the advantages and disadvantages of excluders and ejectors are as given
below:
Advantages of Excluders:
(i) The head across the barrage for its operation is usually available.
(ii) Economy is affected by the use of barrage gates and cisterns,
(iii) Large orifices unlikely to be checked by rolling submerged floating debris can be provided
easily.
Disadvantages of Excluders:
(i) The difficulty of securing good approach conditions.
(ii) The undersluices bays covered by the excluders cannot be used simultaneously for the passage
of flood discharge.
(iii) The structure being subject to the river action has to be robust.
Advantages of Ejectors:
(i) Good approach conditions are secured with ease.
(ii) The extent of extraction can be improved by constructing a series of ejectors in the canal.
Disadvantages of Ejectors:
(i) There is difficulty in securing a working head with High River and low canal discharges.
(ii) The size of the head regulator has to be increased to pass additional discharge for the escape.
(iii) The canal section has to be increased upstream of the ejector to accommodate the escape
discharge.
(iv) Comparatively small orifices are liable to be blocked by debris and may necessitate the
provision of trash rack at the canal head regulator.
Despite various advantages and disadvantages of excluders and ejectors, it may be essential to provide
both devices in important canal system.

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5.6 Design of Under Sluice and Silt Excluder
5.6.1 Under sluices
Discharge over weir – bay and sluice bay sections:
Before starting the actual design of weir, the discharge passing over the weir – bay section and that over
the undersluice section should be decided.
The discharge over the undersluice section should be equal to or greater than the greatest of the following:
• It should be at least equal to twice the full supply discharge of the offtaking canal.
• It should be greater than the dry weather flow of the ricer during winter so that the weir crest
gates (or shutters) are not required to be opened.
• It should be a substantial portion of the total design discharge so that small floods can be
passed over the sluice section, without lifting the weir crest gates. It is the usual practice to take
the discharge over the sluice section about 20% of the total discharge and the remaining 80%
discharge over the weir – bay section.
Design Procedure
The design procedure is similar for the undersluice section and the weir bay section. However, the levels
of the two portions are different. Generally, Khosla’s theory is used for design. The procedure may be
summarized as follows:
(i) Fix the discharge over the weir – bay and undersluice bay sections, as discussed above.
(ii) Fix the crest level of the undersluice section and the weir bay section.
• The crest of the undersluice section is usually kept flush with upstream floor. The slope of the
D/S glacis is usually kept between 3:1 and 5:1.
• In the case of weir bay section, as the crest level is higher than the bed level, an upstream glacis is
also provided with a slope of 1:1 to 3:1. The top width of the crest is kept about 2.0m to 3.0m.
(iii) Fix the water way for the weir – bay and undersluice sections.
(iv) Determine the characteristics of the hydraulic jump for the high flood condition and the pond level
condition, with:
• No flow concentration and no retrogression and
• Blow concentration and with retrogression.
(v) Calculate the normal scour depth and determine the bottom levels of the upstream and downstream
piles. If necessary, provide an intermediate pile.
(vi) Find the total length of the impervious floor from the exit gradient consideration. Also fix the
lengths and levels of the upstream and downstream floors. The D/S floor level is fixed below the
point at which the hydraulic jump is formed.
(vii) Calculate the percentage uplift pressure at the key points of all piles by Khosla’s theory for the
following conditions.
• No flow condition
• High flood condition and pond level condition, without flow concentration and without
retrogression.
• High flood condition and pond level condition, with flow concentration and with retrogression.
Draw the subsoil hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.) for each case.

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 Diversion Headworks
(viii) Determine the uplift pressure at various points from the subsoil H.G.L. for low flow condition. Also
determine the suction pressure at the jump through for high flood condition and pond level
condition.
(ix) Calculate the thickness of the floor at various points for the maximum of the uplift obtained for the
three conditions mentioned in step vii.
(x) Provide concrete block protection on the upstream and downstream sides.
(xi) Provide launching aprons on the upstream and downstream sides.
Example 5.5
5.5:
Design the undersluice section of a diversion headworks with the following data:
- Design flood discharge in the river = 9000 m3/sec
- Deepest bed level of the river = 200.00
- High flood level before construction = 206.00
- Full supply level of canal = 203.00
- Permissible afflux = 1.0m
- Bed retrogression = 0.50m
- Discharge concentration factor = 20%
- Lecey’s silt factor = 1.0
- Safe exit gradient = 1/6
- Pier contraction coefficient = 0.10
- Full supply discharge of canal = 200.0 m3/sec
The stage discharge curve of the river at the site is shown below. Assume suitable data if necessary.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Solution:
Step 1: Crest level
Crest level of undersluice = deepest bed level = 200.00
Crest level of weir bay = 200.00 + 1.5 = 201.50
Pond level = F.S.L. + modular head = 203.00 + 1.0 = 204.00
Step 2: Water way

From Lacey’s formula, P = 4.75 Q = 4.75 9000 = 450.62m

Let us fix the water way as follows:
(a) Undersluice portion
Number of spans =5
5 bays of 16 m each = 80m
4 pier of 2.5 m each = 10m
Total = 90m
(b) Weir bay portion
Number of spans = 25
25 bays of 12 m each= 300m
24 pier of 2 m each = 48m
Total = 348 m
Width of fish ladder = 5m
Width of divide wall = 3m
Overall waterway between abutments = 90 + 348 + 5 + 3 = 446m
This waterway is approximately equal to P.
Average discharge intensity q= 9000/446 = 20.18 cumecs/m
Step 3: Discharge
Let us first determine the U/S T.E.L.
U/S HFL after construction = H.F.L. before construction + afflux = 206 + 1.0 = 207.0m

2 1 2 1
Normal scour depth from Lacey’s formula = R = 1.35  3 = 1.35 
q 20.18 3
f  1.0  = 10.00m
Velocity of approach = q/R = 20.18/10 = 2.02 m/s
v2 
Head due to velocity of approach= 
2g = 0.21m
U/S T.E.L. = U/S HFL + Head due to velocity of approach = 207.00 + 0.21 = 207.21

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 Diversion Headworks
(a) Undersluices
Head over the undersluices crest = 207.21 – 200 = 7.21
Since the U/S floor and the crest of the undersluices are at the same level, the width of
crest is large and it will behave as a broad crested weir. Therefore, discharge is given by:
Q = 1.705 (L' – 0.1 × n He) He3/2
Where n is the number of end contraction. Assuming that the end near the divide wall and
the abutment are suppressed, n = 8
Q = 1.705 (80 - 0.1 × 8 × 7.21) 7.213/2 =2450.30 cumec
(b) Weir – bay
Head over the weir bay crest = 207.21 – 201.50 = 5.71m
2H
Let us assume the crest width of weir as 2m. As the crest width B < , the weir will act
3
as a sharp crested weir. Therefore discharge is given by
Q = 1.84 ( L' – 0.1 × n × He) He3/2 = 1.84 ( 300 – 0.1 × 48 × 5.71) 5.713/2 = 6843.61 cumec
Total discharge Q = 2450.30 + 6843.61 = 9293.91 cumecs > 9000 cumecs OK
Let us verify whether the discharge through undersluice is adequate.
Twice the design full supply discharge of canal = 400 cumecs
20% of the total design flood discharge = 1800 cumecs
The discharge capacity of undersluice is more than the minimum required by above two criteria
and may be adopted. As the dry weather flow is not given the third criterion cannot be applied.
Step 4: Design of undersluice section
Let us find out the discharge intensity q and head loss HL for different conditions.
(a) High flood conditions
(i) Without flow concentration and without retrogression
q = 1.705 (He)3/2 = 1.705 × (7.21)3/2 = 33.00 cumecs/m
D/S TEL = 206.00 + 0.21 = 206.21
U/S TEL = 207.00 + 0.21 = 207.21
Head loss, HL = 207.21 – 206.21= 1.00m
(ii) With 20% flow concentration and retrogression of 0.5m
q = 1.20 × 33.0 = 39.6 cumecs/m
He = Head over the crest = (39.6/1.705)2/3 = 8.14m
U/S TEL = 200.00 + 8.14 = 208.14
D/S TEL after retrogression = 206.21 – 0.5 = 205.71
Head loss, HL= 208.14 – 205.71 = 2.43m

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(b) Pond level conditions

(i) Without flow concentration and without retrogression

Head over the crest of undersluices = 204.0 – 200.0 = 4.0m

At the pond level condition, the velocity of approach can be found from the
discharge which occurs at that level.

Q = 1.705 (80 – 0.1 × 8 × 4.0) (4.0)3/2 + 1.84 (300 – 0.1 × 48 × 2.5) (2.5)3/2

or, Q = 1047.55 + 2094.69 = 3142.24 cumecs.

Average discharge intensity = 3142.24/446.00 = 7.05 cumecs/m

2 1 2 1
Normal scour depth, R = 1.35  3 = 1.35 
q 7.05  3
f  1  = 4.96m
Velocity of approach, va=q/R = 7.05/4.96 = 1.42m/sec

va2
Head due to velocity of approach = 
 2g  = 0.10m
U/S TEL = 204.0 + 0.1 = 204.10

Discharge intensity q = 1.705 × (4.10)3/2 = 14.15 cumecs/m

The water level on the D/S of the weir when a discharge of 3142.24 cumecs occurs
in the river is obtained from the stage discharge curve as 203.50m.

D/S TEL = 203.50 + 0.1 = 203.60

Head loss, HL = 204.10 – 203.60 = 0.50m

(ii) With 20% flow condition and 0.5m retrogression

Discharge intensity = 1.2 × 14.15 = 16.98 cumecs/m

Head over the crest = (16.98/1.705)2/3 = 4.63m

U/S TEL = 200.00 + 4.63 = 204.63

D/S water level after retrogression = 203.50 – 0.5 = 203.00

D/S TEL = 203.00 + 0.1 = 203.10m

Head loss, HL = 204.63 – 203.10 = 1.53 m

Step 5: Hydraulic jump calculation

The hydraulic jump calculation are given in table 5.6.

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Table 5.6
5.6: Hydraulic jump calculation with different conditions
High flood condition Pond level condition
No with No with
S.N. Item concentration concentration concentration concentration
and and and and
retrogression retrogression retrogression retrogression
Discharge
1 intensity q 33.00 39.60 14.15 16.98
cumecs/m
U/S water
2 207.00 207.00 204.00 204.00
level
3 U/S TEL 207.21 208.14 204.10 204.63
D/S water
4 206.00 205.50 203.50 203.00
level
5 D/S TEL 206.21 205.71 203.60 203.10
Head Loss
6 1.00 2.43 0.50 1.53
(HL)
Ef2 from
7 8.60 10.10 4.60 5.80
blench curve
Level at which
the hydraulic
8 197.61 195.61 199.00 197.30
jump is formed
(5) - (7)
Ef1= Ef2 + HL
9 9.60 12.53 5.10 7.33
= (7) + (6)
Pre jump
depth y1(from
10 2.80 2.90 1.80 1.60
montague's
curve)
Post jump
depth , y2
11 (from 7.60 9.00 3.80 5.30
montague
curve)
length of
12 horizontal floor 24.00 30.50 10.00 18.50
= 5(y2 - y1)
Initial Froud
13 q2 2.25 2.56 1.87 2.68
no =
gy3
14 Fr2 5.06 6.55 3.50 7.10
1
q2
15 yc =   3 4.80 5.43 2.73 3.09
g
HL
16 z = 0.21 0.45 0.18 0.50
yc

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
The lowest water level at which the hydraulic jump is formed corresponds to the high flood
condition with flow concentration and retrogression and is 195.61. Let us adopt the
downstream floor level is 195.50. The greatest length of the horizontal floor is 30.50 m. Let us
adopt the length of the D/S horizontal floor as 31.0m.
200.00
1m 3
1
199.00 195.00
4.149
2m
191.80 193.00

8.50m 13.50m 31.0m

53.0m
Step 6: Depth of sheet piles
Total discharge over undersluices = 2450.30 m3/s
Overall waterway = 80 + 2.5 × 4 = 90m
Average discharge intensity = 2450.30/90 = 27.23 cumecs/m
2
1
Normal scour depth, R = 1.35 
27.23  3
 1  = 12.22m
Let us take the maximum scour depth at D/S as 1.50R = 18.33m
Bottom level of D/S pile = D/S water level after retrogression – 1.5R = 205.50 – 18.33 =
187.17, say 187.00.
Depth of D/S pile below floor level, D2 = 195.50 – 187.00 = 8.50m
Let us take the maximum scour depth at U/S as 1.25R = 15.20m
Bottom level of U/S pile = U/S water level – 1.25R = 207.00 – 15.20 = 191.80.
Depth of U/S pile below the river bed D1 = 200.00 – 191.80 = 8.20m
Step 7: Length of impervious floor
Maximum seepage head H = Pond level – D/S floor level = 204.00 – 195.50 = 8.50m
H 1 1 8.50 1
We have, the safe exit gradient GE = or = or λ = 3.648
d π λ 6 8.50 π λ

1+ 1+α2 1+ 1+α2
Now λ = or 3.648 = or α = 6.22
2 2
b = α d or b = 6.22 × 8.50 = 52.9m
Let us adopt the overall length of 53 m as shown above figure.
Length of U/S floor = 8.50m
Length of D/S glacis = 13.50m
Length of D/S floor = 31.00m

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Step 8: Uplift pressure calculations
Let us assume the thickness of U/S floor as 1.0m and that of the D/S floor at the end as 2.00m
for the purpose of calculating the uplift pressures. Khosla’s theory is used for uplift pressure
calculations.
For pile no 1 For pile no 2
b= 53m b= 53m
d=8.20m d=8.5m
α = b/d= 6.46 α = b/d= 6.23
1+ 1+α2 1+ 1+α2
λ= 2 =3.77 λ= 2 =3.65
100 0–λ 100 λ–2
ФE1 = π cos-1 λ = 100% ФE2 = π cos-1 λ =35.07%
100 1–λ 100 λ–1
ФD1 = π cos-1 λ = 76.27% ФD2 = π cos-1 λ = 24.13%

100 2–λ 100 λ–0

ФC1 = π cos-1 λ = 65.56% ФC2 = π cos-1 λ = 0%

i. Correction for thickness for i. Correction for thickness for

76.21 – 65.56 35.07 – 24.13
ФC1= × 1.00 = 1.30 ФE2 = × 2.00 = 2.57%
8.20 8.50
ii. Correction for mutual interference ii. Correction for mutual interference

=19 
d + D D
=19 
d + D D
 b  b'
=  b  b'
=19 
6.50 + 1.70
1.70
19 
7.2 + 12 12
= 0.53%
 53  53
= 3.28%  53  53
Corrected ФC1 = 65.56 + 1.30 +3.28 = Corrected ФE2 = 35.07 – 3.95 – 0.53 =
70.14% 31.97%
The level of subsoil hydraulic gradient line HGL can be calculated assuming linear variation
between key points C1 and E2 for different flow condition. As shown in table below.
Table 5.7
5.7 Uplift pressure calculation

U/S D/S Seepage Height of subsoil HGL above D/S water level and its elevation
S. Flow
water water Head U/S pile D/S pile
No. condition
level level (m)
ФC1 = 100 ФC1= 76.27% ФC1 = 70.14% ФC1 = 30.59% ФC1 = 18.29% ФC1 = 0%
8.45 8.5 6.48 5.96 2.6 1.55 0
1 No flow 204 195.5
RL 204 201.98 201.46 198.1 197.05 195.5
High flood
with flow 1.5 1.5 1.14 1.05 0.46 0.27 0
2 concentration 207 205.5
and RL 207 206.64 206.55 205.96 205.77 205.5
retrogression
Flow at pond
level with 1 1 0.76 0.7 0.31 0.18 0
3 flow condition 204 203
and
RL 204 203.76 203.7 203.31 203.18 203
retrogression

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Step 9: Hydraulic jump profile
For high flood condition and flow at pond level, the suction pressure is computed from the
hydraulic jump profile.
(a) Pre jump profile
(b) High flood flow with 20% concentration and 0.5m retrogression.
(c) Pond level flow with 20% concentration and 0.5m retrogression.
The hydraulic jump forms at RL for 195.61 in the first case and 197.30 in the second case, as
already calculated in table 5.8.

Table 5.8
5.8: Pre jump profile calculation

High flood condition pond level condition

Distance R.L.
U/S TEL = 208.14 q=39.60cumecs/m U/S TEL = 204.63, q = 16.98 cumecss/m
from the of
end of glacis Ef = U/S TEL Ef = U/S TEL -
Depth (y) water level Depth (y) water level
crest (1) (2) - R.L. of R.L. of glacis
(m) (4) (5) = (2)+(4) (m) (7) (8) =(2) + (7)
glacis (3) (6)

0 200 8.14 5 205 4.63 2.5 202.5

3 199 9.14 3.9 202.9 5.63 2 201

6 198 10.14 3.45 201.45 6.63 1.7 199.7

8.1* 197.3 10.84 3.25 200.55 7.33 1.6 198.9

9 197 11.14 3.15 200.15

12 196 12.14 2.95 198.95

13.17** 196.61 12.53 2.9 199.51

Note: * Point at which hydraulic jump forms for pond level condition.

** Point at which hydraulic jump forms for high flood condition.

Post jump profile

From Table 5.9,

For high flood condition, with concentration and retrogression,

Fr2 = 6.55m and y1 = 2.90m

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 Diversion Headworks
For pond level condition, with concentration and retrogression,

Fr2 = 7.18m and y1 = 1.60m

For determination of the post jump profile, different values of (x/y1) are assumed and
corresponding values of (y/y1) are read from Annex V, for the known values of Fr2.
Calculations are shown in table 5.9. The distance x and y are measured from the point P where
the hydraulic jump is formed.

Table 5.9
5.9: Post – jump profile calculations

High flood condition y1 = 2.90m,

Pond level condition y1 = 1.60m Fr2 = 7.18
2
Fr = 6.55

S. No. x/y1 y/y1 x y water level x/y1 y/y1 x y water level

1 1 1.3 2.9 3.77 199.38 1 1.3 1.6 2.08 199.38

2 2.5 2 7.25 5.8 201.41 2.5 2 4 3.2 200.5

3 5 2.5 14.5 7.25 202.86 5 2.5 8 4 201.3

4 10 2.9 29 8.41 204.02 10 2.9 16 4.64 201.94

5 15 3 31.03 8.7 204.31 15 3 24 4.8 202.1

6 20 3.1 32 4.96 202.26

Step 10: Calculation of uplift pressure

Uplift pressure at various points can be calculated by plotting the hydraulic jump profile for the
two conditions along with the subsoil HGL. Figure 5.10 (a) shows the plot for the high flood
condition. Figure 5.10 (b) shows the plot for the pond level condition. From these plots, it is
found that the maximum unbalanced head (Hd) in the jump trough is equal to 7.80m. The
thickness of the glacis should be designed for 2/3 of this head (i.e. 5.2 m head) or for the static
condition uplift pressure, whichever is greater. Figure 5.10 (c) shows the uplift pressure for no
– flow condition (static condition).

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
207.00 206.31

Water surface
7.80m
200.00
198.51
195.61 195.50
8.5m 13.17m
P
(a) High flood conditon

204.00 203.58
203.0
200.00 4.68m Water surface
198.00
197.30 195.50
8.5m 8.10m

(b) Pond level condition

204.00

200.00 200.00

4.56

8.5m 13.5m 31.0m

53m
(c) No flow condition

Figure 5.10: Jump profile

Table 5.10 gives the uplift pressure at various points under three conditions. The controlling
uplift is taken the larger of the static condition and 2/3 of the dynamic condition.

It is seen that the dynamic uplift pressure governs the floor thickness up to a length of about
18.50m from the end of crest, whereas the static head governs the rest of the D/S floor
thickness. Provide the floor thickness as shown in figure.

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Table 5.10
5.10:
10: Uplift pressure for different conditions

No flow condition High flood condition Pond level condition

Distance Level
controlling thickn
from of unbalance Unbalanc
S.No. Unbalnce water water uplift head ess t=
end of glacis HGL head hd 2hd/3 HGL e head hd 2hd/3
HGL (3) head (4) level level (h) (13) h/g-1
crest (1) or (6) (7) = (6) - (8) (10) (11) = (11)
= (3) - (2) (5) (9)
floor (5) (10) - (9)
(2)

1 0 200 200.92 0.92 205 206.46 1.46 0.97 202.5 203.64 1.14 0.76 0.97 0.78

2 3 199 200.73 1.73 202.9 206.42 3.52 2.35 201 203.37 2.37 1.58 2.35 1.89

3 6 198 200.54 2.54 201.45 206.39 4.94 3.29 199.7 203.59 3.89 2.59 3.29 2.66

4 8.1 197.3 200.4 3.1 200.56 206.36 5.8 3.87 198.9 203.58 4.68 3.12 3.87 3.12

5 12 196 200.16 4.16 198.95 206.32 7.37 4.91 200.51 203.55 3.04 2.03 4.91 3.96

6 13.17 195.61 200.09 4.48 198.51 206.31 7.8 5.20 200.71 203.54 2.83 1.89 5.20 4.19

7 13.5 195.5 200.06 4.56 198.7 206.3 7.6 5.07 5.07 4.09

8 18.5 195.5 199.75 4.25 200.4 206.25 5.85 3.90 4.25 3.43

9 23.5 195.5 199.43 3.93 201.6 206.19 4.59 3.06 3.93 3.17

10 28.5 195.5 199.11 3.61 202.86 206.14 3.28 2.19 3.61 2.91

11 33.5 195.5 198.8 3.3 203.58 206.08 2.5 1.67 3.30 2.66

12 38.5 195.5 198.46 2.96 203.91 206.03 2.12 1.41 2.96 2.39

13 44.5 195.5 198.1 2.6 204.31 205.96 1.65 1.10 2.60 2.10

Step 11: Protection Work

(a) D/S protection works

Normal scour depth R, as already calculated = 12.22m

Maximum scour = 2R = 24.44m

Scour level = 205.50 – 24.44 = 181.06 = 181.00
Scour depth below D/S bed, D2 = 195.5 – 181.00 = 14.50m

(i) Inverted filter and concrete blocks

Length = 1.5D2 = 21.75m
Let us provide 17 rows of cement concrete blocks, 1.2m × 1.2m × 1.00m, having
10cm gaps filled with bajri. Total length = 17 × 1.2 +16 × 0.1 = 22.0m.
Provide 0.50m thick graded filter beneath the blocks.
Total thickness = 1.00 + 0.50 = 1.50m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
(ii) Launching apron

Provide a launching apron of horizontal length equal to 1.5D2 = 22.00m.

Inclined length of launching apron = D2 5 = 2.24D2

Let the thickness be 1m in a launched position.

Volume of stone in the launching apron = 2.24D2 m3/m = 32.48 m3/m

Thickness in the horizontal position = 32.48/22.00 = 1.48m. Provide 1.50m

(b) U/S protection works

(i) Concrete block

Maximum scour = 1.5R = 15 × 12.22 = 18.33m

Scour level = 207.00 – 18.33 = 188.67

Scour depth below U/S bed, D1 = 200.00 – 188.67 = 11.33m

Length of concrete blocks D1 = 11.33m

Let us provide 9 rows of cement concrete block 1.2m × 1.2m × 1m, having 10cm
gaps filled with bajri.

Total length = 1.2 × 9 + 8 × 0.1 = 11.60m

Thickness of gravel pack below the concrete blocks = 0.50m

Total thickness = 1.00 + 0.50 = 1.50m

(ii) Launching apron

Provide a launching apron of horizontal length equal to 1.5D1 = 16.70m. Let us

provide a length of 17.0m. Volume of stone = 2.24D1 = 25.38 m3/m.

Thickness in the horizontal position = 25.38/17.0 = 1.50m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Example 5.6
5.6:
Design the weir bay section for the data given in example 5.5.
Solution:
Crest level of the weir bay section = 201.50.
Let the crest width = 2.0m
Step 1: Determination of discharge intensity (q) and head loss (HL)
Let us find out the discharge intensity (q) and the head loss (HL) for different conditions.
(a) High flood conditions
(b) Without flow concentration and retrogression
As B<2H//3, the weir act as a sharp – crested weir. He = 207.21 – 201.50 = 5.71m
q = 1.84 (He)3/2 = 25.11 cumecs/m
U/S TEL = 207.21, D/S TEL = 206.21m
Head loss, HL = 1.00mWith flow concentration and retrogression
q = 1.2 × 25.11 =30.13 cumecs/m
Head over the crest = (30.13/1.84)2/3 = 6.45m
U/S TEL = 201.50 + 6.45 = 207.95 m
D/S TEL after retrogression = 206.21 – 0.5 = 205.71m
Head loss HL= 207.95 – 205.71 = 2.24m
(c) Pond level conditions
(i) Without flow concentration and retrogression
U/S TEL, as calculated in example 5.4 = 204.10m
Head over the crest = 204.10 – 201.50 = 2.60m
q = 1.84(2.60)3/2 = 7.71 cumecs/m
D/S TEL = 203.60m
Head loss HL = 204.10 – 203.60 = 0.50m
(ii) With flow concentration and retrogression
q = 1.20 × 7.71 = 9.25cumecs/m
Head over the crest = (9.25/1.84)2/3 = 2.93 m
U/S TEL = 201.50 + 2.93 = 204.43
D/S TEL = 203.10m
Head loss HL = 204.43 – 203.10 = 1.33m

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Step 2: Depth of sheet piles
Total discharge over the weir – bay section = 6843.61 m3/sec
Overall water way = 300 + 48 = 348 m
Average discharge intensity, q = 6843.61/348 = 19.67 cumecs/m
Normal scour depth, R = 1.35 (q2/f)1/3 = 1.35 (19.672/1)1/3 = 9.84 m
Bottom level of D/S pile = D/S water level after retrogression – 1.50R
= 205.50 – 1.5 × 9.84 = 190.74, say 190.50m
Bottom level of U/S pile = U/S water level – 1.25 R
= 207.00 – 1.25 × 9.84 = 194.70 say 194.50m
Depth of D/S file below floor = 197.00 – 190.50 = 6.50m
Depth of U/S pile below river bed = 200.00 – 194.50 = 5.50m
Step 3: Hydraulic jump calculation

High flood condition Pond level condition

No with No with
S. No. Item
concentration concentration concentration concentration
and and and and
retrogression retrogression retrogression retrogression
Discharge intensity
25.11 30.13 7.71 9.25
1 (cumecs/m)
2 U/S water level 207 207 204 204
3 U/S TEL 207.21 207.95 204.1 204.43
4 D/S water level 206 205.5 203.5 203
5 D/S TEL 206.21 205.71 203.6 203.1
6 Head loss Hl 1 2.24 0.5 1.33
7 Ef2 from Blench curve 7.1 8.55 3.2 4.1
Level at which the hydraulic
199.11 197.16 200.4 199
8 jump formed (5) - (7)
9 Ef1 = Ef2 + HL 8.1 10.79 3.7 5.43
Pre jump Depth y1 from
2.4 2.3 1.1 1
10 Montague's curve
Post jump depth y2 from
6.1 7.8 2.8 3.7
11 Montague's curve
Length of horizontal floor = 18.5 8.5 13.5
27.5
12 5(y2 - y1)
q
Initial Froud no. Fr = 2.63 2.76 2.13 2.95
13 gy12
14 Fr2 6.92 7.62 4.54 8.7

15
yc = (q2g)1/3
4 4.52 1.82 2.06

16 Z= HL /yc 0.25 0.5 0.27 0.65

Lowest level of jump formation = 197.16m
Largest length of horizontal floor = 27.50 m
Let us keep the level and length of the D/S floor as 197.00 m and 28.0m, respectively.
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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Step 4: Length of floor
Maximum seepage head = pond level – D/S floor level
H= 204.00 – 197.00 = 7.00m
H 1 1 7.00 1
Exit gradient, GE = or = or λ = 4.23
d π λ 6 6.50 π λ

1+ 1+α2 1+ 1+α2
Now, λ = or = 4.23 or α = 7.39, b= 7.39 × 6.5 = 48.05m say 50.0m.
2 2
Provide the floor lengths as follows
U/S glacis (1:1) = 1.5m
Crest width =2m
D/S glacis (3:1) = 13.50m
D/S horizontal floor = 28.00m
U/S horizontal floor = 5.00m
Total length = 50.00m
Step 5: Uplift pressure calculation
Let us assume the thickness of the upstream floor as 1.00m and the thickness at the end of the
D/S floor as 2.00m.
For pile no 1 For pile no 2
b= 50m b= 50m
d=5.5m d=6.5m
α = b/d= 9.09 α = b/d= 7.69
1+ 1+α2 1+ 1+α2
λ= 2 =5.07 λ= 2 =4.38

100 0-λ 100 λ-2

ФE1 = π cos-1 λ = 100% ФE2 = π cos-1 λ =31.71%

100 1-λ 100 λ -1

ФD1 = π cos-1 λ = 79.66% ФD2 = π cos-1 λ = 21.94%

100 2-λ 100 λ-0

ФC1 = π cos-1 λ = 70.70% ФC2 = π cos-1 λ = 0%

i. Correction for thickness for i. Correction for thickness for

79.66 - 70.70 31.71 - 21.94
ФC1= × 1.00 = 1.63 ФE2 = × 2.00 = 3.00%
5.50 6.50
ii. Correction for mutual interference ii. Correction for mutual interference

= 19 
d + D D
= 19 
d + D D
 b  b'  b  b'

= 19 
4.50 + 0.5 0.5
= 19 
4.5 + 8.5 8.5
= 0.19%
 50  50
= 2.04%  50  50
Corrected ФC1 = 70.70 + 1.63 + 2.04 Corrected ФE2 = 31.71 – 3.00 – 0.19
= 74.37% = 28.51%

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 Diversion Headworks
The levels of the sub – soil hydraulic gradient line (HGL) have been calculated in Table below.
Height of elevation of subsoil HGL
U/S D/S
S. Seepage
Flow Condition water water U/S Pile D/S pile
No. Head
level level
ФE1 ФD1 ФC1 ФE2 ФD2 ФC2
1 No flow 7 5.58 5.21 2 1.54 0
204 197 7
204 202.58 202.21 199 198.54 197
High flood with
flow
concentration 1.5 1.2 1.11 0.43 0.33 0
and 207 205.5 1.5
2 retrogression
207 206.7 206.61 205.93 205.83 205.5
Flow at pond
level with flow
concentration 1 0.8 0.74 0.29 0.22 0
and 204 203 1
3 retrogression
204 203.8 203.74 203.29 203.22 203
For high flood condition and pod level condition, the suction pressure is computed from the
hydraulic jump calculation given in table below.
High flood condition Pond level condition
Distance
from the RL of U/S TEL = 207.95, q = 30.13 cumecs/m U/S TEL = 204.43, q= 9.25 cumecs/m
end of glacis
Ef = U/S TEL - Depth y Water Ef = U/S TEL - Depth y Water
crest
RL of glacis (m) level RL of glacis (m) level
0 201.5 6.45 2.93
3 200.5 7.45 3.4 203.9 3.93 1.3 201.8
6 199.5 8.45 2.9 202.4 4.93 1.05 200.55
7.5* 199 8.95 2.7 201.7 5.43 1 200
9 198.5 9.45 2.6 201.1
12 197.5 10.45 2.4 199.9
13.02** 197.16 10.79 2.35 199.51
Note *: Point at which hydraulic jump is formed for pond level condition.
**: Point at which hydraulic jump is formed for high flood condition.
The pre jump profile and post jump profile are calculate as per above example.
The maximum dynamic uplift pressure hd = 6.81m, 2/3hd = 4.54m
The maximum static pressure = 3.80m.
4.54
Thickness at the toe of glacis = = 3.66 say 3.70m.
(2.24 – 1)

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
This thickness shall be provided upto a distance of 5.50m from the toe of glacis. Static uplift
pressure at the end of D/S floor = 199.00 – 197.00 = 2.00m.
2
Thickness at the end of D/S floor = = 1.61m say 1.7m
(2.24 – 1)
The thickness is reduces in step from 3.70 m to 1.70m.
Step 6: Protection works
(a) D/S protection works
(i) D/S concrete blocks
Normal scour depth R = 9.84m
Maximum scour depth = 2R = 19.68m
Scour level = 205.50 – 19.68 = 185.82
Depth D2 below the D/S floor level = 197.00 – 185.82 = 11.18m
Length of inverted filter = 1.5D2 = 16.77m
Provide 13 rows of cement concrete blocks 1.2m × 1.2m × 1m, having 10cm gaps
filled with bajri.
Total length = 13 × 1.2 + 12 × 0.1 = 16.80 m
Provide 0.50 m thick graded filter beneath the blocks.
Total thickness of the concrete block and filter = 1 + 0.5 = 1.50m.
(ii) Launching apron
Horizontal length of launching apron = 1.5D2 = 16.80m (say)
Volume of stone in the launching apron = 2.24D2 = 25.04m3/m
Thickness of the apron in the horizontal position = 25.04/16.80 = 1.50m
(b) U/S protection works
(i) U/S concrete blocks
Normal scour depth R = 9.84m
Maximum scour depth = 1.5R = 14.67m
Scour level = 207.00 – 14.67 = 192.24
Depth D1 below the U/S floor level = 200.00 – 192.24 = 7.76m
Length of concrete blocks = 1.5D1 = 11.6m
Provide 9 rows of concrete blocks of the size 1.2m × 1.2m × 1m, having 10cm gaps
filled with bajri.
Total length = 9 × 1.2 + 8 × 0.1 = 11.60m
Thickness of gravel pack below the concrete blocks= 0.5m
Total thickness of concrete block and the gravel pack = 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.50m
(ii) U/S launching apron
Horizontal length of launching apron = 1.5D1 = 11.60m
Volume of stone = 2.24D1 = 2.24 × 7.76 = 17.38 m3/m.
Thickness of apron in the horizontal position = 17.38/11.60 = 1.50m
Figure below shows the cross section of weir.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
5.6.2 Silt Excluder
The silt excluder is a device constructed in the river bed just upstream of the regulator to excludes silt
from the water (source) entering the canal. It is so designed that the top and bottom layers of flow are
separated with the least possible disturbance, the top sediment-free water being led towards the canal
while the bottom sediment-laden water is discharged downstream of the diversion structure through under
sluices. The device basically consists of a number of tunnels (Figure. 5.13) in the floor of the deep pocket
of the river, isolated by a dividing wall. The sill or crest level of the regulator is kept the same as that of
the top level of the roof slab of the tunnels.
The capacity of the tunnel is usually kept at about 20% of the canal discharge, and they are designed to
maintain a minimum velocity of 2 – 3 m/sec (to avoid deposition in tunnels). (P.Novak., 2007)
The tunnel have bell – mouthed entrance so as to increase so as to increase the zone of suction. The radius
of bell – mouthing varies between 2 – 6 times the tunnel width; the larger radius is for the tunnel away
from the head regulator. The tunnels are throttled at the exit to increase the velocity to prevent silt
deposition and to reduce the discharge. The roof of the tunnels must be designed to withstand the full
water load up to the high flood level, with no water inside. The tunnels should be safe against impact by
debris, boulders shingles etc.
Section A − A

Head regularot sill

A

Sediment-laden flow

Piers Tunnel
sluices

Openings TUNNEL
for sediment
entry
Edge of slab
Dep ressed
floor pocket

Head regulator sill

Diversion weir
Figure 5.13: Silt excluder under tunnel type
Design consideration
It has been found from model studies that if the discharge in the silt excluder is restricted to about 15% to
20% of the canal discharge, satisfactory silt exclusion can be achieved. In order to keep the tunnels free
from sediments, a minimum velocity of 2 m /sec for river with sand particles and 4.5 m/sec for river with
boulders, should be maintained through the excluder. The cross – sectional area (A) of the tunnels may be
determined from the discharge and the velocity. Thus
Discharge
Area of flow (A) =
Velocity

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 Diversion Headworks
The height (h) of the tunnel is given by, h = crest level of head regulator – upstream floor level of the
undersluice – thickness of the roof slab.
The height (h) generally varies from 0.5 m to 0.6m for rivers with sand particles and 0.8m to 1.2m for
rivers with boulder.

Knowing the total area of cross – section (A) of the tunnels and the height (h), the clear width can be
found. Thus B = A/h

The clear width (B) is suitably divided into a number of tunnels such that the span of the roof slab is not
very large and a suitable number of complete tunnels, and their divide walls, can be accommodated in
each undersluices opening.

The difference of upstream and downstream water levels during floods (i.e. afflux) is usually between 0.6
m to 1m, which is sufficient for the silt excluder to work satisfactorily. However, it is preferable to
provide more head than the minimum required head in order to pass extra discharge for better flushing.
To ensure that the silt – laden water is promptly removed through the silt excluder, sometimes a separate
outfall channels is provided on the downstream of the excluder, especially in rivers with gravel and
boulders. For closing the tunnels, grooves are provided at their entrances in which temporary gates are
inserted whenever required.
Example 5.7
5.7:

Design a silt excluder for the driven head works for the following data:
Full supply discharge of canal = 200 m3/sec

Crest level of undersluices = 200.00m

Crest level of head regulator = 202.00m

Bay width of undersluices = 16m

Solution:
Let us take the design discharge as 20% of that of canal design discharge.

Q = 0.2 × 200 = 40 m3/sec

Let us assume a velocity of 2 m/sec,

Area of cross – section = 40/2 = 20m2

Let us assume the thickness of roof slab as 0.2m

Height of tunnel = 202.00 – 0.2 – 200.00 = 1.80m.

Total clear width = 20/1.80 = 11.11 m

Provide 6 no of tunnel, hence each tunnel width = 11.11/6 = 1.85m provide 2 m width each.

Let thickness of dividing wall = 0.75m

Overall width = 6 × 2 + 5 × 0.75 = 15.75 say 16.0m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
5.7 Silt Ejector or Extractor
The silt ejector is a device constructed on the canal downstream of the head regulator but upstream of the
settling basin (if any), by which the silt, after it has entered the canal, is extracted.

1. Vane type ejector

The layout of a vane type ejector is shown in Figure 5.14. A diaphragm at the canal bed separates
the top layers from the bottom ones. On entering the depressed area of the canal bed, the bottom
sediment laden layer are diverted by the curved vanes towards the escape chamber. The design
should be such that the entry disturbance are minimal; the streamlined vane passages accelerate the
flow through them, thus avoiding deposition.
B Section B − B
Plan

Escape channel

Curved vanes

Curved vanes
A A

B
Section A − A
Diaphragm Canal bed

Figure 5.14: Silt ejector (vane type)

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 Diversion Headworks
2. Vortex type ejector
The vortex tube ejector (Figure 5.15) consist of pipe with a silt along its top, places across the
bottom of the canal at an angle of around 300 – 900 to the direction of flow. The vortex motion
within the tube draws the sediment into it, and the wall velocities along the tube eventually eject the
sediment at its discharge end. A properly designed vortex tube ejector can be more efficient than any
other conventional ejector, with less water loss.

Canal bed

Vortex tube
Figure 5.15: Silt ejector vortex type
Table 5.11:
5.11: Differentiate between Silt Excluder and Silt Ejector

S.N. Silt Excluder Silt Extractor

1. The silt excluder is located upstream of The silt extractor or ejector is located in canal at
undersluices between head regulator and some distance downstream of head regulator for
divide wall for excluding the bed load. ejecting the suspended load to river.
2. The structure is heavy as it is subjected to The structure is relatively light.
large forces.
3. Silt exclusion can be done only once before Silt extraction can be done a number of times
the water enters the canal. by installing various extractors on the canal.
4. Good approach conditions are difficult to Good approach conditions can be easily
achieve. achieved.
5. The capacity of head regulator and canal is The capacity of head regulator and canal has to
not to be increased because of a silt be increased to carry extra discharge for the silt
excluder. extractor.
6. Working head is always available at the Working head is reduced when the canal supply
excluder. is low.
7. The tunnels are straight, quite large and are The tunnels are curvilinear small and may be
not liable to be clogged. choked by debris.
8. The overall cost is high. The overall cost is low if the extractor is not
very far off from the head regulator.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
5.8 Design of Head Regulator
A head regulator is provided at the entrance to the off taking main canal at the diversion headworks. It is
located on the bank of the river just upstream or the undersluice pocket.
1. Crest level
The crest level of the head regulator is usually kept 1.25 to 1.50m higher than the crest level of the
undersluices. However, if a silt excluder is provided in the undersluices section, the crest level of the
head regulator is kept 1.75 to 2.25m higher that of the undersluices.
2. Discharge formula
(a) Pond level condition
The head regulator is usually provided with a very wide and shallow waterway. The drowned
weir formula is generally used for computing the discharge. Figure 5.16 (a)
HFL Gate
h1 FSL
h

Crest x
d FSL

(a) (b)
Figure 5.16: Flow condition at head regulator
2
Q= Cd × B × 2g × [(h + ha)3/2 – ha3/2] + Cd2 × B × d × 2g × (h+ha) . . . 5.10
3 1
Where Cd1 and Cd2 are the discharge coefficients for the free portion and drowned portions,
respectively. Their values are generally taken as 0.577 and 0.80 respectively.
h= head causing flow = pond level – FSL
d = depth of water over crest on the D/S
B = length of crest and
ha = head due to velocity approach.
Neglecting velocity head (small quantity) and solving by using Cd1 = 0.577 and Cd2 = 0.80, we get
Q = 1.71 × B × h3/2 + 3.54 × B ×d × h1/2
(b) High flood conditions
During high floods, the water level on the upstream rises and the regulator gates are partly
closed. Let x be the height of the gate opening when the canal takes the full supply discharge
during floods Figure 5.16 (b). The submerged orifice formula is used for the discharge. Thus
Q = Cd A 2gh1 . . . 5.11
Where h1 is the head causing flow= U/S HFL = FSL
Cd = discharge coefficient (0.62)
A = area of flow
Therefore Q = 0.62 × x × B × 2gh1 . . . 5.12
The value of x can be determined from the known values of Q, B and h1.

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 Diversion Headworks
3. Discharge intensity and loss of head
(a) Pond level conditions
Discharge intensity, q = Q/B
Loss of head HL = Pond level – FSL
(b) High flood conditions
Q
Velocity through gates, V =
xB
v2
Velocity head, hd =
2g
v2
Loss of head at entry = 0.5
2g
TEL just upstream at gates= U/S HFL + velocity head in the river
v2
TEL just downstream of gates = TEL just U/S of gate – 0.5
2g
Loss of head HL = TEL just D/S of gate – FSL
Discharge intensity, q = Q/B
4. Depth of piles
(a) U/S pile
The depth of U/S pile is kept the same as in the case of the undersluices.
(b) D/S pile
The bottom level of the D/S pile is taken at a depth of 1.25 R to 1.50 R below FSL.
5. Hydraulic jump calculations
Hydraulic jump calculations are done for the pond level condition and the high flood condition. The
level at which the hydraulic jump is formed is located and the length of jump is determined, as in the
case of the undersluices section. The level of the D/S floor is fixed below the lowest level at which
the hydraulic jump is formed.
6. Thickness of impervious floor
The uplift pressures are determined at the key points of the upstream and downstream piles for the
following conditions:
• No flow conditions
• Pond level flow condition
• High flood flow condition
Thickness of the impervious floor is determined for the worst case.
7. Protection works
(a) U/S protection work
The upstream protection works are similar to those in the case of undersluices.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
(b) D/S protection work
The maximum scour depth is taken as 2R. The length of inverted filter is taken equal to the
depth d2 of the pile below the downstream bed.
The concrete blocks 1.25m × 1.25m × 1.0m with 10cm gaps filled with bajri, are usually
provided over 0.8cm thick invert filter. Thus a total thickness of 1.80m is provided.
The horizontal length of the D/S launching apron is obtained from the volume of stone equal to
2.24d2, and a thickness equal to 1.80m in the horizontal position.
Example 5.8:
Design a head regulator for the data given below:
Crest level of under sluices = 200.00m
Pond level = 204.00m
U/S high flood level = 207.00m
Head due to velocity of approach = 0.21m
Full supply discharge = 200 m3/sec
Full supply level = 203.00m
Bed level of canal = 199.50m
A silt excluder is provided in the undersluices. Take GE = 1/6
Solution:
Crest level of the head regulator = crest level of undersluices + 2.0m
= 200.00 + 2.00 = 202.00m
From equation 5.10,
2
Q= Cd × B × 2g × [(h + ha)3/2 – ha3/2] + Cd2 × B × d × 2g × (h+ha)
3 1
Where h = pond level – FSL = 204.00 – 203.00 = 1.00m
d = 203.00 – 202.00 = 1.00m
Taking Cd1 = 0.577, Cd2 = 0.80 and neglecting the velocity of approach.
2
200= × 0.577 × 4.43 × B × (1)3/2 + 0.80 × B × 1 × 2g × 1
3
200 = (1.704 + 3.544) B or B = 38.11m say 40m.
Provide 5 bays of 8.0m each, with a clear waterway of 40.00m.
Provide 4 piers each of 1.5m thickness.
Overall waterway =5 × 8 + 4 × 1.5 = 46m
At pond level, loss of head, HL = 204.00 – 203.00 = 1.00m
Discharge intensity, q = 200/40 = 5 cumecs/m
At high flood level, let x be the height of gate opening.

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 Diversion Headworks
From equation 5.12, 200 = 0.62 x × x 40 2 × 9.81 × 4.0
x = 0.91m
200
Velocity through opening, V = = 5.49 m/sec.
0.91 × 40
v2
Loss of head at entry = 0.5 = 0.77m
2g
TEL just upstream of gate = 207.00 + 0.21 = 207.21m
TEL just D/S of gate = 207.21 – 0.77 = 206.44m
Head loss HL = 206.44 – 203.00 = 3.44m
Discharge intensity q = 5 cumecs/m
Hydraulic jump calculation
The calculations are given in table below:
High flood Pond level
S. No. Item
condition condition
1 Discharge intensity q (cumecs/m) 5 5
2 U/S water level (m) 207 204
3 D/S water level (m) 203 203
4 U/S TEL just upstream of gate (m) 206.44 204
5 D/S TEL (m) 203 203
6 Loss of head (HL) 3.44 1
7 D/S specific energy, Ef2 (from blench curve) (m) 3.3 2.65
8 U/S specific energy, Ef1 = Ef2 + HL (m) 6.74 3.65
9 Pre jump depth y1 from Montague curve (m) 0.45 0.65
10 Post jump depth y2 from Montague curve (m) 3.1 2.5
11 level at which hydraulic jump is formed = (5) - (7) (m) 199.7 200.35
12 Length of impervious floor = 5(y2 – y1) (m) 13.25 9.25
q
Froud no. Fr =
13 gy3 5.29 3.05
2
14 Fr 27.98 9.3
Provide D/S floor at 199.50. Length of D/S floor = 13.50m
Depth of sheet pile
(a) U/S pile
Bottom level of U/S pile will be kept at an elevation of 191.80m as in the case of undersluices.
Depth of U/S pile below the bed = 200.00 – 191.80= 8.20m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
(b) D/S pile
Discharge intensity q = 5.0 cumecs/m
1 1
q2 3 52
Scour depth R = 1.35  = 1.35   3 = 3.95m
f 1
Maximum scour depth = 1.5R = 5.93m
Bottom level of D/S pile = D/S water level – 5.93 = 203.00 – 5.93 = 197.07 m
Depth of D/S below bed, d2 = 199.50 – 197.07 = 2.43m
Provide d2 = 5.00m to reduce exit gradient.
Therefore, bottom level of D/S pile = 199.50 – 5.00 = 194.50m
Length of impervious floor
Seepage head (H) = 207.00 – 199.50 = 7.50m
H 1 1 7.5 1
Now, GE = or = or λ = 8.20
d π λ 6 5 π λ

1+ 1+α2
Now = 8.20 or α = 15.36, α = b/d = 15.36
2
b = 15.36 × 5 = 76.36m say 77m.
Provide the length as follows:
Length of U/S floor = 54m.
Width of crest = 2.00m
D/S glacis = 7.50m
D/S floor = 13.50m
Total = 77.00m
Uplift pressure calculation
Let us assume the thickness of U/S floor as 1.0m and that at the end of D/S floor as 1.50m
(a) U/S pile
d = 8.20m, b = 77m, α = 9.39, λ=5.22
100 0–λ
ФE1 = π cos-1 λ = 100%

100 1–λ
ФD1 = π cos-1 λ = 79.97%

100 2–λ
ФC1 = π cos-1 λ = 71.16%

79.97 – 71.16
(i) Correction for thickness for ФC1= × 1.00 = 1.07%
8.20

(ii) Correction for mutual interference = 19 

d + D
= 19 
D 7.2 + 4.5 4.5
= 0.70%
 b  b'  77  77
Corrected ФC1 = 71.16 + 1.07 + 0.70 = 72.93%

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 Diversion Headworks
(b) D/S pile
d = 5.0m, b = 77m, α = 15.4, λ=8.22
100 λ–2
ФE2 = π cos-1 λ =22.68%

100 λ–1
ФD2 = π cos-1 λ = 15.86%

100 λ–0
ФC2 = π cos-1 λ = 0%

22.68 – 15.86
(i) Correction for thickness for ФE2 = × 1.50 = 2.05%
5

(ii) Correction for mutual interference = 19 

d + D
= 19 
D 3.5 + 6.2 6.2
= 0.68%
 b  b'  77  77
Corrected ФE2 = 22.68 – 2.05 – 0.68 = 19.95%
Height and elevation of the subsoil HGL are calculated in the table below.
Height of elevation of subsoil HGL
U/S D/S
S. Flow Seepage
water water U/S Pile D/S pile
No. Condition Head
level level
ФE1 ФD1 ФC1 ФE1 ФD1 ФC1

1 No flow 7.50 7.50 6.00 5.47 1.50 1.19 0.00

207.00 199.50
RL 207.00 205.50 204.97 201.00 200.69 199.50
High flood 4.00 4.00 3.20 2.92 0.80 0.64 0.00
2 level on U/S 207.00 203.00
RL 207.00 206.20 205.92 203.80 203.64 203.00

Pond level 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.73 0.20 0.16 0.00

3 on Upstream 204.00 203.00
RL 204.00 203.80 203.73 203.20 203.16 203.00
The uplift pressures are the maximum for the no flow condition.
For no flow condition, residual head at D/S of floor = 1.5m
1.5
Thickness of floor = = 1.21m, adopt 1.50m
2.24 – 1.00
At the end of the D/S glacis
5.47 – 1.50
Residual head = 1.50 + × 13.5 = 2.20m
77
2.20
Thickness of floor = = 1.77m provide 2.0m
2.24 – 1.00

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Protection works

(a) U/S protection works

They shall be same as in the case of the undersluice section.

(b) D/S protection works

Normal scour depth R = 1.35(q2/f)1/3 = 3.95m

Anticipated scour = 2R = 7.90m

Downstream scour level = 203.00 – 7.90 = 195.10

Depth d2 below the D/S floor = 199.50 – 195.10 = 4.40m. Take d2 as 5.0m

(i) Block protection

The length of the inverted filter = d2 = 5.0m. Provide 1.25m × 1.25m × 1.00m thick concrete
block, with 10cm gaps filled with bajri, over 0.8 thick graded filter. Thus a total thickness of
1.80m is provided.

(ii) Launching apron

Thickness of the launching apron = 1.80m

Volume of stone = 2.24d2 = 11.2 m3/m

Length of apron required = 11.2/1.80 = 6.22m, say 6.25m.

U/S HFL 207.0 Breast wall

Pond level 204.0 FSL 203.0

Gate
Concrete
199.5 Block
8.2
2
191.80 1.5 Inverted Launching
filter apron
54 7.5 13.5 5 6.25
2
All dimensions are in m.

Example 5.9:

The accompanying figure shows the profile of a weir. The various levels shown in the figure are in
meters. Determine the uplift pressures at the key points and the exit gradient and find whether the
section provided is safe against piping if it is founded on fine sand with permissible exit gradient of
1/6. Also find uplift pressure at point X and check whether it is safe against uplift.

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 Diversion Headworks
100.00

100.00

98.00 ∆
97.00

96.00
X
∆
16m
∆
97.00
93.00

16m 32m 16m

89.50 89.50
65m
Solution:
For pile no 1 For pile no 2 For pile no 2
b = 65m b1= 48m b = 65m
d = 100 – 91 = 9m b=65m d = 6.5m
1/α = b/d = 0.14 d=96 – 89.5 = 6.5m 1/α = d/b= 0.1
From Khosla’s Curve α1= b/d= 65/6.5=10 From the Khosla’s curve
ФD1= 77% b1/b = 48/65=0.746 ФE3 = 29%

ФC1= 67% From Khosla’s curve ФD3 = 20%

ФE2 = 41%
i. Correction for thickness for ФC1= i. Correction for thickness for
77 – 67 ФD2= 34% 29 – 20
× 1.00 = 2.2 ФE3= × 2.00 = 2.8%
5.9 6.5
ФC2= 26%
ii. Correction for mutual interference ii. Correction for mutual
interference of pile no. 2 =
= 19 
d + D D
19 
 b  b' d + D D
 b  b' =
= 19 
7 + 8.5 8.5
19 
= 1.9% 4.50 + 4.5 4.5
 65  48  65  16
=

Corrected ФC1 = 67 + 2.2 + 1.9 1.4%

= 71.1% Corrected ФE2 = 29 – 2.8 – 1.4
= 24.8%

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
41 – 34
(i) Correction for floor thickness for ФE2 = × 3.00 = 3.2%
6.5
34 – 26
(ii) Correction for floor thickness for ФC2= × 3.00 = 3.7%
6.5

(ii) Correction for mutual interference of pile no 1 for ФE2= 19 

d + D
= 19 
D 3.5+ 2 2
= –0.3%
 b  b'  65  48

(iii) Correction for mutual interference of pile no 3 for ФC2= 19 

d + D
= 19 
D 3.5+ 3.5 3.5
= 1%
 b  b'  65  16
(iv) Correction due to slope for ФE2
From table 5.4, for a slope of 1 in 8 the correction % of pressure = 2.0% and hence
bs
Correction = 2.0 ×
b'
bs = 32m and b' = 48m
32
Correction = 2.0 × = 1.3%
48
Hence, corrected value of ФC2 and ФE2 are as follows
ФE2 = 41 – 3.2 – 0.3 + 1.3 = 38.8%
ФC2 = 26 + 3.7 + 1.0 = 30.7%
Maximum seepage head = 103 – 96 = 7.0m
The percentage pressure and the residual pressure head at key points are tabulated below.
Point % pressure Residual pressure Head (m)
D1 77.0 5.39
C1 71.1 4.98
E2 38.8 2.72
D2 34.0 2.38
C2 30.7 2.15
E3 24.8 1.74
D3 20.0 1.40
Exit Gradient
H 1
Exit Gradient GE =
d π λ
H = 103 – 96= 7m
d = 96 – 89.5 = 6.5m
α = b/d = 65/6.5 = 10
From exit gradient curve for α = 10
1
= 0.135
π λ

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 Diversion Headworks
GE = 1/6.85 which is less than permissible exit gradient 1/6 hence safe.

Uplift pressure at X is Px = Pc1 – 

Pc1 – PE2
× 32
 48 

Px = 4.98 – 
4.98 – 2.72
 48  × 32 = 3.47m
Px
The floor thickness required at X = = 2.8m
(G – 1)
Actual thickness provided = 3m
Hence it is safe against uplift.
Example 5.10:
An irrigation barrage has to be designed to pass a flood of 10,000 m3/sec, through alluvium media
(mean diameter of particles = 0.33mm). The flood level, pond level and downstream floor level are
207.0m, 204.0m and 198.0m respectively. If the safe exit gradient is 1/6, compute minimum total
impervious floor length required to safeguard the structure from piping. Prepare a conceptual section
of the designed structure.
Solution:
Given, High flood discharge Q = 10000 m3/sec
d50 = 0.33mm
HFL before construction = D/S HFL = 207.0 m
Pond level = 204.0 m
D/S bed level = 198.0 m

Length of water way P = 4.75 Q = 475 m (for alluvial rivers)

Flood intensity q= Q/L = 10000/475= 21.05 cumecs/m
1
q2 3
Normal scour depth R = 1.35 
f
Where f = 1.76 dmm = 1.01
Now R = 10.25 m
Let us take maximum scour depth at D/S = 1.5R = 15.375m
Bottom level of D/S pile = 207 – 15.375 = 191.625m
Depth of D/S pile = D/S bed level – Bottom level of D/S pile = 198 – 191.625 = 6.375m
H 1
We have; Exit Gradient GE =
d π λ

H = Pond level – D/S floor level= 6m

d = 6.375m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
6 1
Now, 1/6 =
6.375 π λ
1
= 0.177
π λ
λ = 3.234
1+ 1+ α2
We have λ =
2
1+ 1+ α2
3.234 =
2
Now α = 5.375
Again α = b/d
Now b = α × d = 5.375 × 6.375 = 34.265m≈34.3m
Hence minimum total impervious floor length required to safe guard the structure from piping = 34.3 m.

Pond level 204.0

∆ Bed level 198.0

∆
∆

34.3m

191.625
Example 5.11:
A river discharge 2000 cumecs of water at high flood level of 273 m. A weir is constructed for flow
diversion with a crest length of 150m and total length of concrete floor as 50m. The weir has to
sustain the under seepage at a maximum static head of 2.4m. The silt factor and the safe exit
gradient for the river bed material are 1.1 and 1/6 respectively. Determine the depth of cutoff
required at the downstream end of the concrete floor. Take the level of downstream concrete floor
level 270m. Check for exit gradient.
Solution:
Given, Q = 2000 cumecs
Length weir, L = 150m
Silt factor, f = 1.7
Q 200
Now, discharge per unit length, q = = = 13.33 cumecs/m
L 150
2 1/3
Scour depth, R = 1.35  = 7.35m
q
f
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 Diversion Headworks
HFL before construction or D/S HFL = 273m
Now, R.L. of D/S cutoff = D/S HFL – 1.5R = 273 – 1.5 × 7.35 = 261.975m
R.L of D/S concrete floor = 270m
Depth D/S cutoff =270 – 261.975 = 8.03m
Hr 1
Exit gradient, GE =
d π λ
Here, Hs = 2.4m
d = D/S cutoff depth = 8.03m
Length of concrete floor, b = 50m
b
Now, α = = 6.23m
d
1+ 1 + α2
λ= = 3.654
2
2.4 1 1 1
Now, GE = × = <
8.03 π 3.65 20.08 6
Hence, the weir floor is safe against piping.
D/S HFL 273m

Hs = 2.4
270.00m

1.5R

261.97m
b = 50m
Example 5.12:
A river carries a high flood discharge of 16000m3/sec with its average bed level at 200.0m. A canal
carrying 200m3/sec is to take off from the headworks. The full supply level of the canal at its head is
203.0m. The high flood level before construction is 205.7m and Lacey’s silt factor is equal to unity.
Fix suitable values for the water way and crest levels of weir, under sluices and canal head regulator.
Assume suitably any other data if required.
Solution:
Design discharge for under sluices is taken maximum of:
• 20 % of high flood = 3200 m3/sec
• 2 times the canal design flow = 2 × 200 = 400 m3/sec
Hence design discharge for under sluices = 3200 m3/sec.
Remaining flood discharge of (16000 – 3200 = 12800 m3/sec) will be passed through weir

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Weir Portion

Design discharge = 12800 m3/sec

Length of water way L = P = 4.75 Q = 537.401 m ≈537.5m

Intensity of discharge q = Q/L = 23.81 cumecs/m

Assuming sharp crested weir, q = 1.84 (H) 3/2

H= 5.51 m

Now assume afflux = 1m

D/S HFL = HFL before construction = 205.7 m

U/S HFL = D/S HFL + afflux = 206.7 m

Lacey’s silt factor f = 1 (given)

2 1
Maximum scour depth, R = 1.35   3 =11.173 m
q
f
Approach velocity, Va = q/R = 23.81/11.173 = 2.131m/sec

Velocity head, Va2/2g = 0.231m/sec

U/S TEL = U/S HFL + Va2/2g = 206.931m

Now crest level of weir = U/S TEL – H = 206.931 – 5.51 = 201.421m

Under sluices Portion

Design discharge, Q = 3200m3/sec

Crest level of under sluices = bed level of river = 200.0m

U/S TEL = 206.931m

Total head on the under sluice crest = 206.931 – 200.0 = 6.931m

Assuming broad crested weir, q = 1.71 (6.931)3/2 = 31.202 cumecs/m

Length of water way at under sluice = Q/q = 102.55 m

Canal head regulator Portion

Crest level of canal head regulator = crest level of under sluices + 2 = 200 + 2 (assume) = 202m
which should be less than full supply level of canal.

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 Diversion Headworks
Now pond level = full supply level + loss in canal head regulator = 203 + 0.5 (say) = 203.5m

U/S water level Q1 h D/S water level

Q2
d

From equation 5.10

2
Q= Cd × B × 2g × [(h + ha)3/2 – ha3/2] + Cd2 × B × d × 2g × (h+ha)
3 1

Where Cd1 = 0.577 and Cd2 = 0.80 and ignoring velocity head,

Q = B h (1.69h + 3.54d)

Here, hL = pond level - FSL of canal = 203.5 – 203.0 = 0.5m

d = D/S FSL – Crest level = 203.0 – 202.0 = 1m

Now, 200 = B 0.5 (1.69 × 0.5 + 3.54 × 1)

Now water way for canal head regulator = 64.50m

Exercise 5
1. Explain site selection of Headwork.
2. Differentiate between weir and barrage with sketches.
3. Draw neat sketch of the general layout of a diversion head works and detail explanation of each
component of head works.
4. With the help of neat sketches, explain how silt excluders and silt ejectors control the bed load in an
irrigation system.
5. Write with definition sketches, how do you determine the pressure along the foundation of the
structure and ensure safety against uplift pressure using Bligh's creep theory.
6. Draw four simple Khosla's profiles for a weir of complex profiles. What corrections Khosla
suggested to accommodate such simplifications?
7. How the bed load is controlled at head works?

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

CHAPTER

6 River Training Works

The expression 'river training' includes all measures adopted on a river to train its flow and regulate the
river bed or to increase the low water depth. The purpose of river training is to establish the channel along
a certain alignment.

River training is an essential part of any canal development, when water is diverted from a river, after
constructing a weir across the river and a head regulator for the channel. Sometimes the alignment of
channel can come close to the river or some other stream, and it becomes necessary to divert the
menacing river away from the channel (Varshney, 2001).
The rivers in alluvial plains frequently change their courses. They also overflow their bank and cause
floods. River training works are required to stabilize the river channel along a certain alignment and with
a certain cross section so that river does not cause damage to the land and property adjacent to its bank.
River training works are also required at or near various hydraulic structures such as weirs, aqueducts,
bridges etc. to prevent outflanking of these structures and minimizing cross flows. In case of weirs, these
are also required to provide a favorable curvature of flow at the head regulator for the control of silt entry
into the main canal. The main objectives of the river training works are summarized as follows.
• To provide a safe passage to pass flood without over flowing its banks and thus to prevent
flooding of the adjoining areas.
• To prevent the river from changing its course and eroding adjoining lands.
• To prevent the erosion of banks and hence improve the alignment by stabilizing the river channel.
• To help the river transport the bed load and suspended sediment load efficiently.
• To prevent outflanking of the hydraulic structures and to guide the river to the structures in a
straight and non – tortuous alignment.
• To provide the minimum desired depth of flow required for navigation.
• To provide a favorable curvature of flow at the weir to control entry of silt in to the canal.
• To reduce cross currents in the river which may endanger the hydraulic structures or protection works.
• To deflect the river flow away from a bank or to attract the river flow towards a bank.
• To control and regulate the river bed configuration.

6.1 River Stages and River Characteristics

River morphology is concerned with channel configuration and geometry, and with longitudinal profile; it
is time dependent and varies particularly with discharge, sediment input and characteristics, and with
bank material. River morphology can be substantially influenced by engineering works, although this
influence is not necessarily beneficial. Natural river channels are straight (usually only very short

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 River Training Works

reaches), meandering, i.e. consisting of a series of bends of alternate curvature connected by short,
straight reaches (crossings), or braided, i.e. the river divides into several channels which continuously join
and separate. The various stages of a schematized river (de Vries, 1985) are shown in Figure 6.1:

Head waters

Middle course
Lower Course
Erosion base

Braided
Meandering
Sea

Figure 6.1: River stages and characteristics

River regions stages can be divided according to the topography of river basins. Usually they are four:
• The mountainous - Flashy Rivers
• The sub-mountainous - Incised and Boulder Rivers
• The flood plain - Alluvial Rivers
• The deltaic - Tidal and Deltaic Rivers
The characteristics of different (regions) are shown in Table 6.1 (Varshney, 2001):
Table 6.1 Characteristics of River

River Sub – Trough or

Units Mountainous Deltaic
characteristics Mountainous Alluvial

Bed slope m/km 115 to 4 4 to 1 1 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.05

Velocity m/sec 15 to 5 5 to 1.5 1.5 to 0.8 0.8 to 0.3

Course - Narrow, fixed & Well defined Meandering with Very wide
Deep in valley to wide shallow &
meandering changing

Material - Heavy stones Boulders and Gravel and sand Silt and sand
shingles

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

6.2 Classification of River Training Works

Depending upon the purpose required, the river training works may be classified into the following three types.
1. High Water Training Works
High water training works are constructed for the purpose of quick disposal maximum flood and to
protect adjoining land against damage due to floods. High- water training works are mainly the
marginal banks (levees) constructed to protect the adjoining land. Marginal banks of suitable
alignment and height are designed to provide sufficient waterway for the safe passage of maximum
discharge. High – water training may also include various measures of channel improvement to
increase the waterway high – water training is also known as the training for discharge.
2. Low Water Training Works
Low water training works are constructed to provide sufficient water depth for navigation during
low flows period. Generally, groynes (or spurs) are constructed to contract the width of the channel
and hence to increase the depth. Bandalling is also used for closing the side channel and
concentrating the flow in the main channel. Low water training is also called the training for depth.
3. Medium –Water Training Works
Mean water training works are constructed for efficient disposal of the bed sediment load and
suspended sediment load of the river so that it remains in good shape and condition. The maximum
accretion capacity of a river occurs when the flow is at the mean value and the discharge is equal to
the dominant discharge. Depending upon the stage of flow, the required changes in the river bed are
made. Mean water training is also known as the training for sediment.
The mean – water training is the most important training of the three types. The maximum
movement of sediment occurs during the mean water stage. A river – training work constructed to
change the river cross – section and alignment should be designed in accordance with this stage.
During a high flood stage, the activity f the bed material of the river is maximum but it lasts for a
very short duration. On the other hand, the activity of the bed material of the river is minimum at
low stages which persist for a long duration. In between these two extreme stages, there is the mean
flow stage at which combining effects of forces causing sediment movement and the duration for
which these forces are maintained is a maximum. .during the mead – water stage, there is
considerable influence on the configuration of the river. These stage, therefore, controls the design
of most of the river training works. In fact, mean water training forms the basis on which both high
and low water training are also planned.

6.3 Methods of River Training Works

The following are the various methods of river training and control works in vogue:
1. Marginal banks (or levees) 2. Guide banks (or Bell’s bunds)
3. Groynes (or spurs) 4. Artificial cut-off
5. Bank protection and pitched banks, 6. Pitched islands
7. Sills (or submerged dikes) 8. Bandalling
9. Closing dikes

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 River Training Works

1. Marginal Embankments
Marginal embankments (or levees or dikes or marginal banks) are the earthen embankments which
are constructed parallel to the river banks to confine the flood waters within the cross – section
available between them. These are usually placed at some distance away from the river bank so that
the area of flow is increased Figure 6.2. Generally, the marginal embankments are on both sides of
the river channel, but if the topography is such that one bank is already quite high, there would be a
marginal embankment only on the other side. The marginal embankments prevent the spread of
flood water over the adjoining land. The purpose of these embankments is mainly to control the
river flood. The marginal embankments are generally required for the meandering rivers. The
alignment of these embankments follows the normal pattern of meandering of the river. The distance
by which an embankment is constructed away for the main channel. Is called retirement. Besides the
technical factors, human and political factors should also be considered while deciding the
retirement because the land laying between the two marginal embankments on the opposite banks
remains unprotected from floods.

Levee

River

Levee

Figure 6.2: Marginal Embankments

2. Guide Banks:
While selecting a site for hydraulic structure on river crossing like barrage, weir, cross drainage
structures bridges, culverts on an alluvial river certain requirements are always kept in mind. These
requirements include straight reach of the river and small width of the river at the bridge site. The
crossing reach between two successive bends of a meandering site is suitable from these
considerations. However, the meandering pattern itself migrates and, hence, steps must be taken to
ensure that the flow path does not change through the waterway at the bridge site, and also that the
approach road embankment is not endangered due to the smaller waterway provided. For this
purpose, earthen embankments are provided on one or both sides of the river at the bridge site.
These embankments are known as guide banks (or guide bunds).
The layout of the guide banks should be such as to guide the flood smoothly through a work
constructed across the river. The guide banks are provided in pairs symmetrical in plan and may
either be kept parallel or converge slightly towards the work, and usually extend a little distance

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

downstream from the abutments of the work. They are meant to confine the river within a
reasonable waterway, and direct the flow in a manner that would ensure its safe and expeditious
passage. They should also protect the works from outflanking, and adjacent land from flooding due
to the afflux caused as a result of construction of an obstruction in the river.
The effect of confining the river between the guide banks is to:
a. Increase the rate at which the flood wave travels down the stream
b. Increase the water surface elevation of the river at flood
c. Increase the maximum discharge at all points downstream
d. Increase the velocity and the scouring action through the leveed section
e. Reduce the surface slope of the stream above the leveed portions.
The method of constriction a river for the construction of a bridge and controlling is to make is flow
axially through the bridge and controlling is to make is flow axially through the bridge by means of
a system of guide bunds (first introduced by Bell). This system known as Bell's guide bunds system,
has become a standard practice.
3. Groynes or Spurs
Groynes are structures constructed transverse to the river flow and extend from the bank into river.
These structures are known by several names, the most popular being spurs, Cut-off spur dikes and
transverse dikes, they are probably, the most widely used training works.
(i) Functions of Groynes
Groynes serve one or more of the following functions:-
- Training the river alone a desired course by attracting, deflecting or repelling, the flow in
a channel;
- Creating a slack flow with the object of silting up the area in the vicinity;
- Protecting the river bank by keeping flow away from it; and
- Contracting a wide river channel, usually for the improvement of depth for navigation.
(ii) Types of Groynes
Groynes can be classified as follows:-
- Classification according to method and materials of construction – permeable and
impermeable (solid)
- Classification according to the height of spur below high water – submerged or non-
submerged
- Classification according to the function served – attracting, deflecting and repelling.
- Special types - Denehy's T-headed groynes, Hockey type, Burma Type etc.

SH
SH
SH = Scour Hole
45° - 60° 60° - 80° SP
SP = Still Pocket
Deflecting Repelling
Attracting

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 River Training Works

(iii) Methods of use

Factors which influence the choice and design of groynes are:
- Fall and velocity of river
- Character of bed material carried, such as shingle, boulders, sand or silt.
- Width of waterway, height of flood rise and nature of flood hydrograph
- Available materials and funds.
(iv) Classification according to methods and materials of construction
According to methods and materials of construction the groynes may either be permeable or
impermeable.
Permeable Spurs:
Permeable spurs permit significant seepage through them. These groynes simply obstruct the flow
and reduce the velocity of flow to cause deposition of silt. These are generally used for rivers
carrying a huge sediment load in suspension. As the sediment accumulates between the groynes, it
protects them and there is no necessity of any other material for its protection. When permeable
groynes are constructed in rivers having clear water with little silt load, they reduce the erosive
power of the river current and thus prevent bank erosion. The permeable groynes are temporary
structure and are susceptible to damage by floating debris. Because a permeable groynes does not
abruptly change the direction of flow, intense eddies and severe scour holes generally do not occurs
because of its construction.
Impermeable Spurs:
Impermeable groynes are earthen (or rock filled) embankments duly protected on the sides and at
top by a strong covering of stone pitching or concrete blocks. Impermeable groynes do not permit
significant flow of water through them. The impermeable groynes are also known as solid groynes
or embankment groynes.
The design of impermeable groynes is similar to that of guide banks. The side slopes generally vary
from 2:1 to 3:1, depending upon the material used. However, the slopes at the front end (or head or
nose) of the groynes is usually between 3:1 and 5:1. Because the head of the groynes is subjected to
severe attack by the river current, a launching apron must be provided on it. The thickness of
pitching is also increased at the head. However, the impermeable groynes is pointed towards
downstream for attracting the flow or pointed towards upstream for repelling the flow. When it is
perpendicular to the bank, it deflects the flow.
4. Artificial Cutoff
An artificial cutoff is developed in a meandering river to divert the flow along a straight course. .an
artificial cutoff is used for the purpose of training of river when its meander goes an increasing and
endangers some valuable land or property on its banks. It is also used for straightening the river
approach to a structure. It has been observed in practice that a natural cutoff in a meandering river
occurs when the cutoff ratio (i.e. arc/ chord ratio) exceeds 1.7 to 3.0. An artificial cutoff can be
induced when the cutoff ratio is in this range. To induce an artificial cutoff, a small pilot channel to
carry 8 % to 10% of the river discharge is excavated along the proposed line of the artificial cutoff.
The flood water gradually enlarges the pilot channel to the required section when the river flows in

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

an erodible material. Ultimately, the river takes the course, where R is the hydraulic radius and L is
the length. A deep and hydraulically efficient pilot channel is required for inducing the artificial cut.
Because the tractive force is directly proportional to the depth of the channel, a deep cut is useful for
the rapid development of the cutoff.

Artificial cut off Pilot chanel

Plan
Figure 6.3: Artificial cutoff
5. Bank Protection and Pitched Banks
Purpose of the bank protection may be anyone or more of the following:
• Training the river
• Protection of adjacent land and valuable property
• Protection of hydraulic structures
• Protection of flood embankment
• Affording facilities for water transportation
Bank protection works may be classified as direct and indirect. Direct protection includes works
done on the bund itself such as providing vegetation cover, pavement, pitching and grading of slope
etc. Indirect protection includes works constructed not directly on the banks, but in front of them for
deducing the erosive action of the current. If the current is strong protection has to be provided by
stone pitching or various types of mattress such as willow, asphalt or articulated concrete. Stone is
the most commonly used material for protection of banks where available locally. The thickness of
pitching required is governed by the velocity of the current near the bank.
6. Pitched islands
A pitched island is an artificially created island in the river bed, either made of masonry or stone
pitched on all sides. On account of the turbulence created by the island placed in a series, a deep
river channel is created and flow is diverted away from the bank in danger. These are used for the
following purposes:
• To train the river to have an axial flow
• To improve channel for navigation purpose
• To correct the adverse curvature for effective sand exclusion
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 River Training Works

7. Bandalling
Bandalling is a method of river training which is used to confine the low water flow of a shallow
river in a single channel for maintaining the required depth for navigation. Bandalling is started after
the flood season is over and the water level begins to fall. A bandal consists of a framework of
vertical bamboos, 3 to 6m long, driven into the river bed. The bamboos are driven in a line at a
spacing of 0.6m and are held in position by means of horizontal ties and are supported by struts at
every 1.2m. A number of such bandals are erected depending upon the width of river. Bamboo
mattings are tied to bamboo frameworks with the help of coir ropes. These mattings are usually
0.9m wide and are strengthened at the edges by strips of split bamboos. Bandals are usually erected
at an angle of 300 to 400 to the direction of flow, inclined downstream.
Check the flow and cause sediment deposition parallel to and behind them. Thus a deep channel is
formed in front of the bandals with sand deposition on either side. The whole discharge of the river
is now directed through this deep channel, and therefore the depth of flow is increased. The process
of deepening of the channel usually take about 2 to 3 weeks. Once a channel has deepened, it
remains in that condition till the next flood. It does not require much maintenance. After the flood
has receded, bandals are again constructed.

Deep channel

Bandals

Figure 6.4: Bandalling

6.4 Design of Guide Bund and Launching Apron

Guide banks are artificial embankments meant for guiding the river flow past a bridge (or other hydraulic
structures such as weirs or barrages) without causing damage to the bridge and its approaches. Guide
banks are built along the flow direction both upstream and downstream of the structure on one or both
sides of the river as desired. Guide banks for a bridge restrict the waterway at the bridge site and prevent
the outflanking of the bridge by the changing course of the river. The design criteria of guide banks are
based on the works of Spring and Gales.
1. Layout of Guide bund
In general the guide bunds may be classified as
(a) Divergent (b) Convergent (c) Parallel upstream of the work

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Divergent bunds exercise an attracting influence on the flow. They are suitable where the river
current has been oblique to the structure. Such bunds have the disadvantages of shoal formation in
between them, if splay is excessive.
Convergent bunds have the disadvantage of excessive attack and heavy scour at the head and
shoaling all along the bank, rendering the end bays ineffective. Due to these drawbacks convergent
guide bunds are rarely used. Thus symmetrical and parallel guide bunds are generally used unless
the local conditions dictate otherwise. The actual layout of the guide bunds depends upon the local
topography site of the structure, alignment of approach embankment, afflux bunds and off-taking
channels.

(a) Divergent (b) Parallel (c) Convergent

Figure 6.5: Layout of Guide bund

2. Length of water way

The design of a hydraulic structure on an alluvial river is the estimation of the minimum and also a
safe waterway. A reasonable estimation of clear waterway to be provided between guide banks can
be obtained by equating it to Lacey’s regime perimeter given by following equation.

P = 4.75 Q
Where, P = Lacey’s Regime perimeter in meter
Q = Design flood discharge in cumecs.
The width of large river is approximately equal to its wetted perimeter in alluvial plains. In case of
bridge, weir and barrage, obstruction caused by piers should be accounted for, and the above
equation should be taken to represent the clear effective waterway. It should be remembered that the
regime conditions are disturbed after the construction of the weir, and the above formula is not
strictly applicable. Most of the existing weirs and bridges have been provided with a clear waterway
from 10% to 50% more than that given by Lacey’s Regime Perimeter. Mathematically, Length of
waterway L = (1.1 to 1.5)P
3. Length of Bund
Spring and Gales co-related the length of the guide bund with the length of the structure (water weir)
between abutments (L) and have recommended the upstream length of the guide bunds as 1.25L for
flood discharge up to 20,000 cumecs and 1.5L for flood discharge more than 20,000 cumecs.

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 River Training Works

In some cases where the channel bank is wide, the guide bunds according to this criterion may not
provide enough protection to the approach embankments. Therefore in such cases the length and the
layout of the guide bunds should be determined in a manner that the approach embankments are safe
against the worst possible embankment.
If the distance of the channel edge is large, a double loop may be formed. The alignment of the
approach embankment plays an important role in deciding the length of the guide bund. The
approach embankment curved in the upstream are protected in the zone of possible meander and are
frequently attacked in spite of the provision of suitable guide bunds. The approach embankment
should, therefore be located along the axis of work up to the channel edge preferably with a curve
towards downstream to counterbalance the inadequacy of the guide bunds.

4. Radius of curved head of the guide banks

(a) Upstream curved portion
The upstream curved portion of a guide bank is called the impregnable head. The radius of
curvature of the impregnable head should be sufficient enough, as not to cause intense eddies
due to the curved flow near it. Greater the radius, flatter the curve, and lesser is the probability
of formation of eddies. For a same river slope, coarser the bed material, shorter can be the
radius depending on the expected velocity. A safe value for the radius R may be taken equal to
R= 0.45 L
Where, R= radius of the curved head and
P= length of water way
However, Spring suggested a value of R equal to 180 to 250 m having velocities between 2.4
to 3.4 m/sec respectively.
Gales, on the other hand, suggested a value of R= 250m for rivers having high flood discharge
between 7,000 to 20,000 cumecs, and a value of R= 580 m for discharges 40,000 to 70,000
cumecs. For intermediate discharge i.e. between 20,000 to 40,000 cumecs, the value of R may
be obtained by interpolation.
The upstream curve is extended to subtend an angle of 120° to 140° at its center as shown in
Figure 6.6.

(b) Downstream curved portion

On the downstream the river fans outs as to attain its normal width. The downstream portion of
the guide bank ensures the safety of approach embankments and prevents the river from
attacking them. This purpose can be well served by providing short guide bund with sharp
curved head. A radius equal to half of the radius at the upstream side may be adopted here and
sweep angle of 45° to 60° may be provided.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

A
x Impregnable
head
x

120° to 140° B

y y

R1 = R/2 Bridge axis

0.25L
C
45° to 60° D
(a)

HFL

t = 0.06 Q1/3
2 y
1 T = 1.9t

1.5D

D xR

(b) Section at x − x

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 River Training Works

HFL

t = 0.06 Q1/3
2 y
1 T = 1.9t

1.5D

D xR

(c) Section at y − y

Figure 6.6: Gale’s recommendations for guide banks

5. Shank portion and selection of bund

The straight portion of the guide bank BC (in Figure 6.6(a)) is called the shank portion. The guide
banks should have a minimum top width of 4 meters so as to provide sufficient carriage way. Extra
width may, however be provided for storing pitching materials, etc. Side slopes may vary from 1.5H
:1V to 2.5H:1V. (But generally kept as 2H:1V), depending on the construction materials and the
height of the bund. A freeboard of 1.2 to 1.5 m is generally provided.

6. Slope Pitching

The river side should be pitched with one man stone weighing 40 to 50 kg or concrete blocks. The
rear shank slope may be covered with a coating of 0.3 to 0.6 m earth for growth of vegetation to
resist rain and wind erosion.

The thickness of pitching on the river side is given by the relation

t = 0.06 Q1/3 [Where Q= discharge in cumecs]

t = Thickness of stone pitching in m.

7. Launching apron

The face of the guide bund is protected at river bed level by stone pitching so that during floods the
sloping face is not damaged. Scour would occur at the toe with consequent undermining and
collapse of the stone pitching. To obviate such damage to the slopes, a stone cover known as apron
is laid beyond the toe on horizontal river bed so that scour undermines the apron first starting at its
farther end and work backwards towards the slope. The apron then launches to cover the face of the
scour, with stones forming a continuous carpet below the permanent slopes of the guide bunds.
Adequate quantity of stones for apron has to be provided to ensure complete protection of the whole
of the scoured face. Generally scour slope of 2H:1V is assumed. In this case the length of the
scoured face will be equal to 5 D . The thickness of apron in launched position is assumed as 1.25t,
where t is the thickness of slope pitching. Then the volume of stone required in the launched apron
per unit length= 22 + 12 × D × 1.25t = 2.5 t D.
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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

The launching apron is generally laid in a width equal to 1.5 D. where D is scour depth below the
original bed. The total scour below HFL is taken as xR, where R is the Lacey’s normal scour depth
1
given by equation. R=0.47  Q 3
f
Where Q is the discharge and f is the silt factor, values of x are tabulated for different below places
of guide band.
S. N. Locations Mean value of x D = xR – y (water depth above bed)
1. Noses of guide banks 2.25 2.25R – y
2. Transitions from noses to 1.5 1.5R – y
straight portions
3. Straight reaches of guide 1.25 1.25R – y
bunds
If the width of unlaunched apron is 1.5D, then the thickness of the unlaunched apron T is given as:
2.8 × t × D
T= =1.87t = 1.9t
1.5D
Example 6.1:
A bridge is to be constructed across a river, having the following hydraulic data:
• Maximum discharge = 17000 cumecs
• Highest flood level = 288.0 m
• River bed level = 280.0 m
• Average diameter of the river bed material = 0.10 mm
Find out the desired waterway for the bridge. Design Bell’s guide bunds including launching apron
and also guide banks on either side to train the river. Big boulders are available in a hilly torrent
nearby.
Solution:
Step 1: Length of waterway
Lacey’s regime perimeter
P = 4.75 Q
P= 4.75 17000 = 619.32 m
Allowing 20% extra for piers etc. the length of the overall waterway between two guide banks
at the bridge site is obtained as:
L= 1.2 × 619.32 = 743.189 ≈ 744 m
Step 2: Length of guide bank
The length of the guide bank upstream of bridge = 1.25 × L = 1.25 × 744 = 930 m
The length of the guide bank downstream of bridge = 0.25 × L= 0.25 × 744= 186 m

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Step 3: Radius of Curve head

Following the recommendations of Gales,

The radius of U/S curved head of the guide bank = 0.45 × L = 334.8 m

The U/S curved head may be provided with a sweep angle of 135O.

The radius of D/S curved head of the guide bank = R/2 = 334.8/2 = 167.4m

and may be provided with a sweep angle of 60O.

Step 4: Cross section of Guide bank

The top width of the guide bank is assumed as 4 m and the side slopes as 2:1

H.F.L. at the bridge site = 288.0 m

Assume free board = 1.5m

Assume nil value of afflux and neglect velocity head.

Top level of guide bank = 288.0 + 1.5 = 289.5 m

River Bed level = 280.0 m

Now, Height of guide bank above the bed of the river = 289.5 – 280.0 = 9.50m

Step 5: Slope protection

Thickness of stone pitching on the side slopes of the guide bank is given by

t = 0.06 Q1/3 = 0.06 × 170001/3 = 1.54m ≈ 1.55 m

The volume of stone required for pitching per meter length = 5 × 9.50 × 1.55 = 32.926
m3/m≈33 m3/m

Step 6: Launching Apron

Lacey's regime scour depth is given by

1
R=0.47   3 = 14.66 m
Q
f
f = 1.76 dmm = 0.56

Depth of water above river bed (y) = 8m

At the nose:
Depth of scour below the river bed (D) = xR – Y = 2.25 × 14.66 – 8 = 25m

Length of launching apron = 1.5 D = 1.5 × 25 = 37.5 m

Thickness of launching apron = 1.9 t = 1.9 × 1.55 = 2.945m

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At transition of Guide bank:

Depth of scour below the river bed D = xR – y = 1.5 × 14.66 – 8 = 14m
Length of launching apron = 1.5D = 21m
Thickness of launching apron = 1.9 t = 1.9 × 1.55 = 2.945m
At the shank of Guide bank
Depth of scour below the river bed D = xR – y = 1.25 × 14.66 – 8 = 10.5m
Length of launching apron = 1.5D = 15.75m ≈ 16m
Thickness of launching apron = 1.9 t = 1.9 × 1.55= 2.945m
A
x Impregnable
head
x

135° B

744m

y y

R = 167.4m Bridge axis

186m
C
60° D
(a)

289.5m
HFL = 288.0m

t = 1.55 m
2 8
1 T = 2.945m
280.0m

37.5m

25 xR

(b) Section at x − x

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 River Training Works

289.5m
HFL = 288.0m

t = 1.55m
2 8
1 T = 2.945m
280.0m

37.5m

25 xR

(c) Section at y − y

6.5 Design of Spur (Groynes)

Spurs (or jetties, as they are often called) are defined as linear structures, permeable or impermeable,
projecting into a channel from the bank for the purpose of altering flow direction, channel bank
protection, inducing deposition, or reducing flow velocity along the bank. Design of spur consist of
permeability, length and layout of spur and size/ height of spur.

Eroded Bank

Groine IV Groine V
Groine III
Groine VI
Groine VII
Future Bank

Groine II
B
Groine I
A

Rectified Bank

Figure 6.7: Layout of spur in river bend

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Permeability
Where it is necessary to provide a significant reduction in flow velocity, a high level of flow control, or
where the structure is being used on a sharp bend, the spur's permeability should not exceed 35 percent.
• Where it is necessary to provide a moderate reduction in flow velocity , a moderate level of
flow control, or where the structure is being used on a mild to moderate channel bend, the
spurs with permeability up to 50 percent can be used.
• In environments where only a mild reduction in velocity is required, where bank stabilization
without a significant amount of flow control is necessary, or on mildly curving to straight
channel reaches, spurs having effective permeability up to 80 percent can be used. However,
these high degrees of permeability are not recommended unless experience has shown them to
be effective in a particular environment.
• It is recommended that jack and tetrahedron retardance spurs be used only where it can be
reasonably assumed that the structures will trap a sufficient volume of floating debris to
produce an effective permeability of 60 percent or less.
• It is recommended that Henson-type spurs be designed to have an effective permeability of
approximately 50 percent.
• The greater the spur permeability, the less severe the scour pattern downstream of the spur tip.
As spur permeability increases, the magnitude of scour downstream of the spur decreases
slightly in size, but more significantly in depth.
• The vertical structural members of permeable spurs should be round or streamlined to
minimize local scour effects. The greater the spur permeability, the lower the magnitude of
flow concentration at the spur tip.
• If minimizing the magnitude of flow deflection and flow concentration at the spur tip is important to a
particular spur design, a spur with permeability greater than 35 percent should be used.
• The more permeable the spur, the shorter the length of channel bank protected downstream of
the spur’s riverward tip.
• Spurs with permeability up to approximately 35 percent protect almost the same length of
channel bank as do impermeable spurs; spurs having permeability greater than 35 percent
protect shorter lengths of channel bank, and this length decreases with increasing spur
permeability.
• Because of the increased potential for erosion of the channel bank in the vicinity of the spur
root and immediately downstream when the flow stage exceeds the crest of impermeable spurs,
it is recommended that impermeable spurs not be used along channel banks composed of
highly erodible material unless measures are taken to protect the channel bank in this area.

Extent of Channel bank Protection

A common mistake in stream bank protection is to provide protection too far upstream and not far enough
downstream.
• The extent of bank protection should be evaluated using a variety of techniques, including:
– Empirical methods,
– Field reconnaissance,
– Evaluation of flow traces for various flow stage conditions, and
– Review of flow and erosion forces for various flow stage conditions.
Information from these approaches should then be combined with personal judgment and a knowledge of
the flow processes occurring at the local site to establish the appropriate limits of protection.

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Spur Length
• As the spur length is increased,
– The scour depth at the spur tip increases,
– The magnitude of flow concentration at the spur tip increases,
– The severity of flow deflection increases, and
– The length of channel bank protected increases.
• The projected length of impermeable spurs should be held to less than 15 percent of the
channel width at bank-full stage.
• The projected length of permeable spurs should be held to less than 25 percent of the channel
width. However, this criterion depends on the magnitude of the spur’s permeability. Spurs
having permeability less than 35 percent should be limited to projected lengths not to exceed
15 percent of the channel’s flow width. Spurs having permeability of 80 percent can have
projected lengths up to 25 percent of the channel’s bank-full flow width. Between these two
limits, a linear relationship between the spur permeability and spur length should be used.

Spur Spacing
• The spacing of spurs in a bank-protection scheme is a function of the spur’s length, angle, and
permeability, as well as the channel bend’s degree of curvature.
• The direction and orientation of the channel’s flow thalweg plays a major role in determining
an acceptable spacing between individual spurs in a bank-stabilization scheme.
• Reducing the spacing between individual spurs below the minimum required to prevent bank
erosion between the spurs results in a reduction of the magnitude of flow concentration and
local scour at the spur tip.
• Reducing the spacing between spurs in a bank-stabilization scheme causes the flow thalweg to
stabilize further away from the concave bank towards the center of the channel.
• A spacing criteria based on the projection of a tangent to the flow thalweg, projected off the
spur tip should be used.

Spur Angle/Orientation
The primary criterion for establishing an appropriate spur orientation for the spurs within a given spur
scheme is to provide a scheme that efficiently and economically guides the flow through the channel
bend, while protecting the channel bank and minimizing the adverse impacts to the channel system.
• Spurs angled downstream produce a less severe constriction of flows than those angled
upstream or normal to flow.
• The greater an individual spur’s angle in the downstream direction, the smaller the magnitude
of flow concentration and local scour at the spur tip. Also, the greater the angle, the less severe
the magnitude of flow deflection towards the opposite channel bank.
• Impermeable spurs create a greater change in local scour depth and flow concentration over a
given range of spur angles than do permeable spurs. This indicates that impermeable spurs are
much more sensitive to these parameters than are permeable spurs.
• Spur orientation does not in itself result in a change in the length of channel bank protected for
a spur of given projected length. It is the greater spur length parallel to the channel bank
associated with spurs oriented at steeper angles that results in the greater length of channel
bank protected.

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• Retardance spurs should be designed perpendicular to the primary flow direction.

• Retardance/diverter and diverter spurs should be designed to provide gradual flow training
around the bend. This is accomplished by maximizing the flow efficiency within the bend
while minimizing any negative impacts on the channel geometry.
• The smaller the spur angle, the greater the magnitude of flow control as represented by a
greater shift of the flow thalweg away from the concave (outside) channel bank.
• It is recommended that spurs within a retardance/diverter or diverter spur scheme be set with
the upstream-most spur at approximately 150 degrees to the main flow current at the spur tip,
and with subsequent spurs having incrementally smaller angles approaching a minimum angle
of 90 degrees at the downstream end of the scheme.

Spur System Geometry

• A step-by-step approach to setting out the geometry of a retardance/diverter or diverter spur

scheme was presented above. The use of this approach will yield an optimal geometric spur
system design.

Spur Height

• The spur height should be sufficient to protect the regions of the channel bank impacted by the
erosion processes active at the particular site.

• If the design flow stage is lower than the channel bank height, spurs should be designed to a
height no more than three feet lower than the design flow stage.

• If the design flow stage is higher than the channel bank height, spurs should be designed to
bank height.

• Permeable spurs should be designed to a height that will permit the passage of heavy debris
over the spur crest and not cause structural damage.

• When possible, impermeable spurs should be designed to be submerged by approximately

three feet under their worst design flow condition, thus minimizing the impacts of local scour
and flow concentration at the spur tip and the magnitude of flow deflection.

Spur Crest Profile

• Permeable spurs should be designed with level crests unless bank height or other special
conditions dictate the use of a sloping crest design.

• Impermeable spurs should be designed with a slight fall towards the spur head, thus allowing
different amounts of flow constriction with stage (particularly important in narrow-width
channels), and the accommodation of changes in meander trace with stage.

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Channel bed and Channel bank Contact

• Careful consideration must be given to designing a spur that will maintain contact with the
channel bed and channel bank so that it will not be undermined or outflanked. Methods and
examples presented herein can be used to ensure adequate bend and bank contact.

Spur Head Form

• A simple straight spur head form is recommended,

• The spur head or tip should be as smooth and rounded as possible. Smooth, well-rounded spur
tips help minimize local scour, flow concentration, and flow deflection.

Exercise

1. What is river training works? Explain with sketch three methods of training works normally adopted
in Nepalese river.

2. Design the length, radius of curved head, length and thickness of launching apron of a guide bund to
train a river with the following data.

Design flood discharge = 4500 cumecs; Bed level of river = 150.00m

HFL = 154.00m; average diameter of river bed material = 0.1mm

3. Explain with sketch how spur assist in river control work.

4. The launching apron of a guide bank is laid in a width equal to 1.8 times the depth of scour below
original bed. If a scour slope of 3:1 is to be maintained with thickness 1.5t, find the thickness of
apron before it get launched. Draw neat sketch of designed structure.

5. Calculate the thickness of a 7m long launching apron of loosed stones for a shank portion of guide
bund at a bridge site of a river having design flood of 8000 m3/sec and flood depth of 5m. Assume
that average diameter of river bed material at flood time is 0.3mm.

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C HA P T ER

7 Regulating Structures
The structures (or masonry works) constructed on a canal to control and to regulate discharge, velocity,
depth etc. are known as canal regulation works. These structures are required for proper and efficient
functioning of an irrigation canal system. The water which enters the main canal through a head regulator
installed at the canal headworks is distributed into different branches and distributaries. To distribute the
water effectively, the discharge is regulated in these smaller channels.

The distributary head regulator is constructed at the head of a distributary (or a branch canal) to control
and to regulate the flow of water into the distributary. Thus a distributary head regulator provides a
necessary link between the parent channel and the offtaking channel.

A cross – regulator is generally constructed across the parent channel at the downstream of the off – take
point of the offtaking channel for raising up the water level in the parent channel when its discharge is
less than the full supply discharge. Cross regulators are also constructed for various other purposes.

A canal fall is a structure constructed on a channel to effect a sudden change in the bed level of the
channel. Canal falls are required on a channel when the slope of natural ground along the alignment of a
channel is steeper than the bed slope of the channel. If a fall is not provided, the channel will go in
excessive filling, which is not desirable.

The offtaking channel should take its proportionate share of sediments of the parent channel. Various silt-
excluding devices are provided at the distributary head regulator. The aim of all such devices is to
separate the bottom layers of water charged with the concentrated sediment load from the top layers and
to draw top layers of clear water into the offtaking channel without causing any disturbance.

7.1 Alignment of the Off – taking Canals

A channel taking off from another large channel (called parent channel) should be properly aligned with
respect to the parent channel. The alignment should be such that the off – taking channel is able to draw
its supply without any undesirable effect. The following types of alignment are commonly adopted in
practices.

1. The best alignment of the offtaking channel is when it makes nearby zero angle with the parent
channel initially and then separates out gradually along a transition curve as shown in Figure 7.1.
The transition curve should be properly designed to avoid accumulation of silt in the form of a silt
jetty and to ensure equitable distribution of silt.

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 Regulating Structure

Parent canal Cross regulator

Distributary head
regulator

Figure 7.1: CR and DHR

2. If the transition curve are not provided, the alignment shown in Figure 7.2 may be adopted. In this
case, the offtaking channel as well as the parent channel on downstream make an angle with the
parent channel on upstream of the offtake point.

Distributary head regulator

Parent canal

Cross regulator

Figure 7.2: CR and DHR

3. If it is essential to keep the parent channel straight the edge of the channel rather than the center line
should be considered while deciding the angle of off take as shown in Figure 7.3 (a). An angle of
600 to 800 is quite suitable. However, for large and important works the model studies should be
conducted to determine the most suitable angle.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Figure 7.3 (b) shows an unbalanced offtake, which should be avoided as far as possible. This usually
results in the formation of silt jetty. Moreover, the deviated current of water scours the bed along the
deviated line to make up the loss of silt due to jetty formation.

Off take canal

Distributary head
regulator

Parent canal

Cross regulator

(a)

Off take canal

Distributary head
regulator

Parent canal Parent canal

Cross regulator
Silt jetty

(b)

Figure 7.3: CR and DHR

4. When a number of channels off-take from one parent channel, the alignment shown in Figure 7.4 is
generally adopted. In this case, the off-taking channels are generally flumed to accommodate all the
off-takes in the normal width of the parent channel. In this case, only one cross – regulator serves
the purpose of a number of cross – regulators which would have been required if separate off – take
points were provided for different off-taking channels.

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 Regulating Structure

DHR

Parent canal

DHR Cross regulator

Figure 7.4: CR and DHR

7.2 Function of Head regulator, Cross Regulator, Outlet, Drop and Escape
The regulators are required on a channel to regulate and control the supply of water. The functions of the
distributary head regulator and the cross – regulator are summarized below.
7.2.1 Function of Distributary Head Regulator
A distributary head regulator serves the following main purposes.
1. It regulates the supply of water from the parent channel to the offtaking channel.
2. It controls the entry of silt into the offtaking channel.
3. It can serve as a meter for the measurement of discharge.
4. It is used for shutting off the supply into the offtaking channel when water is not needed, or when
the offtaking channel is required to be closed for repairs or maintenance.
7.2.2 Function of Cross Regulator
1. The main function of cross regulator is to raise the water level in the parent channel in the upstream
so that the offtaking channel can take its full supply even when the water level in the parent channel
is lower than F.S.L.
2. It is also used to close the supply in the parent channel on its downstream. The supply in that case is
usually directed to other channels. If an escape is also provided in conjunction with a cross
regulator, the water can be directed to the escape channel.
3. There is usually a bridge on the cross regulator, which provides a means of communication.
4. It helps to absorb fluctuations in the various section of the canal system and thus prevents braches in
the tail reaches.
5. It can be used to control discharge at an outfall of a canal into another canal or a lake.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

6. It can be very easily combined with a canal fall: in which case, it helps to control the water surface
slope for bringing the canal to a regime slope and to a balanced depth.
7. It can be sued to control the drawdown when the subsoil water levels are high to ensure safety of
canal lining.
8. Cross regulators are useful for effective regulation of the entire canal system. In a good canal
system, a large number of cross regulators are usually provided.
7.2.3 Function of Outlet (Modules)
A canal outlet or a modules is small structure built at the head of the watercourse so as to connect it with
a minor or a distributary channel. Thus the water course takes water from the distributary channel at the
outlet and carries it to the agricultural fields. An outlet for a water course serves the same purpose as a
distributary head regulator serve for the distributary. Of course its size is much smaller. The importance
of an outlet is considerable because it is a connecting link between the distributary maintained by the
government and a water course maintain by farmers. The functions of the outlet are as follows:
1. To take water from minor or distributary channel.
2. It distributes water in required proportions in fields.
3. An out let may also be used for the measurement of discharge being supplied to the water course.
7.2.4 Function of Escapes
An escape is a structure constructed in irrigation channel for disposal of surplus water from the channel.
Hence it is also called surplus water escape or canal surplus escape.
Function of escape:
1. It helps to overflow the extra surplus water from the canal safely.
2. It prevents the damage and de – function of irrigation canal due to flood water.
3. It prevents the damage of the farming land by spilling the excess water to streams.
4. It helps scouring of excess bed silt deposited in canals.
7.2.5 Function of Drop Structure
Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the channel, the
difference is adjusted by constructing vertical falls or drops in the canal bed at suitable interval.
Function of fall:
1. It lowers the bed level and water level of the channel to maintain the ground level.
2. It provides safety against erosion in bed and bank due to excess energy flow.

7.3 Design of Regulator and Escape

7.3.1 Design of Cross regulator and Distributary head regulator
Step 1: Design of crest level and length of water way
1. Crest level
(a) The crest level of cross regulator is generally kept at the U/S bed level of the
channels [Figure 7.5].

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 Regulating Structure

(b) The crest level of a distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3m to 1m higher
that the crest level of the cross regulator [Figure 7.6]
Gated structure
Wing wall

U/S FSL
D/S FSL
U/S Bed Crest level
∆ ∆ 2:1 D/S Bed
∆ ∆ ∆
yn/3 + 0.6 ∆ yd/2 + 0.6

Figure 7.5: Cross Regulator

Gated structure
Wing wall

U/S FSL

U/S Bed 1:1 Crest level

∆
∆ 2:1 D/S Bed
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ y /2 + 0.6
yn/3 + 0.6 d

Figure 7.6: Distributary Head Regulator

2. Water way
(a) The length of water way is obtained by using the discharge formula for a drowned
weir which is as follows:
2
Q= Cd 2g B [(h + hv)3/2 - hv3/2] + Cd2 B h1 2g (h + hv)
3 1
Where, Cd1 = 0.577
Cd2 = 0.8
Q = Discharge in cumecs
B = Clear water way
h = Difference of water level U/S and D/S of the crest in m
hv = Head due to velocity of approach
h1 = Depth of D/S water level in the channel above the crest.
Generally hv is small and can be neglected
2
Q= x 0.577 2 x 9.81 B (h)3/2 + 0.8 B h1 2 x 9.81 (h)
3
Q = 1.7 B h3/2 + 3.54 Bh1 h
Q = B h [1.7 h + 3.54 h1]

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

U/S water level

Q2 h D/S water level

h1

Step 2: Design of impervious floor

1. Level and length of D/S floor
The level and length of D/S floor is determined for the following two conditions.
(a) Full supply discharge is passing through both the cross regulator and distributary
head regulator with all gates fully open.
(b) The discharge in the parent channel is insufficient but the offtaking channel is running
full and its FSL is maintained by the partial opening of the gates of cross regulator.
In first condition q and HL are fixed; while in the second case q reduces and HL increases,
depending upon the low flow of the channel. The first condition become more critical.
If the low flow record of parent canal is not given, the design can be done for the first
flow condition.
2. Downstream floor level or cistern level
For the above two flow conditions q an HL are work out. Then Ef2 is found from Blench
Curve (Annex III). The level at which jump would form i.e. the level of D/S floor is then
given by D/S TEL – Ef2. ≈ D/S FSL – Ef2
If the D/S floor for the worst condition workout to be higher than the D/S bed level of the
channel, the floor is provided at the bed level.
3. Length of D/S floor
It is worked out by calculating
(a) Length of jump consideration L = 5(y2 – y1).
2 2
(b) Exit gradient consideration1 =L = b= αd
3 3
Where, b = Total length of impervious floor
d = Downstream cut off depth.
Length of D/S floor is provided whichever is greater than above conditions.
4. Total floor length
The total floor length “b” is worked out form safe exit gradient consideration. This total
floor length is than suitably distributed upstream and downstream.

1
Refer Chapter 5

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 Regulating Structure

5. Thickness of impervious floor

The thickness of impervious floor is found from the consideration of uplift pressure.
However, a minimum thickness of 0.3m to 0.5 m is provided from the practical
consideration.
Step 3: Design of protection work
Cutoff piles are provided as given below:
1. Upstream cut off
The minimum depth of U/S cutoff below U/S floor level is kept as (yu/3 + 0.6) m, where
yu is the depth of water in the channel upstream.
2. Downstream cut off
The minimum depth of D/S cut off below the D/S floor level is kept as (yd/2 + 0.6)m ,
where yd is the depth of water in the channel downstream.
3. Launching apron
The C.C. (cubic content) blocks and inverted filter are provided in a length approximately
equal to 1.5D. The quantity of stone in launching apron is kept as 2.25D m3/m.
Example 7.1:
Design a cross regulator and Head regulator for a channel which takes off from the parent channel
with the following data:
Discharge of parent channel = 105 cumecs
Discharge of distributary = 15cumecs
U/S 118.10m
FSL of the parent channel, =
D/S 117.90m
U/S 45m
Bed width of Parent channel =
D/S 41m
U/S 2.5m
Depth of water in the parent channel =
D/S 2.5m
FSL of distributary = 117.2m
Bed width of distributary = 15m
Full supply depth of distributary = 1.6m
Silt factor = 0.8
Assume safe exit gradient = 1/5
Solution:
A: Design of Cross regulator
Step 1: Design of crest and water way
Crest level = U/S bed level of the parent canal.
= FSL of parent canal – water depth
= 118.10m – 2.50m = 115.60 m

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2
Water way: Q = Cd 2g B [(h + hv)3/2 – hv3/2] + Cd2 B h1 2g (h + hv)
3 1
Ignoring velocity head; Cd1 = 0.577 and Cd2 = 0.8
Q = B h [1.7 h + 3.54 h1]
Here h = U/S FSL – D/S FSL = 118.10 – 117.90 = 0.2m
h1 = D/S FSL – Crest level = 117.90 – 115.60 = 2.3m
Now; 140 = B 0.2 [1.7 × 0.2 + 3.54 × 2.3]
Solving; B = 27.65m
Provide 4 bays of 7m each with a clear water way = 4 × 7 = 28 m
Provide 3 number of pier of 1.5m width each = 4.5 m
Thus the overall waterway = 28 + 4.5 = 32.5 m.
Step 2: Design of impervious floor
1. Level of impervious floor
Q = 105 m3/sec.
q = Q/B= 105/28 = 3.75 cumecs/m
HL = U/S FSL – D/S FSL = 0.2
From Blench curve (Annex III); Ef2 = 1.95m
(a) D/S floor level = D/S FSL – Ef2 = 117.90 – 1.95 = 115.95m
(b) D/S bed level = D/S FSL – D/S flow depth = 117.90 – 2.5 = 115.40m
Hence provide the cistern or D/S floor at RL = 115.40m (Lower of a and b)
2. Length of D/S floor
(a) From Energy consideration
Length of D/S floor required = 5(y2 – y1)
From Annex III for Ef2 = 1.95; y2 = 1.7 m
Ef1 = Ef2 + HL = 1.95 + 0.2 = 2.15m; y1 = 0.7m
Length = 5(y2 – y1) = 5 (1.7 – 0.7) = 5m
(b) From exit gradient consideration
H 1
GE = Where; H = maximum static head, which is caused when there is full water
dπ λ
on U/S and there is no water on D/S.
H = U/S FSL – D/S bed level = 118.10 – (117.90 – 2.50) = 2.7 m
d = D/S cutoff depth = yd/2 + 0.6 = 2.5/2 + 0.6 =1.85m
1 2.7 1
=
5 1.85 π λ
1
= 0.137 ; λ = 5.3983
π λ

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 Regulating Structure

1 + 1+α2
We have λ =
2
Solving we get α = 9.74
b = α.d = 9.74 × 1.85 = 18.03 m say 18.1m
2
Minimum D/S floor length required = × b = 12.1m
3
Hence provide 12.1m as the D/S floor length
Provide sloping glacis with slope 2:1
Now glacis length = 2 × (115.60 – 115.40) = 0.4m
The balance, i.e. 18.1 – 12.1 – 0.4 = 5.6 m is provided as U/S floor length, as shown in
figure below.

2:1

5.6 0.4 12.1

Step 3: Design of protection work
(a) U/S cutoff
The depth of U/S cutoff below U/S floor level = (yu/3 + 0.6) = 2.5/3 + 0.6 = 1.43m ≈ 1.5m
RL of bottom of U/S cutoff pile = 115.6 – 1.5 = 114.1m
(b) D/S cutoff
The depth of U/S cutoff below U/S floor level = (yd/2 + 0.6) = 2.5/2 + 0.6 = 1.85m ≈ 2.0m
RL of bottom of U/S cutoff pile = 115.4 – 2.0 = 113.4 m
The floor thickness should be provided by Khosla’s seepage theory as worked out in
examples of chapter 5.
Gated structure
Wing wall

118.10
117.9
115.6 Crest level
2:1 115.4

1.5m 2m

5.6 0.4 12.1

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B: Design of Distributary head regulator

Step 1: Design of crest level and water way
Crest level = U/S bed level + 0.5 (say) = 115.6 + 0.5 = 116.1m
Water way
The discharge is given by Q = B h [1.7 h + 3.54 h1]
Where Q = 15 cumecs
h = FSL parent canal – FSL offtake canal = 118.10 – 117.20 = 0.9 m
h1 = FSL offtake canal – crest level of DHR = 117.2 – 116.1 = 1.1m
15 = B 0.9 [1.7 × 0.9 + 3.54 × 1.1]
B = 2.91 m
Which is very small as compared to bed width of distributary (15m).
Now provide 2 bays of 3.5m each with 1.0 m pier in between.
Overall water way is provided = 7 + 1= 8 m
Clear water way = 7 m.
Step 2: Design of impervious floor
Level of impervious floor
Q = 15 cumecs
q = 15/7 = 2.14 cumecs/m
HL = U/S FSL – D/S FSL = 118.1 – 117.20 = 0.9m
From Blench curve (Annex III);
Ef2 = 1.65 m
Ef1 = Ef2 + HL = 1.65 + 0.9 = 2.55m
From Annex III;
For Ef2 = 1.65 m; y2 = 1.56 m
Ef1 = 2.55 m; y1 = 0.32 m
D/S floor level = D/S FSL – Ef2 = 117.2 – 1.65 = 115.55 m
D/S bed level = D/S FSL – D/S flow depth = 117.2 – 1.60 = 115.60m
Since the required D/S floor level is lower than the D/S bed level, the D/S floor level is
kept as 115.50m
Length of impervious floor
1. From Energy consideration
Length of cistern required = 5 (y2 – y1) = 5 (1.56 – 0.32) = 6.2 m

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2. From exit gradient consideration

H 1
GE = Where; H = maximum static head, which is caused when there is full water on
dπ λ
U/S and there is no water on D/S.
H = U/S FSL – D/S floor level = 118.10 – 115.50 = 2.6m
d = D/S cutoff depth = yd/2 + 0.6 = 1.6/2 + 0.6 =1.4 m adopt d = 1.85m (same as
cross regulator)
1 2.7 1
=
5 1.85 π λ

1
= 0.137 ; λ = 5.3954
π λ

1 + 1+α2
We have λ =
2

Solving we get α = 9.74

b = α.d = 9.74 × 1.85 = 18.03 m say 18.1m
2
Minimum D/S floor length required = × b = 12.1m
3

(i) Hence adopt D/S floor length = 12.1 m

(ii) Length of D/S glacis with 2:1 slope = 2 (116.10 – 115.50) = 1.2m
(iii) Width of crest = 1.0 m
(iv) Length of U/S glacis with 1:1 slope = (116.10 – 115.60) = 0.5 m
(v) Balance floor length to be provided on U/S side = 18.1 – (12.1 + 1.2 + 1 + 0.5 ) = 3.3 m.
Step 3: Design of protection work
(a) U/S Cutoff pile

The depth of U/S cutoff below U/S floor level = (yu/3 + 0.6) = 2.5/3 + 0.6 = 1.43m ≈ 1.5m
RL of bottom of U/S cutoff pile = 115.60 – 1.5 = 114.10 m
(b) D/S cutoff
The depth of U/S cutoff below U/S floor level = (yd/2 + 0.6) = 1.6/2 + 0.6 = 1.4m adopt 1.5m.
RL of bottom of U/S cutoff pile = 115.5 – 1.5 = 114.0 m
The floor thickness should be provided by Khosla’s seepage theory as worked out in
examples of chapter 5.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Gated structure

U/S Wing wall

D/S wing wall
118.10
117.2
115.6 1:1 116.1
∆ ∆
2:1 115.5
1.5m ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
1.5m
1
3.3 12.1
0.5 1.2

7.4 Outlets
The canal outlet is a small structure built on the bank of a distributary channel through which water is
supplied to a water course (or a field channel). In other words, the canal outlet is a structure provided at
the head of the water course to connect it to the distributary channel. Thus the water course takes water
from the distributary channel at the outlet and carries it to the agricultural fields.
An outlet for a water course serves the same purpose as a distributary head regulator serves for the
distributary. Of course, its size is usually much smaller. The importance of an outlet is considerable
because it is a connecting link between the distributary maintained by the department and a water course
maintained by the cultivators.
An out let may also be used for the measurement of discharge being supplied to the water course. The
discharge through an outlet is usually less than 85 lps. A canal outlet is also called an irrigation outlet or a
module. The adjective canal in canal outlets is necessary to avoid the ambiguity with the dam outlets.
The design of a canal outlet is of great importance for the canal management as well as for the cultivators.
The cultivators aim is usually to get an ample supply of water for the crops whereas the aim of the
department is to ensure an equal distribution of water when the supply is limited. An outlet plays an
important role in the equitable distribution of available water to all the cultivators.
7.4.1 Requirements of Good Canal Outlets
A good canal outlet should fulfill the following requirements.
1. It should be simple in design, construction and maintenance.
2. It should be quite strong and durable. It should not have any movable part which is likely to be
easily damaged or which requires periodical maintenance.
3. The outlet should be such that it is not easily tampered with by the cultivators to increase the discharge in
the water course. Moreover, if tampered with, it should be easily detectable and repairable.
4. It should be able to work efficiently and draw its full discharge even under a small working head.
5. It should draw its due share of silt.
6. It should not be expensive.
7. Its design should be such that it can be easily constructed by the local workers.
8. The design of the outlet should be such that it draws discharge according to the fluctuation of the
discharge in the distributary. In other words, it should draw proportionately less water when the
discharge in the distributary is less.

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7.4.2 Types of Outlets

Outlets may be broadly classified into the following three types:
1. Non – modular outlet
A non – modular outlet is the outlet whose discharge depends upon the difference in water levels of
both the distributary and the water courses. The discharge through a non – modular outlet, therefore,
varies with the variation of water levels in both the distributary and the water course.
2. Semi – modular outlet (or flexible outlet)
A semi – modular out (or flexible outlet) is the outlet whose discharge depends only upon the water
level in distributary and is independent of the water level in the water course. Thus the discharge in
a semi – modular outlet doesn’t depend upon the fluctuation in the water course, provided a
minimum working head required for its working is available.
3. Modular outlet (or rigid module)
A modular outlet (or rigid module) is the outlet whose discharge is independent of water levels of
both the distributary and the water course, provided a minimum working head required for its
working is available other words, a modular outlet maintains a constant discharge irrespective of
variation of water levels in the distributary and the water course.

7.4.3 Criteria for Selection of Outlet Capacity

The following criteria govern the selection of the capacity of an outlet.
1. Method of regulation of supply in the main canal
If the water supply in the main canal and the distributary is regulated according to the area actually
irrigated in a crop season, the outlet capacity should be such that it can be easily changed from one
crop season to the other. On the other hand, if the water supply is regulated according to the
culturable Commanded area (CCA), the outlet should have a constant capacity. The latter method of
regulation is considered more equitable and practical.
2. Method of distribution of water to cultivators
If all the cultivators share the outlet discharge simultaneously from a water course in proportion to
their areas, there will be very high conveyance and application losses and the efficiency will be low.
On the other hand, if the entire discharge of the water course is taken by each cultivator turn for a
period proportional to his area, the losses will be small, and the outlet capacity can be decreased.
3. Sources of supply
If the supply to the canal is from a storage reservoir, the cultivators can be provided with water
according to their need, provided the channel capacity is adequate. Outlets should be capable of
supplying the required water. Moreover it should be possible to open or to close them whenever
required. On the other hand, in case of the canal taking off from a diversion headworks with little
storage, the water has to be supplied whenever it is available; otherwise, it will go waste. In that
case, all the outlets generally remain open when the channel is running and there is no need of
closing the.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

4. System of working of the distributary

In the case of the channel taking off from a diversion headworks, the water available is generally not
adequate to feed all the distributaries simultaneously to full capacity. In the period of keen demand,
there are two alternatives;
i. All distributaries are run with low discharges simultaneously.
ii. Some of distributaries are run to full capacity and other are kept dry.
This latter system is preferred in the interest of efficient distribution of water. In the former case, the
outlets should be able to take their proportionate share of discharge when there is a large variation in
supply. In the latter case, the outlet should be able to take full discharge when the distributary is
running and there is enough water in the distributary to feed all the outlets. No outlet is kept closed
in this case, unless desired by the cultivators.

5. System of assessment
The out-let capacity is related to the method of assessment of the water supplied to the cultivators. If
the assessment is based on the volume of water supplied or on the capacity of the outlet, the outlets
should have a constant capacity. On the other hand if the assessment is based on the area irrigated,
the outlet capacity should vary with the variation in the water levels of the distributary and the water
course.

7.4.4 Design of Non-Modular Pipe Outlet (submerged outlet)

The most commonly used type or the outlet is the non – modular outlet, also called a pipe outlet. In its
simplest form it consists of a pipe 10 cm to 30cm diameter embedded in the bank of the canal such that its
exit is submerged below the water level in the water course. Thus the pipe outlet is a submerged pipe or
the drowned pipe as Figure 7.7.

FSL BERM FSL

Distributing Water course

canal

Figure 7.7: Non – modular outlets

The pipe is usually provided with face walls at its upstream and downstream ends. The pipe is laid on a
concrete foundation of lean concrete to prevent uneven settlement and consequent leakage. The pipe is
generally fixed horizontally at right angles to the direction of flow in the distributary. Its inlet is kept
about 22.5 cm below the water level in the distributary. However, in the case of main canal or a branch
canal, where considerable fluctuation in water level can take place the inlet is fixed at a suitable level
taking into consideration the minimum water level likely to occur.

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 Regulating Structure

Because there is considerable disturbance at the entrance to the pipe, this type of outlet usually takes its
due share of silt. If required, the silt conduction can be further improved by depressing the inlet of pipe
and placing the pipe sloping upwards from the inlet to the exit at a slope not steeper than 1 in 12. It is the
common practices to place the pipe inlet at a bed of distributary to enable the outlet to draw a fair share of
silt carried by the distributary.
Sometimes, a non – modular outlet consists of a rectangular or circular opening with a pavement. It may
also be an open sluice instead of a pipe.
Discharge formula
The discharge through a pipe (or barrel) non – modular outlet is determined by equating the difference (h)
in the water levels in the distributary and the water course to the sum of losses at entry, due to friction and
at exit. Thus,
V2 f L V2 V2
h = 0.5 + + . . . 7.1
2g 2gd 2g
Where h = difference in water levels of the distributary and the water course,
V = velocity through the pipe.
L and d = length and diameter of the pipe respectively.

From equation 7.1 V = 2gh  1/2

d
1.5d + f L
The discharge q through the pipe outlet is given by
1
q = V a = a × 2gh  2
d
. . . 7.2
1.5d + f L
Where a is the cross sectional area of pipe.
For convenience, equation 7.2 may be written as

q = C a × 2gh . . . 7.3
Where C is the coefficient of discharge which depends upon the friction factor, length and diameter of
pipe and is given by
1
C= 2
d
1.5d + f L
The value of the friction coefficient ' f ' varies from 0.02 for clean pipe to 0.04 for slightly encrusted iron
pipes. For earthen pipes, its value is usually taken as 0.03.
In general the values of C varies from about 0.61 to 0.51 for encrusted pipes of diameter 10 to 25 cm and
of length of 3 to 15m. For an average value of 0.55, the discharge can be expressed as

q = 0.55 a 2gh . . . 7.4

The discharge through a non – modular outlet can be increased by deepening the water course bed and
thereby increasing the value of h.

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Example 7.2
Design a non – modular pipe outlet for the following conditions:
Discharge through the outlet = 0.02 cumecs
Length of the outlet = 15m
FSL of the distributary = 200.00
Available working head = 5cm
Coefficient of discharge = 0.51
Solution:
We have q = C a × 2gh
π × d2
0.02 = 0.51 × × 2 × 9.81 × 0.05
4
d = 0.2245m say 22.5cm.
Water surface level in the water course = 200.0 – 0.05 = 199.95m
Example 7.3
Design an irrigation outlet for the following data
Full supply discharge of outlet = 50 lps
FLS in distributing canal = 200.00m
FLS in water course = 199.92m
Full supply depth in distributing canal = 1.05m
Solution:
Available head across the outlet = FSL of distributary – FSL of water course = 200 – 199.92 =
0.08m
Since the available head is very small, a non – modular outlet (submerged pipe outlet) will have to
be provided.

We have, Q = Cd a × 2gh
Here Q =0.05 m3/sec
Cd = 0.73 (assumed for submerge condition)
h = 0.08m

Now, Q = Cd a × 2gh
A = 0.055m2
Diameter of pipe d = 0.264m
Hence, provide diameter of pipe = 30cm
The R.L. of the bed of the distributing canal = 200 – 1.05 = 198.95m

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 Regulating Structure

The pipe top can be fixed at about 22 cm below the FSL of distributing canal.

200.00 BERM 199.92

0.22 Water course
1.05 0.3

All dimensions are in m

7.4.5 Design of semi-modular pipe outlet (free flow outlet)

Semi – modular outlets can be broadly classified into the following four types:
• Pipe outlet, discharging free
• Kennedy’s gauge outlet
• Open – flume semi module
• Orifice semi – module

1. Pipe outlet, discharging free

The simplest type of a semi – modular outlet is a pipe outlet discharging free [Figure: 7.8]. In this
case, the discharge is independent of water level in the water course, because the exit level is higher
than the water level of the water course. The head (h) acting on the outlet is measured from the
water level in the distributary to the center of the outlet of the pipe.

BERM

Ho Water course
1.05

Water course
Figure 7.8: Pipe outlet (discharging freely)

The discharge through an outlet is given by Q = C a 2gHo . . . 7-5

Where C is the coefficient of discharge, a is the area of cross section of the pipe and Ho is the
working head.
Example 7.4
Design a semi – modular pipe outlet for a discharge of 85 lps on a distributary with a full supply
depth of 1.2m if the working head available is 0.70m. Take C = 0.62.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Solution:
From equation 7.5, Q = C a 2gHo
0.085 = 0.62 a 2 x 9.81 x 0.70
a = 0.037 m2
πd2/4 = 0.037 or d= 0.22m
Let us select as 25cm (0.049m2) diameter pipe.
Therefore, 0.085 = 0.62 x 0.049 2 x 9.81 x Ho
Ho = 0.40m < 0.70 m O.K.
The outlet will be a semi – modular outlet because there is free falling flow i.e. pipe outlet is higher
than the water level in the water course.
Example 7.5
Design a pipe outlet for the following data:-
Full supply discharge at the head of the watercourse = 90 lps
FSL in distributing canal = 205.0m
FSL in water course = 204.0m
Solution:
Available head across the outlet = FSL of distributary – FSL of watercourse
= 205.0 – 204.0 = 1m
Coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.62
Full supply discharge Q = 0.09 m3/sec
Now, the discharge through such an outlet is given as Q = C a x 2gHo
Assuming the diameter of pipe = 25cm
π x 0.252
Now, 0.09 = 0.62 x 4 x 2gHo

Ho = 0.44m
R.L. of center of outlet of pipe = 205 – 0.44 = 204.56m
R.L. of bottom level of pipe = 204.56 – 0.25/2 = 204.43m which is greater than FSL of water coarse
i.e. 204.00m
Hence, a pipe of 25cm diameter can be laid horizontal with its bottom or sill level at R.L. 204.43m
and it will be discharging freely as a semi – module.

0.44
204.43 25cm 204.0

Water course

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 Regulating Structure

7.4.6 Rigid Modules

A rigid module gives a constant discharge irrespective of the variation in the water levels of the
distributary and the water course. Modular outlets are basically of two types:
1. Modules with moving parts
2. Modules without moving parts
1. Modules with moving parts
The modules with moving parts are difficult to design and construct and are quite expensive. These
modules are liable to frequent breakdowns due to increase in friction, rusting of the moving parts
and clogging by silt, debris and weeds.
Various types of modules with moving parts are as under:
i. Visvesvaraya’s self – acting module
ii. Kennedy’s outlet module
iii. Kent’s O – type module
iv. Khanna’s auto – adjusting orifice distributor
Because of high initial cost and difficult in proper maintenance, the modules with moving parts are
rarely used in practice.
2. Module without moving parts
The module without moving parts are relatively easy to design and construct and their maintenance
cost is also low. In these modules, the discharge is automatically regulated by the velocity of water
without the necessity of any moving part. These modules are quite good and are commonly used
wherever a rigid module is required.
Various types of modules in this category are as follows:
i. Gibb’s module ii. Khanna’s rigid module iii. Ghafoor’s rigid module

Baffles

Eddy chamber
Rising pipe
Inlet pipe

Spout 1 to 10 Field
channel
Plan
FSL Divergence
Head wall Baffles Eddy chamber FSL

Field channel

Inlet pipe

L-Section Rising pipe

Figure 7.9: Gibb’s Module

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

7.5 Drop or Fall

A drop (or fall) structure is a regulating structure which lowers the water level along its course. The slope
of a canal is usually milder than the terrain slope as a result of which the canal in a cutting at its headwork
will soon outstrip the ground surface. In order to avoid excessive infilling the bed level of the downstream
canal is lowered, the two reaches being connected by a suitable drop structure Figure 7.10.
The drop is located so that the fillings and cuttings of the canal are equalized as much as possible.
Wherever possible, the drop structure may also be combined with a regulator or a bridge. The location of
an offtake from the canal also influences the fall site, with off-takes located upstream of the fall structure.

Steep ground slope

Design bed slope (non-silting and non-scouring)

Canal bed

Figure 7.10: Location of Canal Drop

7.5.1 Types of Fall

The common different types of falls took place in various stages, as discussed below:
1. Ogee – type fall
The ogee fall was evolved by Sir Proby Cautley. This fall was designed with the aim to provide a
smooth transition from the upstream to the downstream water level and avoid disturbance and
impact as far as possible (Figure 7.11). This fall is provided with gradual convex and concave
curves. However, these falls had the following shortcomings:
• On account of heavy drawn on the upstream side of the fall there was erosion of bed and banks
of the channel.
• Due to smooth transition the kinetic energy was almost fully preserved which caused erosion of
bed and banks of the channel on the downstream side of the fall.
U/S FSL

D/S FSL

Figure 7.11: Ogee type fall

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 Regulating Structure

2. Rapid fall (or rapid)

The rapid fall or rapids was evolved by R.F. Croften. As shown in Figure 7.12, the rapids falls were
constructed with boulder facing and were provided with glacis having gentles slopes in the range of
1 in 10 to 1 in 20. The long glacis assured the formation of hydraulic jump and hence these falls
worked quite satisfactorily. Further these falls also admitted of timber traffic. However, the cost of
construction of these falls was very high.
U/S FSL

U/S Bed level

D/S Bed level

Figure 7.12: Rapid fall

3. Stepped fall (Cascade)
The stepped falls were the modified form of rapid falls in this respect that the long glacis of the
rapid falls were replaced by floor in steps in the stepped falls as shown in Figure 7.13. However, the
cost of construction of the stepped falls was also very high.
u/s FSL

d/s FSL

Figure 7.13: Stepped fall

After the development of stepped falls it was recognized that better dissipation of energy could be
achieved through vertical impact of falling jet of water on the floor. As such vertical falls with
cistern were evolved. However, the earlier types of vertical falls were not well developed and gave
trouble. As such there were superseded for some time by trapezoidal notch falls.
4. Trapezoidal notch fall
The trapezoidal notch fall was evolved by Reid in 1894. This consists of a number of trapezoidal
notched in a high breast wall across the channel with a smooth entrance and a flat circular lip
projecting downstream from each notch to disperse water as shown in Figure 7.14. The notch were
designed to maintain the normal depth of flow in the upstream channel at any two discharge values,
the variation at intermediate values beings small. Thus the depth discharge relationship of the
channel remained practically undisturbed by the introduction of the fall i.e. there was neither
drawdown nor heading up of water in the channel upstream of the fall.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Figure 7.14: Trapexoidal Notch fall

5. Vertical drop fall
In the vertical drop type fall the clear nappe leaving the crest is made to impinge into a cistern
below. The cistern provides a water cushion and helps to dissipate the surplus energy of the falling
jet. In the earlier types of vertical drop type falls the dimensions to the cistern were arbitrarily
decided on the basis of the past experience of the designers. Further a grid consisting of baulks of
timber spaced a few centimeters apart was provided in the cistern to intercept the falling nappe and
dissipate its surplus energy. This ware later abandoned because the timber grid got clogged with
floating debris and rotted thus necessitating its frequent replacement.
6. Straight glacis fall
This type of fall utilize hydraulic jump (or standing wave) for the dissipation of energy. However,
there was serious trouble with some of these falls. One of the causes of trouble was that even after
the formation of hydraulic jump there was considerable surplus energy in water. Another cause of
trouble was due to rapid expansion after fluming eddied ware developed which caused deep scours.
Thus further research was carried out to eliminate these defects and two types of falls viz. Montague
and Inglis type falls were evolved. In the Montague type fall the straight glacis has been replaced by
a parabolic glacis commonly known as Montague profile. The Inglis type fall straight glacis is
provided but at a certain distance from the toe of the glacis of baffle wall of certain height is
provided. Both these types of falls have been designed with the aim to hold the hydraulic jump
stable on or close to the glacis and thus affect maximum dissipation of energy.

Figure 7.15: Sloping glacis type fall with USBR type III stilling basin

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 Regulating Structure

7. Common (straight) drop

The common drop structure, in which the aerated free – falling nappe (modular flow) hits the
downstream basin floor, and with turbulent circulation in the pool beneath the nappe contributing to
energy dissipation, is shown in Figure 7.16.
U/S HFL

Air vent D/S HFL

d
y1
yp y1
h
LB
Figure 7.16: Common Drop structure (after Bos, 1976)
8. YMGT – type drop (Japan)
This type of drop is generally used in flumed sections suitable for small canals, field channels, etc.,
with discharges up to 1 m3/sec (Figure. 7.17). The following are the recommended design criteria:
• Sill height, P varies from 0.06 m to 0.14 m with the unit discharge q between 0.2 and 1.0 m3/sec /m;
• Depth of cistern, dc=1/2(Ec Hdr)1/2
• Length of cistern, Lc = 2.5Ld

E1 EC y
D1 C Hdr
p'

D2

dc

LC
Figure 7.17: YMGT – type drop (Japan)

7.5.2 Design of vertical drop (Sarda type drop)

The Sarda – type fall is a vertical drop fall in which there is a raised crest and there is a vertical impact.
This type of fall was evolved to replace the notch fall on the Sarda canal system in U.P. India. It was
found to be more economical than the notch fall. Moreover, it was simple in design and construction. The
maximum height of drop was 1.80m (6 ft.) In the commanded area of the Sarda canal, it was found that
there was a thin stratum of sandy clay overlaying a stratum of pure sand. The depth of cutting was
therefore kept small to avoid excavating the pure sand stratum and increasing seepage losses. For such
conditions, instead of providing fewer falls with large drops, a large number of small falls were preferred.
In the earlier designs, no depressed cistern was provided, and the downstream wings were not flared.

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The complete design of the Sarda type fall consists mainly of the design of the following components:
1. Crest wall 2. Cistern
3. Impervious floor 4. D/S bed protection works
5. U/S wing walls 6. D/S wing walls
7. D/S side protection
Design of Sarda type fall
Step 1: Design of Crest
Length of the crest
The crest length is normally kept equal to the bed width of the canal; however, an increase in
length by an amount equal to the flow depth takes into account any future increase in
discharge.
Thus Length of crest L = Bed width of channels (U/S)
Shape of the crest
For discharge up to 14 m3/sec Rectangular shaped crest wall
3
For discharge > 14 m /sec Trapezoidal shaped crest wall
1. For Rectangular crest wall
Top width B = 0.55 d
Bt = top width of crest wall
d = height of the crest wall above the D/S bed level.
h+d
Base width of crest wall B1 =
G
B1 = base width of crest wall (m)
h = Height of water surface above the top of the crest
G = Sp. Gr of material of crest wall
H 1
Discharge Q = Cd 2g L H3/2  6 . . . 7.6
Bt
Where Q = discharge cumecs.
L = length (m)
H = head over the crest (m)
Bt = top width of crest wall (m)
Cd = coefficient of discharge 0.415
Now, equation 7.6 becomes,
H 1
Q = 1.84 L H3/2  6
Bt
2. For trapezoidal crest wall
Top width of crest wall B = 0.55 H + d
Where, H = head over the crest
d = Height of crest wall above the D/S bed level in m.
H 1
Discharge Q = Cd 2g L H3/2  6 . . . 7.7
Bt
Where Q = discharge cumecs.

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 Regulating Structure

L = length (m)
H = head over the crest (m)
Bt = top width of crest wall (m)
Cd = coefficient of Discharge = 0.45
Now, Equation 7.7 becomes,
H 1
Q = 1.99 L H3/2  6
Bt
Crest level
Crest level = U/S TEL – Head over the Crest
While neglecting velocity head
Crest level = U/S FSL – Head over the Crest
Head over the crest is obtained from (7.6) or (7.7) depend on shape of crest wall.
Height of crest wall
Height of crest wall = D1 – h. refer figure.

U/S TEL

U/S FSL H h Bt HL D/S TEL

D1

U/S bed D/S FSL

d

D/S bed
x Cistern
∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
B1 ∆
∆ ∆ ∆

U/S TEL

U/S FSL H h Bt HL D/S TEL

D1

U/S bed D/S FSL

d

D/S bed
x Cistern
∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
B1 ∆
∆ ∆ ∆

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Step 2: Design of cistern

Length of cistern Lc = 5 H × HL
1
Depth of cistern x = (H × HL)2/3
4
Neglecting the velocity head, H may be replaced by h in these equations.
Step 3: Design of impervious floor
– The length and thickness of impervious floor may be determined by Bligh’s theory for
small and medium fall and by Khosla’s theory for larges falls.
– Maximum seepage head when there is water on the U/S side upto the top crest wall and
there is no flow on downstream side.
– Maximum seepage head = d
– Hydraulic gradient for Bligh’s theory = 1/5 to 1/8
– Total floor length according to Bligh’s theory = C × Hs (where Hs is maximum seepage
head in our case Hs = d)
– Out of the total length of the impervious floor a minimum length to be provided on the
D/S of the crest wall ld = 2(water depth + 1.2) + drop
– Floor thickness; Upstream thickness = 0.3m (minimum).
– D/S thickness = 0.3 – 0.4m for small fall.
= 0.4 – 0.6m for large fall.
Step 4: Cut off or curtain wall
(a) U/S cutoff depth = D1/3 (minimum)
(b) D/S cutoff depth = D2/2 (minimum)
Where, D1 = U/S flow depth
D2 = D/S flow depth
Example 7.6
Design a vertical drop structure for the data given below.
Full supply discharge U/S and D/S = 1.8 cumecs.
Drop height = 0.75m
FSL U/S and D/S = 106.997 and 106.247
Full supply depth U/S and D/S = 0.929m
Bed levels U/S and D/S = 106.068 and 105.318
Bed width U/S and D/S = 1.2m
Top width of crest = 0.5m for initial assumption; Cd = 0.415 for rectangular crest. The drop structure
is of masonry with specific gravity 2.0. Side slope of the canal is 1:1. The Bligh’s coefficient is 6.0
for sandy loam soil at foundation.

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 Regulating Structure

Solution:
Step 1: Design of Crest
Length of the crest = D/S bed width of channel = 1.2m
Since rectangular crest is provided. The discharge formula is given by
1
Q = Cd 2g L H3/2 
H 6
Bt For Cd = 0.415 the equation becomes;
1
Q = 1.84 L H3/2 
H 6
Bt
Here, Q = 1.8 cumecs.
L = 1.2m
For initial assumption top width B = 0.5m
Now H5/3 = 0.7263
H= 0.825m say 0.83m
Discharge 1.8
Now approach velocity Va = = = 0.91 m/sec
area (1.2 × 0.929 + 1 × 0.929 2)
Va2/2g = 0.0422m
U/S TEL = U/S FSL + Va2/2g = 106.997 + 0.0422 = 107.039m
RL of crest = U/S TEL – H = 107.039 – 0.825 = 106.214m
Height of crest above U/S floor = 106.214 – 106.068 = 0.146m
Adopt crest width at top Bt = 0.55 d
Where d = height of crest above D/S bed = 106.214 – 105.318m = 0.896m
Now top width Bt = 0.55 0.896 = 0.52m
Keep 0.55m width of the crest.
h + d 0.825 + 0.896
Thickness at base B1 = = = 0.86m
G 2
Step 2: Design of cistern
Length of cistern Lc = 5 H × HL
Where, H = Head over the crest + V2/2g = 0.825m
HL = U/S FSL – D/S FSL = 106.997 – 106.247= 0.75m
Now length of cistern Lc = 4.0m
Adopt length of cistern Lc = 4.5m
1 1
Now, Depth of cistern x = (H × HL)2/3 = (0.825 × 0.75)2/3 = 0.181m
4 4

RL of bed cistern = RL of D/S bed – x = 105.318 – 0.181 = 105.137m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Step 3: Design of impervious floor

Seepage head Hs = d = 0.896m

Bligh’s Co – efficient = 6.0

Required creep length = 6.0 × 0.896 = 5.376m

U/S cut off pile depth d1 = D1/3 = 0.929/3= 0.31m

D/S cut off pile depth d2 = D2/2 = 0.929/2= 0.465m

Provide, U/S cut off pile Depth d1 = 0.5 m

D/S cut off pile Depth d2 = 0.75m

Thus, vertical length of creep = 2(0.5+0.75) = 2.5m

Required length of horizontal impervious floor = 5.376 – 2.5 = 2.867m

Now, minimum length of impervious floor to be provided on the D/S of the crest wall

Ld = 2(D1 +1.2) + HL = 2(0.929 + 1.2) + 0.75 = 5.008m

Now provide, D/S impervious floor = 5.5m

Theoretically, there is no need of U/S floor (2.876 – 5.5 = –2.624m), but necessary to provide nominal
length of U/S floor. For safety due to surface flow condition, provide U/S floor Length = 2m.

Step 4: Calculation of uplift pressure and thickness

Total creep length = 2 + 0.86 + 5.5 + 2(0.5 + 0.75) = 10.86 m

– The uplift pressure under the U/S floor will be counterbalanced by the weight of water
and hence no thickness is required. However, provide a minimum thickness of 0.3m.

– For other points the minimum vertical ordinate between the Bligh’s HGL and floor level
gives the uplift pressure.

– Thus maximum unbalanced head under the D/S toe of the crest wall

(Crest level – D/S bed level )

=x+ × Length from D/S pile to required location
Total impervious length

= 0.181 + 
106.214 – 105.318
 10.86  × 5.5 = 0.635m
h 0.635
Now, required thickness t = = = 0.5125
G – 1 2.24 – 1

Adopt 0.52m thick cement concrete floor over laid by 0.2m brick pitching.

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 Regulating Structure

107.039

106.997 0.825 0.55 0.75 D/S TEL

106.214
0.929

106.068 106.247
0.896

105.318
0.181
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆
0.5 B1 ∆ ∆ ∆
∆
0.75
2.0 0.86 4.5

2.86 5.5
All dimensons are in m

Figure 7.18: Designed vertical drop

Example 7.7
Design a Sarda type fall for the following data:
U/S
• Full supply discharge : = 45 cumecs
D/S
U/S 118.30m
• Full supply level : =
D/S 116.80m
U/S
• Full supply depth : = 1.8 cumecs
D/S
U/S
• Bed width : = 28m
D/S
U/S 116.5m
• Bed level : =
D/S 115.0m
• Drop : 1.5m
Design the floor on the basis of Bligh’s theory taking coefficient of creep = 8. Check the design by
Khosla’s theory and modify the design if necessary. Safe exit gradient may be taken as 1/5.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculation of H and d
Since the discharge is more than 14 cumecs, trapezoidal crest will be provided for which
1
discharge is given by equation Q = 1.99 L H   6
H 3/2
. . . (i)
Bt
Q = 45 cumecs
L= length of crest = bed width of the channel = 28m

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

The top width of crest wall Bt = 0.55 H + d

But H + d = D1 + drop in bed level
H+d = 1.8+1.5 = 3.3m……………. (ii)
Bt = 0.55 3.3 = 1.0m ………… (iii)
Substituting the values in equation (i), we get
1
45 = 1.99 × 28 × H3/2   6
H
1
H = 0.88m
Step 2: Design of crest wall
Top width of the crest wall as calculated in step 1 is B = 1.0m
Provide, slope of U/S face = 1 in 3
Slope of downstream face = 1 in 8
Assuming channel side slope 1:1
Q 45
Velocity approach Va = = = 0.84 m/sec
Cross – sectional area of canal (28 + 1.8)1.8
V a2
Velocity head, = 0.036m
2g
V a2
U/S TEL = U/S FSL + = 118.30 + 0.036 = 118.336m
2g
Crest level = U/S TEL – H = 118.336 – 0.88 = 117.456 m
Step 3: Design of cistern
We have the length of cistern Lc = 5(H × HL)1/2
Lc = 5(0.88 × 1.5)1/2 = 5.74m
Thus provide cistern of length 6m
1
Depth of cistern x = (H × HL)2/3 =0.30m
4
Thus provide cistern of depth 0.31m
R.L. of bed of cistern = RL of D/S bed – x = 115.00 – 0.31= 114.69m
Step 4: Design of impervious floor
Seepage head Hs = d = 117.456 – 115.00 = 2.456
Bligh’s coefficient C = 8
Required creep length = 8 × 2.42 = 19.648m
D1 1.8
Provide U/S cutoff of depth d1 = = = 0.6 ~ 1.0m
3 3
1.8
And D/S cutoff of depth d2 = = 0.9 ~ 1.5m
2
Thus vertical length of creep = 2 (1.0 + 1.5) = 5.0m
Length of horizontal impervious floor = 19.648 – 5.0 = 14.648m

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 Regulating Structure

Provide 15m length of impervious floor.

Minimum length of impervious floor to be provided on the D/S of the crest wall
Ld = 2(D2 + 1.2) +HL = 2(1.8 +1.2) + 1.5 = 7.5m
Provide Ld = 8m. The balance of the length = 15 – 8 = 7m in provided under and U/S of the
crest wall.
Calculation for uplift pressure and thickness
Total creep length = 15 + 2(1.0 +1.5) = 20m
– The uplift pressure under the U/S floor will be counter balanced by the weight of water
and hence no thickness is required. However, provide a minimum thickness of 0.4m.
– For other points the minimum vertical ordinate between the Bligh’s HGL and the floor
level gives the uplift pressure.
– Thus maximum unbalanced head under the D/S toe of the crest wall
=2.42 1 –
7+ 2 × 1.0
 20  + x = 1.64m
h 1.64
Required thickness = = = 1.32m
G – 1 2.24 – 1
Provide 1.4m thick cement concrete floor over laid by 0.2m brick pitching.
– Provide minimum thickness of 0.6m overlaid by 0.2 m thick brick pitching at the D/S end
of the floor.
– The thickness of the floor at intermediate points may be varied as per requirements of
uplift pressure.
Step 5: Checking of floor thickness by Khosla’s theory
The floor thickness should be checked by Khosla’s seepage theory as worked out in examples
of chapter 5.
118.336

118.30 0.88
1 117.456 HL D/S TEL
D1 = 1.8
116.5 116.8
2.456
1:3 1:8
115.00
0.30 114.7
∆ 0.7
∆ 0.4 ∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆
1 B1 ∆ ∆ ∆
∆
1.5

6
7 8
All dimensons are in m

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Exercise

1. Write down the function of head regulator and cross regulator.

2. Write the stepwise design procedure of cross regulator and distributary head regulator with
supporting sketches.
3. What is the provision of drop structures required in a canal irrigation system? Explain with
appropriate sketches.
4. What are the functions of the canal outlets?
5. What are the different types of good outlets? Give one example of each.
6. What are the criteria for selection of the outlet capacity?
7. Explain the working principle of non – modular and semi modular outlet. What are the requirement
of a good module?
8. Design a semi – modular outlet with a discharge of 0.06 cumecs on a distributary with a full supply
depth of 1m and the working head of 0.55m.
9. Design an open flume outlet with a discharge of 0.07 cumecs on a distributary channel with a full
supply depth of 1.0m. The available working head is 0.20m.
10. Design the crest and cistern of a vertical drop structure for the data given below.
Discharge = 4.5 cumecs, bed level U/S = 105.00, side slope of cannel = 1:1, bed level d/s = 103.5,
FSL U/S = 106.5, bed width U/S and D/S = 3.0m, top width of crest = 0.75m (for initial
assumption), Cd = 0.41.
11. Design a vertical drop for the following data;
• Full supply discharge = 20 cumecs
US 215.4m
• Full supply level =
DS 214.4m
US 2.0m
• Full supply depth =
DS 2.0m
US 20m
• Bed width =
DS 20m
US 213.40m
• Bed level =
DS 212.40m
• Drop height = 1.0 m

12. Design the floor on the basis of Bligh’s theory taking coefficient of creep = 10. Check the design by
Khosla’s theory and modify the design if necessary. Safe exit gradient may be taken as 1/5. Sketch
the longitudinal section of fall.

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 Cross-
Cross-Drainage Structure
C HA P T ER

8 Cross-Drainage Structures
In an irrigation project, when the network of canals (main canals, branch canals, distributaries etc.) are
provided, then canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams, drains valley and other
canals at different points within the commanded area of the project. The crossing of the canals with such
obstacles cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy
flow of water of the canal and drainage in the respective directions. These structures are known as cross
drainage structures. They are generally very costly, and should be avoided if possible by changing the
canal alignment and/or by diverting the drains. The nature of cross drainage works may be different at
different places. Sometimes, the bed level of canal may be below the bed level of drainage and
sometimes, it may be higher than that of the drainage. The bed level of canal and drainage may be nearly
same also. So the structures are different at different places and the designations of the structures also are
different. The details of these various structures will be dealt in this chapter.

8.1 Necessity of Cross – Drainage works

The following factors justify the necessity of cross drainage works:

• The watershed or ridge canal do not have cross drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may
be present across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running the
irrigation system.

• At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage may get intermixed. So for the
smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.

• The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the
water of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So the cross
drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.

8.2 Types of Cross Drainage Works

Based on the relative bed levels, maximum water levels and relative discharges of the canals and
drainages the cross drainage works may be of the following types for 3 cases.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Case I: Irrigation Canal Passes Over the Drainage
1. Aqueduct

An aqueduct is a cross-drainage structure constructed where the drainage flood level is below the
bed of the canal. Small drains may be taken under the canal and banks by a concrete or masonry
barrel (culvert), whereas in the case of stream crossings it may be economical to flume the canal
over the stream. In this case, the drainage water passes clearly below the canal.

Canal FSL

Canal bed level

HFL

River bed

Figure 8.1: Section of aqueduct

2. Siphon Aqueduct

In a hydraulic structure where the canal is taken over the drainage, but the drainage water cannot
pass below the canal freely. It flows under siphonic action and designed for total head loss through
inverted siphon. So it is known as siphon aqueduct. This structure is suitable when the bed level of
canal is below the highest flood level of the drainage.
Canal FSL
U/S HFL D/S HFL
Canal Bed level

1:3 River bed level 1:5

∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆

Figure 8.2: Section of siphon aqueduct

Case II: Drainage passes over the irrigation canal.

1. Super passage

The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal is known as super
passage. The structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the full supply level of the
canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage.

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 Cross-
Cross-Drainage Structure
HFL stream

Bank of canal

F.S.L

Canal

Figure 8.3: Super passage

2. Siphon (Canal Siphon or Siphon Super Passage)

The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal, but the canal water
passes below the drainage under siphonic action is known as canal siphon or siphon or siphon super
passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the full supply level of the
canal.
HFL stream
U/S F.S.L D/S F.S.L

Canal Canal
Canal

Figure 8.4: Siphon / siphon super passage /canal siphon

Case III: Drainage and canal intersection each other at the same level.
1. Level crossing
Level crossing facilities are provided when both the drain and the canal run at more or less the same
level. This is more frequently used if the drain flows for a short period (e.g. flash floods in the
drain); in addition, the mixing of the drain flows to canal may be acceptable (if drain is siltless).
The plan layout of a level crossing with two sets of regulators, one across the drain and the other
across the canal, is shown in figure 8.5. Normally, the canal regulator regulates its flow with the
drain regulator kept closed. Whenever the flash floods occur, the canal gates are closed and drainage
gates opened to let the flood flow pass.

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Drainage
(river)
Crest top level at cancal FSL

Canal flows Gated canal regulator

Drain regulator

Figure 8.5: Level Crossing

2. Canal inlets and outlets
When the drainage flow is small it may be absorbed into the canal through inlets. The flow in the canal
may be balanced, if necessary (in the case of small canals), by providing suitable outlets (or escapes). The
inlet and outlet structures must also be provided with energy dissipators wherever necessary.
Example 8.1
From the following data, sketch the suitable type of cross drainage structure:
Canal Drainage
Full supply discharge= 32 sumecs High flood discharge = 300 cumecs
Full supply level =213.5 m High flood level = 210.0m
Canal bed level = 212.0m High flood depth = 2.5m
Canal bed width= 20m General ground level= 212.5m
Solution:
FSL = 213.5m

Canal bed level = 212.0m

HFL = 210

2.5m

From figure and given data; canal bed level is much above than HFL of drainage, than aqueduct is
appropriate for cross drainage structure.

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 Cross-
Cross-Drainage Structure
8.3 Design of Siphon Aqueduct
Depending upon the cross – section of the canal over the barrel or (culvert), the aqueducts or siphon
aqueducts are classified into the following three types:
Type I Aqueduct
In this type of aqueduct (or siphon aqueducts) the cross – section of the canal is not changed. The original
cross – section of the canal with normal side slopes is thus retained. The length of the barrel through
which the drainage passes under the canal is a maximum in this type of structures, because the width of
the canal section is maximum. In this type of structures the canal wings are not required. This type is
suitable when the width of the drainage is small (say less than 2.5 m). If the section is changed, the cost of
canal wings would be large in comparison to the saving resulting from decreasing the length of culvert.
Road
FSL

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

HFL
Length of barrel

Drainage

Figure 8.6: Type I Aqueduct

Type II aqueduct
In this type of aqueduct (or syphon aqueduct), the outer slopes of the canal banks are discontinued and
replaced by retaining walls [Figure 8.7]. Thus the length of the barrel is reduced, but the cost of retaining
wall is added to the overall cost. This type of structure is suitable when the width of the drainage is
moderate (say 2.5 m to 15 m) so that the cost of retaining walls is less in comparison to the saving
resulting from decreasing the length of drainage barrel.
Road
∆ FSL ∆

∆
∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
HFL

Length of barrel
Drainage

Figure 8.7: Type II Aqueduct

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 Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Type III aqueduct
In this type of aqueduct (or syphon aqueduct), the entire earth section of the canal is discontinued and
replaced by a concrete or masonry through over the drainage [Figure. 8.8].This type of structure is
generally suitable when the width of the drainage is very large (say more than 15 m), so that the cost of
the trough and canal wing walls is less in comparison to the saving resulting from decreasing the length of
barrel. In this type of structure, the canal can be easily flumed, which further reduces the length of the
drainage barrel.
Road
∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆

∆ ∆

∆ ∆ ∆

HFL

Length of barrel

Drainage

Figure 8.8: Type III Aqueduct

Selection of suitable type of aqueduct
The selection of the suitable type of canal cross-section depends upon the width and discharge of the
drainage. A very small drainage requires a type I aqueduct, which in many cases may be merely a pipe or
a small culvert passing under the canal. On the other hand, over a river of a large size type III aqueduct
would be the most economical. For moderate size of the drainage, type II aqueduct may be most suitable.
However, the actual limits with regard to the size of drainage for which one particular type of aqueduct
will be most suitable will vary with local conditions and the cost of construction. Comparative estimates
should be prepared for finding out the most economical type of aqueduct for a particular site.
Design a Drainage water way
The waterway required to be provided for the drain is given by Lacey’s equation for regime perimeter as
P = 4.75 Q
Where P = wetted perimeter in m
Q = maximum flood discharge in cumecs.
In general, the total waterway between the abutments is made equal to Lacey’s regime perimeter. For
small drains a contraction up to 20% beyond Lacey’s regime perimeter is also permissible. Since the piers
will occupy a part of this total waterway, the clear water way will be less than Lacey’s regime perimeter
to the extent of total thickness of the piers. This is however, permissible because under the work the
regime conditions do not exit. Moreover, the idea of relating the waterway to Lacey’s regime perimeter is
to develop a stable channel between training banks upstream of the work. In wide shallow rivers no
distinction is made between the width of waterway and wetted perimeter but in small drains the width of
water may be adjusted to provide the required perimeter.

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 Cross-
Cross-Drainage Structure
Size of barrel:
After having fixed the waterway the size of barrels is to be fixed. In the case of an aqueduct, the canal
trough is carried clear above the HFL and hence the height of openings is automatically fixed. In the case
of a siphon aqueduct, the required area of waterway is obtained by dividing the fixed discharge by the
permissible velocity of flow through the barrels. The velocity of floor through the barrels is normally
limited to 2 to 3 m/sec. higher velocities may cause quick abrasion of the barrel surfaces by rolling grit
and will result in high afflux upstream of the siphon aqueduct thus requiring higher and longer marginal
banks to avoid the flooding of the country side. The total area divided by the number of spans gives the
area required by each span. Knowing the width of span and the shape of the opening, the required depth
of the opening can be determined which will fulfill the area required of the span. The span to be provided
depends entirely on structural and economic considerations. For instance where foundations are costly
fewer piers or longer spans are provided.
From the canal bed level, deducting the thickness of the culvert or barrel roof plus the depth of the
opening, the level of the floor of the barrel is obtained. Further in the case of siphon aqueduct it is
desirable to leave some clear headway between the bed of the drain on the downstream side of the
crossing and underside of the culvert or barrel roof. This headway is desirable to minimize the blocking
of culverts or barrel by silt rolling along the bed of the drain and it should be either 1m or half the height
of culvert or barrel, whichever is less.
Design a Canal water way
In the case of siphon aqueduct the canal is flumed i.e. the canal waterway is contracted, to economize the cost
of cross drainage works. The flumed portion or the trough is gradually connected to the normal section with
smooth transition wings at both ends. The contraction of canal waterway although reduces the barrel length s or
the width of the works but it involves the provision of extra transition wings. As such the canal waterway
should be flumed to such an extent that the cost of the works as a whole is minimum.
The fluming or the contraction of the canal waterway should be done in such a way that the velocity in
the trough is not more than 3 m/sec and the flow remains subcritical to avoid the possibility of hydraulic
jump forming in the trough. The approach or contraction transition should not be steeper than 300 which
corresponds to a splay of 2:1 and the departure or expansion transition should not be steeper than 22.50
which corresponds to a splay of 3:1. The transitions consist of curved and flared wing walls so that there
is minimum loss of head and the flow is streamlined.
Design of transition
The transitions can be designed according to two different conditions as indicated below.
1. Design of transitions when the water depth remains constant.
2. Design of transitions when the water depth varies.
Design of transitions when the water depth remains constant:
In the case the water depth in the transition and the trough remain constant the following two
methods may be adopted for the design of transitions.
(i) Mitra’s hyperbolic transition
For water depth to remain constant in the transition and the trough, A.C. Mitra proposed
hyperbolic transition which is given below.
Bc Bf Lf
Bx =
Lf Bc - (Bc - Bf)x

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Where, Bc and Bf are bed width of normal canal and flumed section respectively.
Bx be the bed width at a distance x from the flumed section.
Lf be the total length of the transition.
(ii) Chaturbedi’s semi cubical parabolic transition.
R.S. Chaturvedi on the basis of his experiments proposed the following equation for semi –
cubical parabolic transitions when water depth remains constant.
3
Lf Bc3/2  Bf  2
x = 3/2
Bc - Bf3/2 Bx
Choosing various convenient values of Bx, the corresponding distance x can be computed.
Design of flumed section
As shown in figure 8.10(a) the contraction transition starts at section 1 – 1 and ends at section 2 – 2. The
flumed section continues from section 2 – 2 to section 3 – 3. The expansion transition starts from section
3 – 3 and ends at section 4 – 4. From section 4 – 4 the channel flows in its normal cross section and the
conditions at this section are completely known. Let D and V with appropriate subscripts refer to depths
and velocities at the various sections. The design is done in the following steps.
Step 1: Let the bed level and cross section of the canal at section 4 – 4 completely known.
Water surface elevation at 4 – 4 = Bed level at section 4 – 4 + D4
V 42
TEL at section 4 – 4 = Water surface elevation at 4 – 4 +
2g
Step 2: Between sections 3 – 3 and 4 – 4 there is energy loss due to expansion and due to friction. The
V32 – V42
energy loss due to expansion may be taken as 0.3 
 2g  . The energy loss due to friction
is generally small and may be neglected.
Since trough dimensions at section 3 – 3 are known, V3 is known.
V32 – V42
Elevation of TEL at section 3 – 3 = Elevation at section 4 – 4 + 0.3 
 2g 
V 32
Water surface elevation at section 3 - 3 = Elevation of TEL at section 3-3 –
2g
Bed level at section 3 – 3 = Water surface elevation at section 3 - 3 – D3
Step 3. Between sections 2 – 2 and 3 – 3 the channel flows in a trough of constant cross – section and
there is uniform flow. The only loss in the trough is therefore friction loss HL which can be
computed by Manning’s equation as indicated below.
1 2/3 1/2
V= R S
n
1
1 2/3 HL 2
V= R
n L
V2 n2 L
HL =
R4/3

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Elevation of TEL at section 2 – 2 = Elevation of TEL at section 3 – 3 + HL
V 22
Water surface elevation at section 2 – 2 = Elevation of TEL at section 2 – 2 -
2g
Bed level at section 2 – 2 = Water surface elevation at section 2 - 2 – D2
Step 4: Between sections 1 -1 and 2 – 2 there is energy loss due to contraction as well as due to
V22 – V12
friction. The energy loss due to contraction may be taken as 0.2 
 2g  . The energy loss
due to friction is generally small and may be neglected.
V22 – V12
Elevation TEL at section 1 – 1 = Elevation of TEL at 2 – 2 + 0.2 
 2g 
V 12
Water surface elevation at section 1 – 1 = Elevation of TEL at section 1 – 1 -
2g
Bed level at section 1 – 1 = Water surface elevation at section 1 – 1 – D1
Head loss through siphon barrels
In the case of siphon aqueducts and siphon the head loss through the siphon barrels may be calculated by
using Unwin’s formula which is as follows.
L  V 2 V a2
h = 1 + f1 + f2 – . . . 8.1
 R 2g 2g
Where h = head loss through the siphon barrel in m, which is equal to the difference between water levels
upstream and downstream of siphon barrels
L = length of the barrel in m
R= hydraulic mean radius of the barrel in m
V= velocity of flow through the barrels in m/sec
Va = velocity of approach in m/sec which is generally neglected
f1 = coefficient for loss of head at entry, which may be taken as 0.505 for an unshaped mouth of
the same cross – sectional area as the barrel and 0.08 for bell mouth and
LV2
f2 = coefficient such that the loss of head in the barrel due to friction is given by f2
2gR

The value of f2 is given by f2 = a 1 +

b
in which the values of a and b for different materials may be
 R
taken from the following table.
Nature of surface of barrel a b
Smooth iron pipe 0.00497 0.025
Encrusted pipe 0.00996 0.025
Smooth cement plaster 0.00316 0.030
Brick work 0.00401 0.070
Rubble masonry or stone pitching 0.00507 0.25

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As stated earlier the velocity of flow through the siphon barrel is limited to 2 to 3 m/sec. Thus knowing the
velocity of flow the head required to generate the same velocity can be found from equation 8.1. The high flood
level of the drain downstream of the work remains unchanged even after the construction of the work, but on the
upstream side the high flood level increase by the amount of afflux or the total head loss as given by equation 8.1.

Uplift pressure on the underside of the trough (on the barrel roof)
When water is flowing through the siphon barrel and the water level on the downstream side at the barrel
is higher than the underside of the trough (or the barrel roof), uplift pressure is exerted on the underside of
the trough (or the barrel roof). At the downstream end of the barrel the uplift pressure on the underside of
the trough is equal to the difference between the downstream water level and the level of the underside to
the trough. At any other point along the barrel, the uplift pressure is given by the ordinate between the
hydraulic gradient line and the underside of the trough. The afflux having been calculated by Unwin’s
formula the hydraulic gradient line can be drawn as shown in figure below. The maximum uplift pressure
occurs on the underside of the trough at the upstream end of the barrel. The uplift pressure would be
maximum when the highest flood is passing through the barrel and there is no water in the trough at that
time. Another critical condition to be considered for the design of the trough bed (or barrel roof) is when
the trough is running full with dead weight of trough but there is no uplift from the barrel.

0.4m
U/S TEL Entry loss Friction loss
U/S HFL D/S TEL
Exit loss
Max uplift HGL
D/S HFL
D/S Bed
∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆

Figure 8.9: Uplift pressure on the underside of the trough

The thickness of the slab forming the trough bed (or the barrel roof) required to counter balance the uplift
(i.e. for the first condition noted above) is generally less than what is required to support the load of
trough water (i.e. for the second condition noted above). However, in some case the thickness of the slab
required to counterbalance the uplift may exceeds the thickness required to support the water load. In
each of these two cases if the slab is designed to balance the uplift or the water load by gravity only i.e.
providing thick slab, which is usually undesirable because it leads to lowering of the levels of both the
underside of the trough bed (or the barrel roof) and the barrel floor which in turn results in increasing the
uplift on the trough bed as well as on the barrel floor.
As such one of the alternatives would be to provide a reinforced concrete slab with reinforcement at the
bottom to take the water load of the trough and the reinforcement at the top to resist uplift by bending. It
may however be noted that since a part of the uplift is resisted by gravity (i.e. by the self-weight of the
slab) only the remainder of the uplift after deducting the part counter balanced by gravity is to be resisted

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Cross-Drainage Structure
by bending. Hence the reinforcement at the top of the slab is to be provided only for the remainder of the
uplift. Another alternative may be to provide the thickness of the slab to support the water load in the
trough by gravity and to provide reinforcement only at the top of the slab to resist the remainder of the
uplift by bending. In both these cases it would, however, be necessary to anchor the slab through the pier
to the bottom floor by steel bolts to provide the necessary end reactions for upward bending. A better
alternative may be to provide R.C.C. box culvert.
Example 8.2:

Design a siphon aqueduct for the following data:

Canal Stream

Discharge (m3/sec) 30 500

Bed level 200.00 198.00

Canal FSL 202.00

Bed width 25.00

Canal side slopes 1.5:1 (H:V)

Stream HFL 200.50

The general terrain level is 200 m.

Solution:

Here; canal bed level 200.00 m is slightly below the HFL (200.50 m) and the HFL is below the FSL
of canal (202.00 m), hence a siphon aqueduct is required.

Step 1: Design of drainage water way:

Lacey’s Regime perimeter P = 4.75 Q

P = 4.75 500 = 106m.

Provide 12 piers of 1.25m thickness; we have 13 span of 7m each.

The length occupied by 13 bays of 7m each = 91

Length occupied by 12 piers of 1.25m each = 15m

The total length of water way = 91 + 15 = 106m which is satisfactory.

Assume maximum velocity through the siphon barrels = 2m/sec.

Q 500
Height of siphon barrel required = = = 2.747m
clear waterway × velocity 13 × 7 × 2

Provide rectangular barrels of 7 m wide and 2.75m high.

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Step 2: Design of canal waterway
Normal bed width of canal = 25 m
Since the drainage width is large (106m at the crossing) it is economical to flume (concrete, n
= 0.014) the canal.
Adopt a maximum flume ratio of 0.5. Therefore the flumed width of canal (trough) = 0.5 × 25 = 12.5m.
Provide a splay of 2:1 in contraction and a splay of 3:1 in expansion. (Hinds, 1928)
(25 – 12.5) × 2
Length of transition in contraction = = 12.5m
2
(25 – 12.5) × 3
Length of transition in expansion = = 18.75m
2

The length of trough from abutment to abutment = 106m

Step 3: Design of flumed section with transitions

12.5m 106m 18.75m

1 4

2 3
Flume (trough)

Bx
Bf = x Bf = 12.5m B0

2 3
Average side Average side
splay 1:2 splay 1:3
1 4

(a)

202.044m
202.032m 202.032m 202.015m
202.029m
201.959m 201.959m 202.0m
200.029m
199.959m 199.959m 200.0m

(b)
Figure 8.10: Flumed section with transition at different section

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Cross-Drainage Structure
Referring to Figure 8.10 (a), the following results can be obtained to maintain a constant flow
depth of 2.0 m (full supply depth). The calculations are achieved from section 4 – 4 and
proceed towards section 1 – 1 as tabulated below.
Section
4–4 3–3 2–2 1–1
Width (m) 25.00 12.5 12.50 25.0
2
Area of flow (m ) 56.00 25.00 25.00 56.00
2
(By + zy )
Velocity (m/sec) 0.536 1.2 1.2 0.536
Q/A
Velocity head 0.015 0.073 0.073 0.015
(m)
V2/2g
Loss (m) Expansion loss *Friction loss = Contraction
= 0.017 0.0004 loss
= 0.012
R L of canal bed 200.00 201.959 – 2 = 201.959 – 2 = 202.029 – 2 =
(m) 199.959 199.959 200.029
Flow depth (m) 2 2 2 2
RL of water 200.00 + 2= 202.032 – 0.073 202.032 – 0.073 202.044 – 0.015
surface (m) 202.00 = 201.959 = 201.959 = 202.029
RL of TEL (m) 202.00 + 0.015 202.015+0.017 202.032 + 0.0004 202.032 + 0.012
= 202.015 = 202.032 = 202.032 = 202.044
*Friction loss is calculated below
V2n2L 1.22 × 0.0162 × 106
HL = 4/3 = = 0.0004
R 294/3
A 2 × 12.5
R= = = 29
P 2 × (2 + 12.5)
Step 4: Design of Transition
For a constant depth of flow the transition may be designed such that the rate of change of
velocity per meter length of transition is constant. This approach yields the bed width of the
transition at a distance x from the flume section as
B0BfLf
Bx = Mitra’s hyperbolic equation .......... 8.2
Lf B0 – x (B0 - Bf)
Where B0 = Bed width at original section = 25m
Bf = Bed width of flumed channel section = 12.5m
Lf = length of transition = 12.5m for contraction and 18.75 for expansion transition.
Bx= bed width at any distance x from the flumed section.

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For Contraction transition:
3906.25
Bx =
312.5 - x (25 - 12.5)
X 0 2 4 6 8 10 12.5
Bx 12.5 13.586 14.88 16.44 18.38 20.833 25
For expansion transition:
5859.375
Bx =
468.75 - x (25 - 12.5)
X 0 4 8 12 16 18.75
Bx 12.5 13.99 15.88 18.38 21.80 25
Step 5: Design of Trough
The trough shall be divided into two equal compartments of 6.25m wide, separated by 0.3 m
thick partition. The entire trough (flume section) can be designed as a monolithic concrete
structure. Provide side wall and a bottom slab of about 0.4m (to be fixed by the usual structural
design methods).
Overall length of barrel = 12.5 + 0.3 + 2 × 0.40 = 13.60m.
FSL = 202.00m
U/S HFL = 200.723m 0.4m 0.4m D/S HFL = 200.50m
6.25m 6.25m

0.4m 199.60m
1:3 13.60m 1:5
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆ 1m ∆ ∆

Figure 8.11: Longitudinal section of siphon aqueduct

Step 6: Head loss through the siphon barrels
The head loss through the siphon barrel is given by Unwin’s formula as equal to
L V2
h = 1 + f1 + f2 
 R 2g
Where V = velocity through barrels = 2 m/sec
f1 = entry loss coefficient = 0.505 for unshaped mouth
f2= a (1 + b/R) where the value of a and b for cement plastered barrels
a = 0.00316 and b = 0.030
7 × 2.75
R = hydraulic mean depth for barrel = A/P = = 0.9871m
2 × (7 + 2.75)
L = length of barrel = 13.60
Now, f2 = 0.00316 (1 + 0.030/0.9871) = 0.00326
13.60  22
h = 1 + 0.050 + 0.00326 × = 0.223m
 0.98712g
High flood level of drainage is given = 200.50m
Afflux h = 0.223m

U/S HFL = D/S HFL + h = 200.723m

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Cross-Drainage Structure
Step 7: Uplift pressure on roof barrels
RL of bottom of trough = RL of canal bed – slab thickness = 200 – 0.40 = 199.60m
V2
The entry loss at the barrel = 0.5 = 0.102m
2g
Therefore the pressure head inside the barrel just downstream of its entry = 200.723 – 0.102 –
199.60= 1.021m of water × 9.81 = 10.01 KN/m2.
RCC Slab should be designed by providing bottom reinforcement for dead weight of trough
slab + 2 m of water load and by providing top reinforcement for uplift of 10.01 KN/m2 minus
dead weight of trough slab.

Exercise
1. The cross drainage structure across an irrigation channel has following data:
i. Discharge of canal = 30 cumecs
ii. Bed width of canal =20m
iii. Full supply depth of canal =1.6m
iv. Bed level of the canal =260.00m
v. Side slope of canal =1.5:1 (H:V)
vi. High flood discharge of drainage = 450 cumecs
vii. High flood level of drainage =261.00 m
viii. Bed level of drainage =258.00m
ix. General ground level =260.00m
Design the drainage waterway, canal waterway and find the bed levels and FSL at four different
sections of the canal Trough
2. Following data are obtained at the crossing of a canal and a drainage:
Canal Stream
3
Discharge (m /sec) 20 200
Bed level 150.0 148.5
Canal FSL 151.5
Bed width 12.00
Canal side slopes 1.5:1 (H:V)
Stream HFL 150.7
The general terrain level is150.0 m.
Design the following components of siphon aqueduct.
i. Drainage waterway ii. Canal waterway
iii. Transition iv. Uplift
3. Explain with sketch aqueduct, siphon aqueduct, siphon and super passage.
4. What is level crossing? Write down the suitability of inlet and out structure in canal irrigation
system.
5. Which cross drainage structure is suitable and appropriate in Hills of Nepal?

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CHAPTER

9 Water Logging and Drainage

9.1 Water Logging
Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as water logged when it is
nearly saturated with water much of the time such that its air phase is restricted and anaerobic conditions
prevails. In extreme cases of prolonged waterlogging, anaerobiosis occurs, the roots of mesophytes suffer,
and chemical reduction processes occur including denitrification, methanogenesis and the reduction of
iron and manganese oxides.
In agriculture, various crops need air (specifically oxygen) to a greater or lesser depth in the soil.
Waterlogging of the soil stops air getting in. How near the water table must be the surface for the ground
to be classed as water logged, varies with the purpose in view. A crop’s demand for freedom for water
logging may vary between seasons of the year, as with the growing of rice.
In irrigated agricultural land, waterlogging is often accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged soils
prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water. From the gardening pint of view,
waterlogging is the process whereby the soil blocks off all water and is so hard it stones air getting in and
it stops oxygen from getting in. (Hillel, 2004)
An agricultural land is said to be waterlogged when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops are
saturated to such an extent that normal circulation of year with in the soil pores is totally cutoff. The
water logging affects the productivity or fertility of the land and thus leads to reduction in the crop yield.

9.2 Causes, Effects and Preventive Measures of Water Logging

9.2.1 Causes of water logging
Basically, water logging is the rise of water table unto root zone level leading to carious problem to crop
growth. This may occur due to the following reasons.
1. Over and intensive irrigation
Under the practice of intensive irrigation, the maximum irrigable area of a small region is irrigated.
This leads to, too much of irrigation, in that region, resulting in heavy percolation and subsequent
rise of water table. 'This can be overcome by a policy of extensive irrigation, i.e. irrigation spread
over wider regions. Thus, to avoid water logging extensive irrigation should supersede the policy of
intensive irrigation.
2. Seepage of water from nearby areas
Water from the adjoining high lands may seep into the sub-soil of the affected land and may raise the
water table. This occurs generally when land surface is not flat and adjoining area is moisture rich.
3. Seepage of water through the canals/ Reservoirs
This is major cause of water logging in canal commanded areas. This has reached an arming stage in
many areas. Water may seep through the beds and sides of the adjoining canals, reservoirs, situated at a
higher level than the affected land. This results into high water table in the affected area. This seepage is
many times excessive particularly when soil at the site of canals and reservoirs is very pervious.

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4. Encounter of impervious obstruction

We know that water seeping below the soil moves horizontally or laterally. This may encounter an
impervious obstruction, causing the rise of water table on the upstream side of the obstruction. This
may lead to water logging. Similarly, in certain cases it is possible that an impervious stratum may
occur below the top layers of pervious soils. In this case also, water seeping through the pervious
soils will not be able to go deep, and hence, quickly results in high water table rise.
5. Lack of natural drainage system
If sufficient availability of natural drainage is not there in form of slope, soils having less permeable
sub-stratum such as clay lying below the top layers of pervious soils, will not be able to drain the
water deep into the ground. This may lead to rise in water level to the extent that it can affect the
root zone and the crop cultivation.
6. Inadequate surface drainage
Surface drainage system is common passage way for runoff water. It becomes necessary to ensure
that storm water falling over the land and the excess irrigation water should be removed from the
area. It should not be allowed to percolate below. In absence of proper surface drainage, the water
will constantly percolate and will raise the level of the water table leading to water logging.
7. Excessively high rain fall
This is common source water logging is cities. Even in farm land heavy down pouring may cause
water logging. However, excessive rainfall may create temporary water logging, but in the absence
of good drainage, it may lead to continued water logging over the area
8. Overgrowth of weeds and aquatic plant
During rainy seasons weeds and grasses grow excessively obstructing the passage of water in natural
waterways. If a land is continuously submerged by floods, aquatic plants like hyacinths, grasses and
weed may grow. They may obstruct the natural surface drainage of the soil, and thus, increasing the
chances of water logging.
9. Irregular or flat topography
Topography also affects natural drainage and thus leads to water logging. In steep terrain, the water
is drained out quickly. On flat or irregular terrain having depressions, the drainage is very poor.
These factors lead to greater detention of water on the land, causing more percolation and water
logging, if infiltration of soil is not proper.

9.2.2 Effect of water logging

1. Hampering the nitrification
The life of a plant, in fact, depends upon the nutrients like nitrates, and the form in which the nitrates
are consumed by the plants is produces by the bacteria, under a process called nitrification. These
bacteria need oxygen for their survival. The supply of oxygen gets cutoff when the land becomes ill
aerated, resulting in the death of these bacteria, and fall in the production of plant’s food (i.e.
nitrates) and consequent reduction in the plant growth, which reduces the crop yield. Apart from ill
aeration of the plants, water logging creates many other problems.

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2. Delayed Cultivation practice

The normal cultivation operations, such as tilling, ploughing, etc. cannot be easily carried out in wet
soils. In extreme cases, the free water may rise above the surface of the land, making the cultivation
operations impossible. In ordinary language, such a land is called a swampy land. In general, this
leads to excessive delay in cultural practices and delayed sowing of crop, less or very poor yield.
3. Overgrowth of weeds
Certain water loving plants like grasses, weeds etc. grow profusely and luxuriantly in waterlogged
lands, thus affecting and interfering with the growth of the crops.
4. Rise of salt in surface layer
In a waterlogged land continuous upward flow of water is established from the water table to the
ground surface. This is so because from the water table water rises into the capillary zone from
where it is lost through evaporation and transpiration and more water is taken in form the water table
to replenish these losses. As the water rises up it brings with it dissolved salts such as sodium
carbonate, sodium chloride and sodium sulphate from the underlying layers to the surface and as
water evaporates it leaves behind a deposit of these salts on the surface. The process of salt
deposition in this manner is called salt efflorescence. Excessive concentration of salt in root zone of
plant does not allow the plants to thrive which results in reduction in crop yield. Moreover with a
heavy concentration of salt the soil may become alkaline which is highly unproductive and difficult
to reclaim.
5. Restricted root growth
If the water table is high the roots of the plants are confined to the top layers of the soil above the
water table and hence their growth is restricted. On the other hand if the water table is low the roots
of the plants have more space for their growth. The restricted root growth will result in reduced crop
yield.
6. Lower soil temperature
Well drained soils warm up faster than saturated soils. The low soil temperature which results for
excessive moisture in the soil hampers the germination of seed, restricts development of root system
and affects the rate of ripening. Moreover at low temperature of soil, the activity of the bacteria
becomes sluggish and consequently less food is available for the plants. This results in lowering the
crop yield.
7. Plant disease
When low soil temperatures are accompanied by poor aeration the root system of plants does not
develop properly and becomes vulnerable to attack by pests and diseases. The healthy growth of
plants is thus hampered resulting in reduced crop yield.

9.2.3 Preventive measures of water logging

It is evident that water logging can be controlled only if the passage and quantity of water into the sub soil
below the surface is controlled and reduced. For this first of all, the inflow of water into the underground
reservoir should be reduced and the outflow from this reservoir should be increased simultaneously. It is
necessary to keep the highest position of water-table at least about 3 m below the ground surface. The
various measures adopted for controlling water logging are given below.

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1. Lining of canals and water courses

Control measures must try to check the causes of water logging. As seepage is one of the main
culprits of rise of water table, attempts should be made to reduce the seepage of water from the
canals and watercourses. This can be achieved by lining them. It is a very effective method of
controlling water logging.
2. Reduced intensity of irrigation
The areas where there is a possibility of water logging, intensity of irrigation should be reduced. Efficient
water supply should be ensured. Only a specific portion of irrigable land should receive canal water in
one particular season. The remaining areas can receive water in the next season, by rotation. This can be
achieved by crop rotation. This would help controlling water logging in the region.
3. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is also an effective means of controlling water supply to sub surface zone. As certain
crops require more water and others require less water. If a field is always sown with a crop
requiring more water, the chances of water logging are more. In order to avoid this, a high water
requiring crop should be followed by one requiring less water. We may choose next crop one
requiring almost no water. For example, rice may be followed by wheat. And a dry crop such as
cotton may follow wheat. This will ensure break in continuous excess irrigation.
4. Optimum use of water
Excess of anything is harmful we know that only a certain fixed amount of irrigation water is
required for best productivity. Any major deviation reduces the yield and empties the pocket of the
farmer. But there is ignorance in some areas that using more water can increase crop yield. This
happens more in the areas where water charges are less or where there is uncertain supply of canal
water and electricity in case of tube well irrigation. Educating the farmers by proper extension
method can bring improvement. As a policy matter, the revenue should not be charged on the basis
of irrigated area but should be charged on the basis of the quantity of water utilized.
5. Intercepting drains
These drains are to check the canal water seepage. Intercepting drains along the canals should be
constructed, wherever necessary. They would help intercepting seepage water and prevent the water
from reaching the area and thus water logging may be prevented.
6. Improved natural drainage
The worn out natural drainage systems in the cropped area should be revived. This would reduce the
percolation by, not allowing water to stand for a longer period. At community level, some relief in
this direction can be obtained by removing the obstructions from the path of natural flow. This can
be achieved by removing bushes and other obstructions and improving the slopes of the natural
drainage lines.
7. Efficient drainage system
An efficient drainage system should be provided in order to drain away the storm water and the excess
irrigation water. A good drainage system consists of surface drains as well as subsurface drains.

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8. Conjunctive use of surface and subsurface water

Conjunctive use is a combined use of sub-surface water or ground water and the surface water or
canal water in a judicious manner to derive maximum benefits. The introduction of lift irrigation to
utilize ground water helps in lowering the water table in a canal irrigated area, where water table
tends to go up. This system ensures use of the ground water in conjunction with canal water for
irrigation. The continuous use of ground water will not allow any appreciable rise in the level of
water table, even due to continuous seepage of canal water. Thus, conjunctive use should be adopted
to control water logging.

9.3 Drainage
Irrigation and drainage are two face of the same coin. Surface irrigation is a boon only if it is practiced
with great care. As stated earlier, only optimum amount of water should be applied to the crop, as per the
requirement of the crop and the properties of the soil. In fact, the root zone of the soil fails to absorb
excess water which may percolate and help in raising the water table. If this gravity water encounter an
impervious stratum and is not drained up properly, then this excess water is harmful to crop yield. It
becomes necessary to remove excess water by draining it out from below the soil. The drained water may
be discharged back either into a river or a canal or some other safe place. Hence, while designing a canal
irrigation network, it is desirable to provide a suitable drainage system, for removing the excess irrigation
water. Thus irrigation and drainage go together. Drainage system is also required for draining out the rain
water and ensures its easy disposal to prevent its percolation.
Drainage system can be classified as:
a. Surface drainage b. Sub – surface drainage
Surface drainage is also called open drainage system while sub – surface drainage as tile – drainage or
underground drainage.

9.4 Surface Drainage System and their Design

Surface drainage is the removal of excess rainwater falling on the fields or the excess irrigation water
applied to the fields, by constructing open ditches, field drains, and other related structures. In this
process the land is sloped towards these ditches or drains, as to make the excess water flow in to these
drains. In fact, land grading, which results in a continuous land slope towards the field drains, is an
important part of a surface drainage system. Land grading or land leveling is also necessary for surface
irrigation
Types of surface drain
Surface drains are needed for removing the storm water and excess farm water, for most of the cultivated
crops on .flat or undulating topography However, if no impervious layer occurs below the farm land and
the water table is sufficiently lower, internal soil drainage are sufficient and no additional drainage
facility is required. But for maximum productivity of most of the crops drainage facility becomes
essential, particularly in waterlogged areas. Surface drains are two types shallow and deep surface drains.
1. Shallow surface drains
The open drains, which are constructed to remove the excess irrigation water collected in the
depressions on the fields, as well as the storm (rain) water, are broad and shallow, and are called
shallow surface drains. These drains carry the runoff to the outlet drains. They are trapezoidal in
cross-section. If designed properly, they should carry the normal storm water from the fields, plus

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the excess irrigation water. Many a times, the excess irrigation water is neglected and these drains
are designed only for the runoff resulting from the average storms which is neither economical nor
desirable. Manning's equations may be used to obtain design velocity of these drains, keeping the
velocity within the critical velocity, and thereby avoiding silting or scouring. Proper shape is
selected based on available information. Manning's equation may however be used for the design of
shallow as well as deep surface drains.
2. Deep surface drains
The drains, which are large enough to carry the flood water of the catchment area from the shallow
surface drains, and are of sufficient depths to provide outlets even for the underground tile drains, if
provided are called deep surface drains. These drains carry the storm water discharge, drains,
shallow surface drains, and the seepage water coming from the underground tile drains. They are,
therefore, designed for the combined discharge of the shallow surface drains as well as that of the
tile drains. Sub-surface drains are required for soils with poor internal drainage and a high water
table generally, a cunnette of about 0.6 m depth with steeper slope is provided in the center of the
drain bed, so as to carry the seepage water of the underground tile drains. Cunnette is lined so as to
withstand higher flow velocities. The full section of drain is used only during the rainy season when
the cunnette is not able to handle the flow will Manning's equation may be used for estimating
velocity and based on that flow capacity can be determined while designing of deep surface drains.
Different forms of sub-surface drains are described below.
1. Surface inlet
A surface inlet is intake structure constructed to carry the pit water into the sub-surface or tile drain.
A cast iron pipe or a manhole constructed of brick or monolithic concrete, is sufficient and
satisfactory. Basically, it is the facility to remove the surface water from the pot holes depressions,
road ditches, and farmstead. This may also be accomplished by connecting them with the shallow
surface drains called random field drains
2. French drain
When the quantity of water to be removed from the pits or depression is small, a blind inlet may be
installed over the tile drain which is also called French drain. These are constructed by back filling
the trench of the tile drain with graded materials, such as gravel and coarse sand, or with corn cobs,
straw and similar substances, as shown in Figure 9.1.
G.L.
G.L.
Pit water

Blinding wth comcobs cinder,

13 to 25cm Soil filling

Water table
Excavated slope
of trench
Bottom
Figure 9.1: French drain

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Such inlets are not permanently effective. The voids in the backfill of the blind inlet become filled up with
the passage of time, thereby reducing its effectiveness. Even though they are not permanently effective,
they are economical to be installed and do not interfere with the farming operations.
3. Bedding
Bedding is a method of surface which makes use of dead furrows, as shown in Figure 9.2. The area
between the two adjacent furrows is known as a bed. The depth of the bed depends on the soil
characteristics and tillage practices. In the bedded area, the direction of fanning may be parallel or normal
to dead furrows. Tillage practices, parallel to the beds, retard water movement to the dead furrows.

Unploughed Centre of bed and

Ploughed
Dead furrow Back furrow Dead furrow

Figure 9.2: Bedding

Ploughing is always parallel to the dead furrows. Bedding is most practicable on flat slopes of less
than 15%, where the soils are slowly permeable and the drainage is not economical.
9.4.1 Layout planning of drainage

Shallow surface
drainage

Figure 9.3: Random field Drain (shallow surface drain)

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9.5 Drain design discharge

Strom drainage, in relation to irrigation schemes, falls into two main categories. Eternal drainage refers to
runoff outside the irrigated area and is considered in the design of cross – drainage structures and
headwork. Internal drainage refers to the runoff of excess water from the irrigated area itself. The runoff
from these fields is characterized by the reduction of flow due to the storage capacity of the bunds.
Internal drainage can be as a result of runoff from intense rainstorms or removal of an excess if irrigation
water on the field, as at harvesting time. The critical events for the design of the drain capacities are the
severe rainstorms.
In Nepal the predominant crop in the wet season is paddy rice; dry root crops, such as wheat and pulses,
being grown in the winter/dry season when rainfall is negligible. As rice can grow in saturated soil, in
internal drainage system is require only to remove excess rainfall and irrigation water, and no drainage of
the root zone is necessary. Cultivation practice have also developed for saturated soils and access for
machinery is not required.
Most areas of Nepal have an existing natural drainage system. However, extreme storms in the summer can
cause some areas in the Terai toe be inundated for many days causing the rice crop to be submerged, and in
consequence, respiration by the crop in restricted and if flooded for a sufficient period, the crop to be
submerged, and in consequence, respiration by the crop is restricted and if flooded for a sufficient period, the
crop dies. In the hills, the natural drainage system is generally sufficiently well developed to prevent such
inundation and consequently internal drainage of bunded fields in the hills is normally not necessary.
9.5.1 Internal drainage of Bunded fields
In Nepal, a broad distinction must be drawn between the physical details of drainage from the bunded
field in the hills and those in the lowlands or Terai. The hills fields are normally bunded bench terrace.
The bund heights are typically 100mm. The spillage is rapid and unimpeded. The Terai fields are
generally larger with typical bund heights of 200 mm. The topography is flat so that drainage is relatively
slow, and widespread flooding may occur.
Terai
The runoff from bunded fields e.g. rice fields, is estimated from a simple water balance. This approach
has been used in Nepal at the Narayani and Sunsari Morang irrigation projects.
The water balance incorporates the following assumptions:
• Initial water level is 40 mm
• Maximum water level is 300 mm which may persist for up to one day
• Depth in excess of 200 mm may persist for up to 3 days
• No rain follows the design rainfall for several days
• Losses due to evapotranspiration and deep percolation are replaced by ongoing irrigation
and/or flood inflows during the design rainfall.
The balance may be expressed:
P
h = 40 + t–Q×t t ≤ 3 days
3
or, h = 40 + P – Q × t t > 3 days.

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Where h = the depth of water in the field in mm

P = the design three day rainfall in mm
3 = days
t = the number of days that have elapsed since the rainfall began
Q = the drainage runoff in mm/day.
The 3 day rainfall is recommended for the design of field drains in the Terai. Where practicable, the
return period adopted for design would be assessed from an analysis of the costs and benefits of drainage
provision to particular standards. In the absence of such analysis, a 10 year return period is suggested as a
guideline, and this has been used in the example 9.1.
For a given elevation and mean annual rainfall at the prospective site, the mean annual maximum 3 day
rainfall should be obtain. To estimate the value with a 10 year return period, the mean maximum should
be multiplied by a growth factor.
Growth factor G = 0.32 ln T + 0.78
Where G = Growth factor
T= return period
Ln= natural logarithm
For 10 year return period Growth factor G = 1.5.
Example 9.1:
Design a surface drainage for a field of 40 ha area in Terai with following data. Design maximum
yearly precipitation for three consecutive days = 500mm, longitudinal slope of channel 1:400,
manning roughness coefficient 0.025, Maximum water level is 300mm which may persist for up to
one day and depends in excess of 200 mm may persist for up to 3 days. Assume other suitable
values if necessary.
Solution:
Here given that, design maximum yearly rainfall for 3 days (P) = 500mm. Hence no need to
multiply by growth factor. The water balance h in mm after drainage rate of Q in mm/day and
design rainfall P in mm for t in days is given by equation:
P
h = 40 + t – Q × t (t ≤ 3 days); h = 40 + P – Q × t (for t > 3 days)
3
Trail 1
Assume Q= 60 mm/day

Initial depth Design rainfall per day (P3/3) Discharge (Q) Final water depth
Days (mm) mm (500/3 mm) mm/day (mm)
1 40 166.67 60 146.67
2 146.67 166.67 60 253.33
3 253.33 166.67 60 360.00
4 360.00 - 60 300.00

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Our assumption is maximum water level is 300mm which may persist for one day but here 300mm
exceeds for 2 days hence we have to increase design discharge.
Trial 2
Assume Q = 70 mm/day

Initial depth Design rainfall per Discharge (Q) Final water depth
Days (mm) day(P3/3) mm mm/day (mm)

1 40 166.67 70 136.67

2 136.67 166.67 70 233.33

3 233.33 166.67 70 330.00

4 330.00 - 70 260.00

5 260.00 - 70 190.00

Again maximum water level 300mm exceeds for 1 days hence we have to increase design discharge.

Trial 3
Assume Q= 80 mm/day

Initial depth Design rainfall per Discharge (Q) Final water depth
Days (mm) day(P3/3) mm mm/day (mm)

1 40 166.67 80 126.67

2 126.67 166.67 80 213.33

3 213.33 166.67 80 300.00

4 300.00 - 80 220.00

5 220.00 - 80 140.00

Here maximum water level 300mm is persist for one day and 200 mm persist for up to 3 days hence
our assumption is meet. Hence the design discharge for design of drainage is 80mm/day.
Here, Area = 40 ha
80 × 10-3 m
Discharge Q = × 40 × 104 m2 = 0.37 m3/sec.
86400 sec
Bed slope = 1:400
Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.025
Assume, side slope = 1:1
B/D ratio = 3

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Now, apply Manning’s equation

1
Q= A R2/3 S1/2
n
A= BD + z D2 = 3D2 + D2 = 4D2

P = B +2 D 2 = 5.828D.
R = A/P = 0.686D
Now put the values in Manning’s equation and solve
D = 0.347m
B = 1.042m
Adopt free board = 0.1m
Or alternately we can assume non-silting and non-scouring velocity (depends on type of soil) instead
of B/D ratio.
In this case assume velocity v = 0.8m/sec
Area A= Q/v = 0.463m2
A = BD + zD2 …… (i)
1 2/3 1/2
Calculate R from v = R S
n
R = 0.253m
Now P=A/R = 0.463/0.253= 1.83m

We have, P = B +2 D 2 …….(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii)
B = 1.02m
D = 0.34m
Example 9.2
Determine the drainage rate in l/s/ha required to meet the following condition for healthy growth of
rice paddies in bonded field in Terai of Nepal.
Initial water level in field = 50 mm
Maximum water level is 400mm which may persist up to one day.
Depth in excess of 250mm may persist for up to 2 days
No rain follows the design rainfall for several days.
Neglect ET and deep percolation loss.
Design 3 day rainfall is 400 mm.

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Solution:
Q lps per ha 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q mm per day
Days 8.64 17.28 25.92 34.56 43.2 51.84 60.48
Initial water depth 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
(mm)

0 Rinfall P3/3

1 133.333 174.693 166.053 157.413 148.773 140.133 131.493 122.853

2 133.333 299.387 282.107 264.827 247.547 230.267 212.987 195.707
3 133.333 424.08 398.16 372.24 346.32 320.4 294.48 268.56
4 415.44 380.88 346.32 311.76 277.2 242.64 208.08
5 406.8 363.6 320.4 277.2 234 190.8 147.6
6 398.16 346.32 294.48 242.64 190.8 138.96 87.12

Here from graph, our assumption i.e. maximum water depth 400mm persist up to one day and
250mm may persist for 2 days is met by 5 lps per hectare (43.2 mm per day).
Example 9.3:
How many days the field will be inundated above 200mm depth if a drainage rate of 3 l/s per ha is
maintained by constructing internal drainage system? If three days design rainfall is 300mm. Will
such system cause the depth to exceed 300mm?

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Solution:
Assume initial depth of water= 40mm
Given Q 3 lps/ha
25.92 mm/day

Design rainfall per Final water

Days Initial depth (mm) day(P3/3) mm (300/3) Discharge (Q) mm/day depth (mm)
1 40 100.00 25.92 114.08
2 114.08 100.00 25.92 188.16
3 188.16 100.00 25.92 262.24
4 262.24 25.92 236.32
5 236.32 25.92 210.40
6 210.40 25.92 184.48

Here data shows that the field inundated above 200mm in 3 days and no any depth exceed 300mm.

Example 9.4:
Determine the drainage rate required to meet the following condition. Maximum yearly precipitation for
three consecutive days = 300mm. The design rainfall is to be taken as 10 year return periods. Initial water
level in field = 40mm. Maximum water level is 300mm which may persist for up to one day and depends
in excess of 200 mm may persist for up to 3 days. Assume other suitable values if necessary.
Solution:
Here, maximum yearly precipitation for three days= 450mm
10 year design yearly precipitation for three days = growth factor x 300 mm
For 10 year return period, growth factor = G= 0.32 ln T + 0.78 = 1.5
Now design rainfall = 300x 1.5 = 450mm
Q lps per ha 5 6 7 8 9

Q mm per day
days 43.2 51.84 60.48 69.12 77.76
Initial water 40 40 40 40 40
depth (mm)
Rainfall P3/3
0 (450/3) (mm)
1 150 146.8 138.16 129.52 120.88 112.24
2 150 253.6 236.32 219.04 201.76 184.48
3 150 360.4 334.48 308.56 282.64 256.72
4 317.2 282.64 248.08 213.52 178.96
5 274 230.8 187.6 144.4 101.2
6 230.8 178.96 127.12 75.28 23.44

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From graph and table our assumption i.e maximum water depth 300mm for one day and 200 mm
may persist for 3 days is meet by 8 lps per ha. Hence designed drainage rate is 8 lps per ha.
1. Hills
The internal drainage of rice fields in the hills will vary often take the form of spillage from
terrace to terrace via natural channel through the bunds. In some cases, however, field drains
will be necessary, and these may be designed on the basis of runoff estimated for a water
balance similar to that described for the Terai. The following assumptions are made:
- Initial water level is 40 mm
- Maximum water level is 100 mm.
- No rain follows the design rainfall for several days.
- Losses due to evapotranspiration and deep percolation are replaced by ongoing irrigation
and/or flood inflows during the design rainfall.
The balance may be expressed:
Q = P + 40 – 100 = P – 60
Where, Q is the runoff in mm
P is the design rainfall in mm.
The 24 hrs rainfall with a return period of 10 years is recommended for the design of field
drains in the hills.
9.5.2 External Drainage
External drainage refers to runoff generated outside the irrigation area which presents a danger to the irrigation
scheme. It covers the assessment of design floods for the headworks and the assessment of stream flows, which
must be safely passed through or around the irrigated area, i.e., cross drainages. Peak external drainage rate are
required to design structures to carry runoff safely across or around the irrigated area.

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9.5.3 Remodeling of existing natural drains

In areas where it is intended to use existing natural drains, it will be necessary to check that their capacity
is sufficient to carry the drain design discharge. The first task would be to survey the channel, taking
cross – section at a maximum spacing of 250m. These would be plotted and a longitudinal section of the
drain produced at a scale of 1:5000, showing typical bed levels and ground levels adjacent to the drain. It
is important that the bed levels plotted on the longitudinal section are representative of the average bed
level in each section (M.9_Drainage, 1990).
A straight line or series of straight lines would then be fitted to the bed levels on the longitudinal section.
The cross section should be transformed into trapezoidal channels of similar form. The drain capacity
below the design water level should than be calculated using the manning’s equation.
However, the existing natural drain may be very irregular in both level and in its cross – sectional shape
and size, and any process of approximation to a uniform channel may be unrealistic. In this case it is
necessary to carry out a back water analysis of the channel. The standard step is normally used for
channels with a varying cross – section.
It is normal to start at a scion where the water level for the design discharge is known. This is normally a
structure at or near the downstream end of the drain. The calculation is performed by trial and error for
successive steps (distances between cross – section) to give the water level at each cross – section,
working from downstream to upstream. These water levels can then be compared with the required design
water levels in the channel and hence used to determine if the channel has sufficient capacity to carry the
design discharge.
If it is necessary to increase the capacity of the natural drain this can be done in a number of ways:
• Increase the depth of the drain.
• Increase the width on one side or both sides.
• Increase both the width and depth.
The choice of solution is dependent on the constraints of the existing channel. Any structures across the
channel may make it difficult to deepen the channel. Buildings or structures located close to the banks of
the channel may limit the increase in channel width. Should the channel be constrained by buildings say,
through a village, it may be possible to culvert or flume the channel through that village. Each individual
drains should be examined for the best solution and solution, and several method may be used on one
drain in different reaches. Once the slope and levels of the new channel are decided, the channel is
designed in the normal manner. It may not be possible to retain the standard B/D ratio and flexibility in
this respect is required.
Existing natural drain

Figure 9.4: Remodeling of existing natural drains

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9.6 Sub – Surface drainage system and their design

Sub – surface drain or tile drains are required for high water table conditions in the areas where the soils
are having poor internal drainage ability. If no impervious layer occurs below the farm land and the water
table is low (lower than about 3m from the ground), internal soil drainage may be sufficient and no tile
drains needed. For maximum productivity of most of the crops, both surface as well as sub-surface drains
may sometimes, however, become, essential, particularly in areas of higher water table.
Advantages of Tile Drain
Tile drainage helps in increasing crop yields by draining the water or by lowering the water table in the
following manner:
a. Removes the free gravity water, not available directly to the plants, thus, increase the volume
of root zone soil from which roots can obtain nutrient.
b. Increase air circulation and bacterial activity in the soil, thus improving soil structure and
making the plant food more readily available.
c. Reduces soil erosion as a well-drained soil has more capacity to hold rainfall, resulting in
reduced runoff and soil erosion.
d. Helps removing toxic substances such as sodium, their excess amount may retard plant growth.
e. Lowering the water table during rainy seasons thus checking water logging and salinity and
other soil and water problems.
f. Easy and timely cultural practices.
Limitations:
a. Providing underground tile drains is a costly affair and may be required only in areas of high
water table, and where the ground soil has a poor internal drainage capacity, in other words
where it is absolutely desired.
b. Without proper maintenance and care it becomes nonfunctional.

9.6.1 Layout of subsurface drainage system

Tile drains are usually, pipe drains made up of porous earthenware and are circular in section. The
diameters may vary from 10 to 30 cm or so. These drains are laid below the ground level, butting each
other with open joints. The trenches in which they are laid are back filled with sand and excavated
material to form an envelope.
The drain should be aligned to follow the paths of the natural drainage. Every drain should be provided
with an outfall, either into a bigger drain or natural stream. The location of the outfall is adjusted to obtain
the required slope in the drain.
A closed drain system in general consist of a number of lateral drains (also lateral or branch drains) which
collect water from different areas and discharge into a main drain. The main drain is usually an open
drain. Sometimes lateral discharge into a sub main which is usually a closed drain and the sub main
discharges into main drain. The main drain in turn discharge into outfall drain which takes water to
natural drain. The layout of a closed drain system is governed by the topography of the area to be drained.
The various layout plans for closed drain system are shown in Figure. 9.5 And are discussed below.

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1. Natural system
In this system the main/sub main and the connecting laterals are provided in natural courses as
shown in figure 9.5 (a). The natural system is preferred in rolling topography.
2. Grid iron layout
In this system the laterals are provided only on one side of the main / sub main as shown in figure
9.5 (b). This system is used when the land is practically level or where the land slopes away from
the main/ sub main on one side and when the entire area has to be drained.
3. Herringbone pattern
In this system laterals join main / sub main from each side alternately as shown in Figure 9.5 (c). It
is adopted when the main /sub main is laid in a depression. In this case the land along the main / sub
main is double drained which is however, necessary because it is in depression and hence requires
more drainage than the land in the adjacent slopes.
4. Double main system
In this system two separate mains/sub mains with separate laterals for each are provided as shown in
Figure 9.5(d). This system is provided when the bottom of the depression is wide. This arrangement
helps to reduce the length of the laterals and eliminates the break in slope of the lateral at the edge of
the depression.
5. Intercepting drain system
In this system there are no laterals but only a main/ sub main is provided at the toe or the slope as
shown in Figure 9.5 (e). This arrangement is adopted when the hilly land is to be drained.

58
56
54
50

Main or sub main

(a) Natural system (b) Grid-Iron system

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Main or submain
(c) Herringbone pattern (d) Double main system

(e) Intercepting drainage system

Figure 9.5: Layout plan of Tile drains

9.6.3 Flow of ground water to drain and spacing of tile drains

After proper installation the tile drains starts removing water movement of water can be summarized as
follows:
1. If soil is fully saturated, water flows into the tile drain along the path shown in Figure 9.6.
Water as farther distance has to travel more to get drained.

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Mid way between drain

Impervious layer
Figure 9.6: movement of water to drain

2. The falling of water table, i.e. draw down will be more near the tile than at the points farther
away Since the quantity of water moving between any two flow lines is the same.
3. Once the saturated soil has drained for a day or two, the resulting water table will be, as shown
in Figure 9.6. With the passage of time, the water level goes on lowering down.
4. With series of tile drains, the sub soil water level directly over the drains, is lower than the
level midway between them as in shown in Figure 9.6.
5. When a filter is provided around the tile drains to surround the drains with more pervious soil,
then the overall draw down will be more.
Ground level

0.6 to 2.5m Original water table

Drained water table
0.3m

s x
(15 to 45m) Drain

a y b

Impervious startum

Figure 9.7: Spacing of closed tile drain

With reference to the Figure 9.7,

Let s = Spacing of the drains.

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a = height of drain above the impervious stratum

b = maximum height of the drained water table above impervious stratum
y = height of impervious stratum at x distance from the center of drain.
Assumptions
dy
• The hydraulic gradient at a distance x from the center of the drain is .
dx
• Flow line are parallel and area of flow section at distance x from the center of the drain per unit
length of the drain is y × 1 = y.
• Discharge towards the drain is inversely proportional to the distance from the drain.
From Darcy’s law
Q = K.i.A . . . 9.1
dy
Where i = ;A=y
dx
dy
For per unit discharge q = k × ×y . . . (i)
dx
s
When x = ; qy = 0
2
qd
When x = 0; qy = ; q = Total discharge per unit length.
2 d
qd s/2 – x
Thus; qy =
2 s/2
qd
qy = ( s – 2x) . . . (ii)
2s
Equating (i) and (ii)
qd dy
qy = ( s – 2x) = k. .y
2s dx
qd dy
(s – 2x) = y
2Ks dx
Integrating we get

⌠ q (s – 2x) dx = ⌠
⌡ y dy
⌡ 2Ks

qd y2
(sx – x2) = + C . . . 9.2
2Ks 2
a2
When x = 0 ; y = a. then C = –
2

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Making this substitution and simplifying we get;

sK (y2 – a2)
qd = . . . 9.3
sx – x2

s
Also when x = ; y = b, from equation 9.3
2

4K (b2 – a2)
qd =
s

4K (b2 – a2)
s=
qd

Example 9.5:

In a drainage system closed drains are to be placed with their center 2 m below the ground level to
keep the highest position of the water table 1.7m below the ground level. The impervious stratum is
at a depth of 9.6 m below the ground level. If 1% of the average annual rainfall to be drained in 24
hours and co – efficient of permeability K = 1x 10-5 m/sec. If the average annual rainfall in the area
is 850 mm. find the spacing of drain.

Solution:
4K (b2 – a2)
Spacing s =
qd

K= 1 × 10-5 m/sec

b = 9.6 – 1.7 = 7.9 m

a = 9.6 – 2 = 7.6 m

850 1
1% of average annual rainfall over and area A m2 supply by each drain = ×A×
1000 100

= 85 × 10-4A m3

This is to be drained in 24 hrs and hence,

85 × 10-4A
Volume of water to be drained off per second = = 9.8379 × 10-8 A m3/sec
86400

If s is the spacing between the drain then area A supply by each drain per unit length of the drain is;
A= s × 1 = s

qd= 9.8379 × 10-8 s

4 × 1 × 10-5 (7.92 – 7.62)
Substituting these values s =
9.8379 × 10-8 s

On solving, s = 43.487 m

Hence drains should be provided at a spacing of 43.5 m.

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 Water Logging and Drainage

Exercise 9:
1. What is water logging? Explain causes and preventive measures of water logging.
2. What are the effects of water logging?
3. What is internal drainage and External drainage?
4. Explain about the importance of surface and subsurface drainage in Terai as well as Hills of Nepal.
5. What is surface and subsurface drainage?
6. Explain the importance of remodeling of existing drainage.
7. Write the steps to design surface drainage in the bunded field of Terai.
8. What are the assumptions to design surface drainage in Terai and Hills of Nepal?
9. Design a surface drainage for a field of 50 ha area in Terai with following data. Design maximum
yearly precipitation for three consecutive days = 450mm, longitudinal slope of channel 1:400,
manning roughness coefficient 0.02, permissible velocity is 0.7m/sec. Maximum water level is
300mm which may persist for up to one day and depends in excess of 200 mm may persist for up to
3 days. Assume other suitable values if necessary.
10. How do you determine the spacing of tile drain, explain with derivation.
11. Find the spacing between drains for the following data
• Annual rainfall = 1000 mm
• Height of drains above impervious stratum = 4.5m
• Maximum height of the drained water table above the impervious stratum= 5.0m
• Coefficient of permeability k = 10-6 m/sec.
12. Find the inflow into the drain for the following data:
• Spacing = 13m
• Height of drain above impervious stratum= 4.5 m
• Maximum height of the drained water table above the impervious stratum = 5.0m
• Coefficient of permeability k = 10-6 m/sec
13. The annual rainfall in Biratnagar is 2000 mm. Find the spacing of subsurface drain if 2% of average
annual rainfall is to be drained in 2 days.
Given;
Depth of impervious stratum from the top of soil surface = 12m
Position of drain is 2m below the top soil surface and the depth of highest position of water table
below the top soil surface = 1.5m.
Permeability, K = 1 × 10-4 m/sec.

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Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Annex I

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 Annex

Annex II

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Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Annex III

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 Annex

Annex IV

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Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Annex V

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