classification of tractors

(i) Wheel tractor: Tractors, having three of four pneumatic wheels are called wheel
tractors. Four wheel tractors are most popular everywhere. (ii) Crawler tractor: This is
also called track type tractor or chain type tractor. In such tractors, there is an endless
chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels. (iii) Power tiller: Power tiller is a walking type
tractor. This tractor usually fitted with two wheels only. The operator, walking behind the
tractor performs the direction of travel and its controls for field operation
On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractor is classified into three
groups. (a) General purpose tractor: It is used for major farm operations such as
ploughing, harrowing, sowing, harvesting and transporting work. Such tractors have (i) low
ground clearance (ii) increased engine power (iii) good adhesion and (iv) wide tyres. (b)
Row crop tractor: It is used for furrow crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with
replaceable driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save
damage of crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance. (c)
Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like cotton field, marshy land, hill
sides, garden etc. Special designs are there for special purpose tractor. On the basis of
design Tractors are divided into six main types: 2 wheeled tractors 4 wheeled, 2 wheel
driven (2WD) tractors 4 wheeled, 4 wheel driven (4WD) tractors 8 wheeled, 8 wheel
driven (8WD) tractors tracked or 'crawler' tractors special purpose tractors
Components of tractor. Irrespective of particular design features, all tractors
consists of 1. Engine – I.C Engine 2. Drive line – clutch, flexible coupling, transmission &
rear axle. 3. Running gear – the rotation of the driving wheels in contact with the ground is
converted into the translatory motion of the tractor. 4. Steering mechanism- turning front
wheels (in wheeled tractors) varying the speed of one of the tracks (in crawler tractors) 5.
Working attachments- P.T.O shaft, draw bar, belt pulley etc., 6. Auxiliary equipments-
driver’s cab, hood, lighting equipment, horns, tell tales (indicators)
Selection of tractor depends upon following factors: 1. Land holding:
Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1 hp for
every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is suitable for 40
hectares farm. 2. Cropping pattern: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been
recommended where adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than and
crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable for 40 hectares farm. 3. Soil
condition: A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall
weight may work successfully in higher soil but it will not be able to give sufficient
depth in black cotton soil 4. Climatic condition: For very hot zone and desert area,
air cooled engines are preferred over water-cooled engines. Similarly for higher
altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because water is liable to be frozen at
higher altitude. 5. Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be
purchased has a dealer at nearby place with all the technical skills for repair and
maintenance of machine. 6. Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel
consumption should be preferred over others so that running cost may be less. 7.
Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost
should not be very high; otherwise higher amount of interest will have to be paid. 8.
Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations
should be consulted for guidance.
wheeled and crawler tractor
A crawler tractor is a vehicle that runs on continuous tracks instead of wheels.
In agriculture they are used for land clearing and land leveling works. The principal
advantages of crawler tractor over wheeled tractors are that they are in contact with
a larger surface area than the wheeled tractor, and as a result exert a much lower
force per unit area on the ground than a conventional wheeled tractor of the same
weight. This makes them suitable for use on soft, low friction and uneven ground
such as mud, ice and snow. The principal disadvantage is that tracks are a more
complex mechanism than a wheel, and relatively prone to failure modes such as
snapped or derailed tracks.
Engine. The engine is usually diesel, although in the smaller sizes, it may be
gasoline-fuelled. Power is rated first as net engine horsepower, meaning the net
horsepower at the flywheel with the engine driving all accessories normal to tractor
operation. The second standard of measurement is drawbar pull or horsepower. This is a
figure smaller than the flywheel horsepower and represents usable power at the drawbar
under certain set conditions, after deducting losses in friction and slippage. This is the
usual rating for tractors with direct mechanical drive. Power may also be measured in
terms of pounds of drawbar pull, a factor that is limited by traction and that may be
increased by mounting a bulldozer or any extra weight. Crawlers with power shift and/or
torque converters are generally rated in pounds of drawbar pull at a given speed.
Clutch. Crawlers with mechanical drive have an engine or flywheel clutch with one or two
discs, that are used to cut off the drive train when stopping the machine or shifting gears.
When the machine is to be used to carry a loader or for any other very heavy service, the
discs may be set with long-wearing, heat-resistant ceramic discs; or be kept in a circulating
bath of oil that reduces wear and takes away heat. The clutch is usually controlled by a
hand lever at the operator’s left. Large machines have a hydraulic booster to reduce
operator effort and ensure sufficient engagement pressure.
Torque Converter. Most large crawlers have a torque converter instead of, or in addition
to, an engine clutch. This provides shock-absorbing slippage between engine and tracks,
multiplies torque so that fewer transmission gear ratios are needed, and allows on-the
move power shifting among those ratios that are used. Transmission—Manual Shift. This
type of transmission, used in machines with friction clutches, is compact, with very heavy
construction. Shifting may be done by sliding spur gears, but newer machines may have
constant-mesh helical gears with synchronized shifting. The number of gear speeds varies
in different models and may be from two to eight forward speeds, and one to six reverse
speeds. The engine clutch must be disengaged for any conventional gearshift. There may
be a lock that will prevent any gear from disengaging unless the clutch is fully released.
There is a universal joint in the shaft from the clutch to the transmission to prevent damage
if these two units should get slightly out of alignment. The driveshaft from the rear of the
transmission ends immediately in a bevel gear that drives the live axle ring gear. The
transmission and bevel gears operate in a sealed box that contains sufficient oil or fluid
grease to lubricate all the gears and bearings by dip, splash, or pressure spray
Transmission—Power Shift. Tractors equipped with torque converters usually have
power shift (shift-on-the-go) transmissions with two or more speeds in each direction. The
shifting is done by pairs of friction clutches connecting and disconnecting gears in the drive
line, or by brakes controlling planetary gear sets. The shifting lever may control these by
mechanical linkage, or hydraulic means. Power Takeoff. The standard power takeoff is a
connection that will turn a shaft inserted through the rear wall of the gear case. It is used to
power accessories such as cable control units, a winch, or a hydraulic pump. If the
transmission is compound, the takeoff may have two gear ratios; otherwise its speed is
controlled only by the engine. It is engaged by releasing the engine clutch, meshing a
sliding jaw, and reengaging the clutch. The takeoff usually turns more slowly than the
engine. It operates in neutral or any gear, but not when the engine clutch is disengaged. It
is not affected by the steering clutches. Lack of power in the takeoff when the engine
clutch is released, or when the output shaft of a torque converter is slowed by heavy load,
results in inefficiency in many operations. There are therefore an increasing number of
constant-running “live” power takeoffs, that can be operated whenever the engine is
running, regardless of clutch position or converter action. Dead Axle. The dead axle, or
pivot shaft, is a hinge pin which runs across the back of the tractor, through or forward of
the final drive cases. It ties the track frames and centre section together but allows them to
oscillate vertically. In addition, it serves as an axle for the bull wheel. Bull Wheel. The bull
wheel is a big sprocket of very heavy construction. The wheel itself is usually a flat disc,
widening to shallow teeth at the rim. Hollows between them mesh with the track pin
bushings, providing positive drive to the track.Tracks. The live axles turn large toothed
wheels, called drive sprockets or bull wheels that are at the rear of the track frames or
elevated. The frames rest on the small truck or track rollers. The idlers, which are
smoothed flanged wheels similar in size to the drive sprockets, are mounted on
spring-cushioned yokes at the front of the frames, or both front and back with an elevated
bull wheel sprocket. One or two small support rollers are mounted above each frame,
except in very small machines, to prevent excessive sagging in the upper track section.

***The track itself consists of a true roller chain and bolted-on shoes. Certain types of stiff
mud, and wet snow, may build up in the track and in the sprocket hollows so that the
sprocket will spin, usually with abrupt and damaging stops and starts, and will probably
make the track oversight at the same time. This condition may make work difficult or
impossible, as repeated hand cleaning may be required. Ice and mud shoes usually have
openings in the centre that permit the sprocket teeth to force the snow out through them,
leaving the inner parts comparatively free. There are also cutaway sprockets that allow
mud to squeeze through openings in the tooth bottoms. This is one of the reasons that
Caterpillar Inc. introduced the elevated sprockets, as shown in fig
Track Wheels. The rollers and idlers are flanged in order to keep the track in line. The
idler customarily has a wide centre flange that fits between the track links. The track and
support rollers have outer flanges that are on each side of the track rail. They may also
have an inner flange. On the bottom, it is usual to alternate single- and double-flanged
rollers. Rollers and idlers revolve on fixed axles. They may have tapered roller bearings, or
solid-sleeve types made of bronze or special metals. Good seals, to keep lubricant in and
dirt out, are very important.
selection of tractor based on weather conditions.
Different types of tractors are better suited for different weather conditions. For example, a
tractor with a cab and air conditioning may be more comfortable to operate in hot weather,
while a tractor with a heater may be more suitable for cold weather. In wet weather,
tractors with enclosed cabs and good visibility can help keep the operator dry and
comfortable. In snow and icy conditions, tractors with tracks or four-wheel drive may be
more effective at navigating slippery terrain. Ultimately, the best tractor for a particular
weather condition will depend on the specific needs and preferences of the operator.
Additionally, tractors with proper tires can also be important for different weather
conditions. For example, tractors with aggressive tread patterns and high flotation tires
may be better suited for muddy and wet fields. Tractors with low ground pressure tires can
help reduce soil compaction and minimize damage to fields in wet conditions. In snowy
and icy conditions, tractors with chains or snow tires can help provide added traction and
stability.---It's also important to consider the attachments that will be used on the tractor.
Some attachments, such as plows or snow blowers, may be better suited for specific
weather conditions. For example, a tractor with a front-mounted snowblower attachment
may be more effective at clearing snow than a tractor without one.Another important factor
to consider when selecting a tractor for specific weather conditions is the power and size of
the tractor. In general, larger and more powerful tractors may be better suited for
heavy-duty tasks and harsh weather conditions, such as plowing heavy snow or working in
deep mud. However, smaller and more compact tractors may be better suited for lighter
tasks or working in tight spaces, such as orchards or vineyards.==In addition, the overall
maintenance and upkeep of the tractor should also be considered. Tractors that are
well-maintained and in good working order are more likely to perform well in harsh weather
conditions. Regularly checking and replacing worn or damaged parts, as well as keeping
the tractor clean and free of debris, can help ensure that it is ready to handle whatever
weather conditions come its way.===In conclusion, when selecting a tractor for specific
weather conditions, it's important to consider a variety of factors such as the tractor's
power and size, attachments, drivetrain, and tire, as well as the operator's needs and
preferences. Additionally, it's important to keep the tractor well-maintained and
well-prepared for the weather conditions it will encounter.
selection based on haul distanceWhen selecting a tractor based on haul
distance, several factors should be considered. One of the most important factors is the
tractor's fuel efficiency. Long haul distances can require a significant amount of fuel, so a
tractor with a fuel-efficient engine can help reduce costs and save money in the long run.
===Another factor to consider is the tractor's hauling capacity. Tractors with larger hauling
capacity can move more cargo at once, which can be more efficient when hauling over
long distances. The size and weight of the tractor also plays a role here, as it can affect the
tractor's maneuverability and stability on the road.==The tractors' suspension and braking
system are also important to consider. A good suspension and braking system can
improve the tractor's stability, safety, and control while hauling over long
distances.===Lastly, the tractor's cab and operator comfort should also be taken into
account. Long haul distances can be tiring for the operator, so a tractor with a comfortable
cab, good visibility and easy to operate controls can help reduce operator fatigue and
improve overall safety.===In summary, when selecting a tractor based on haul distance,
factors such as fuel efficiency, hauling capacity, tractor's size and weight, suspension and
braking system, and cab and operator comfort should be considered.
selection of equipment’s including the nature of operating selection
based on the type of soil The type of soil can greatly impact the selection of
equipment for farming or construction operations. Different types of soil have different
properties and characteristics, and these can affect the performance and efficiency of the
equipment used.==For example, in sandy or loose soil, equipment with a wide tire or track
width can be used to distribute weight and reduce compaction. In clay or heavy soil,
equipment with a narrow tire or track width, or even equipment with a floatation tire, can be
used to avoid compaction and preserving soil structure.===In addition, equipment with
adjustable or variable widths can be useful when working on different types of soil. For
example, a tractor with adjustable wheel widths can be used to adapt to changing soil
conditions and improve performance.===For tilling and planting operations, equipment with
adjustable tillage depth and width can be used to adapt to different soil types. For example,
a cultivator with adjustable shanks can be used to work with different soil types, while a
planter with adjustable row spacing can be used to plant different crops in different soil
types.===In summary, the type of soil is an important consideration when selecting
equipment for farming or construction operations. Different types of soil have different
properties and characteristics, and these can affect the performance and efficiency of the
equipment used. By considering the soil type, equipment can be selected and adjusted to
improve performance, preserve soil structure, and maximize efficiency.
Applications of tractors---Tractors are primarily used in agriculture for tasks such as
plowing, planting, and harvesting crops, as well as for tilling and maintaining soil. They can
also be used for mowing, grading, and landscaping, and for moving materials such as dirt,
gravel, and snow. Tractors can also be used for construction and industrial purposes, such
as excavating, hauling, and bulldozing. Additionally, tractors can be equipped with
attachments such as front-end loaders, backhoes, and snow plows to perform a wide
range of tasks. Other applications include powering farm equipment, pulling trailers and
wagons, providing power for remote locations, towing boats and other vehicles,
maintaining sports fields and golf courses, landscaping and groundskeeping, clearing
brush and cutting down trees, providing emergency services, in forestry, mining and more.
Other applications for tractors include:--Powering various farm equipment such as
threshers, balers, and irrigation system----Pulling trailers and wagons for transporting crops
and materials---Providing power to generate electricity in remote locations---Towing boats
and other vehicles---Maintaining sports fields and golf courses---Helping with landscaping
and groundskeeping---Clearing brush and cutting down trees---Providing emergency
services such as clearing debris and supporting rescue operations.---In forestry, tractors
are used for hauling logs, skidding and loading logs on trucks, and maintaining forest
roads.---Tractors are used in mining for material hauling, drilling and blasting, and
excavation.

How the word tractor is derived---The word tractor comes from the Latin word
'trahere' meaning 'to pull'. The earliest recorded uses of the word come from the mid- to
late-19th century when engines and vehicles designed to pull farming tools and wagons
were being developed. They were initially referred to as traction engines and then as
tractors.
What are the various types of suspension used in crawler tractors--
(i) Seat Suspension: (ii) Cabin Suspension (iii) Hitch Suspension (iv) Front Axle
Suspension (v) Full Suspension
(i) Seat Suspension: The first system used for the tractor was suspension for the seat of
the operator. This system is placed directly between the driver seat and tractor body, and it
affects directly driver comfort and reduces the vibration experienced by him. Seat
suspensions are not so complicated, inexpensive and have a robust construction. For
these reasons, they are used on all modern agricultural tractors (Fig. 13.2). A suspension
seat is made of typically a foam cushion suspended on a parallel spring and damper set.
Type of suspension systems may be mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, hydro-pneumatic,
or a combination of these systems.(ii) Cabin Suspension---In modern agricultural
tractors, a cabin is used in order to isolate the driver from the outside, and it protects the
driver from the annoying environmental conditions, dust, and noise. Using a suspension
system for the cabin, driver place could be isolated from the tractor vibrations as well. A
cabin suspension can offer more benefits than a seat suspension and provide better ride
comfort for the driver. Cabin suspension decreases the structurally transmitted noise to the
drivers. Since the mass of a cabin is greater than a seat, the natural frequency of cabins is
lower than the one of seat suspensions. The manufactured cabin suspensions of the
agricultural tractors can be categorized in two groups of semi suspended and fully
suspended. In the first group, the rear side of the cabin is connected to the chassis by
means of two suspension units in its corners. In spite of this, the front side is connected to
the tractor chassis without suspension and only via a joint-type link. This type is often used
for the tractors with front axle suspension. In this system, body vibrations appear on the
cabin as pitch rotational movement, and response of this system to the roll movement of
the tractor body is very limited.(iii) Hitch Suspension During transportation, tractors
mounted with implements, change largely the mass characteristics of the tractors, and
influence mainly the dynamic behaviour of the tractors. Without the primary suspension,
the tires are the only elastic elements that affect the handling of the tractors, whereas the
tires have no required suspension properties. Under these conditions, the dynamic
behavior of the tractor becomes worse under the influence of the attached implements,
particularly the bounce and pitch movement of the tractor are increased. This situation
causes a reduction in the control ability of the tractor, especially during high-speed
transports which leads to unsafe modes.(iv) Front Axle Suspension When, four Wheel
Drive (4WD) tractors became popular due to the better traction performance. The front
wheels acquired a new role in the traction capability of the tractors and also in the steering
ability of them. In this condition, there is a typical problem of the pitch movement of the
tractors, because it creates load variation on the front tires and cause the problem of
bouncing, particularly during of the pulling heavy loads by tractors. This produces a traction
variation effect, called “power hop,” that is not only uncomfortable for the operator, but also
causes a major loss in the traction efficiency of the tractors. In order to overcome this
problem, the front axle suspension was used for tractors. This suspension provides a
stable contact between the front tires and ground that leads to a significant improvement in
the traction and steering capability of tractors. Because of this advantage, front axle
suspension has become a common option in 4WD tractors now. In addition, the front
wheels are the navigating wheels. They take the major steering and brake loads of a
tractor. Front suspension by keeping front tires in firm contact with the ground, allows
better steering control and brake efficiency. This promotes the handling capability and
increases consequently the travel speed of a tractor. (v) Full Suspension Higher travel
speed is taken into consideration for the modern tractor design (Fig. 13.4). This led to try
for development of high tractor speeds, which are able to cover the transportation needs of
agricultural applications (Goehlich, 1984). As mentioned above introduction of the front
suspensions in tractors provided a major benefit regarding the high travel speed. However,
front axle suspensions can be sufficient just to reach to a limited maximum speed. In order
to achieve a higher speed, the full suspension is needed for tractors. A full suspension
tractor is a tractor equipped with both rear and front axle suspensions. These tractors can
provide improvement on both driving behaviour and ride comfort, promising the possibility
for the rise in the driving speed.
The functions of an IC engine piston
1. To transmit the force of explosion to the crankshaft.
2. To form a seal so that the high pressure gases in the
combustion chamber do not escape into the crankcase.
3. To serve as a guide and a bearing for small end
of the connecting rod.
Matching and selection of tractors refers
to the process of choosing the right tractor for
a specific task or implement. It involves
considering various factors such as power,
weight, size, hitch type, PTO speed and power,
clearance, suspension, tire type and operator's
skill level to ensure that the tractor is properly
suited for the task at hand and can perform it
efficiently and safely
Power: The tractor should have enough power to operate the implement or perform the
task efficiently. This includes both horsepower and torque. Weight: The tractor should be
heavy enough to provide stability when operating the implement or performing the task.
Size: The tractor should be the appropriate size for the implement or task. For example, a
small tractor may not be able to handle a large plow or cultivator. Tractor Hitch: The tractor
should have the appropriate hitch type and size to properly connect to the implement or
task. PTO: The tractor should have the appropriate PTO speed and power to operate the
implement or task. Clearance: The tractor should have enough clearance to safely operate
the implement or task, particularly when working in rough terrain or on inclines. Tractor
Suspension: Tractor suspension should be matched to the implement and task, especially
when working on rough terrain. Tractor Tires: Tractor tires should be matched to the task
and implement, for example a tractor working on muddy field should have proper tread
tires. Operator skill: The operator should be familiar with the tractor and implement and
have the necessary skills and knowledge to operate them safely and efficiently.
Crankshaft is the engine component from which the power is taken. It receives the
power from the connecting rods in the designated sequence for onward transmission to the
clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, and differential and subsequently to the wheels.

1. Crank Pin---The crankpin is a mechanical part of an engine. Which allows the

connecting rod to be attached to the crankshaft very firmly.The surface of the crankpin is
cylindrical, to give the rotative force to the large end of the connecting rod. These are also
known as connecting rod journals.
2. Main Journals----Journals have attached to the engine block. These bearings hold the
crankshaft and provide it to rotate inside the engine block. This bearing is such as a plain
bearing or journal bearings. The main bearings vary from engine to engine, often according
to the forces given by the engine.
3. Crank Web---The Crank web is the most essential part of the crankshaft. Crank web
connects the crankshaft to the main bearing journals.
4. Counterweights----The counterweights are a type of weight, that applies opposite force,
which provides balance and stability to the crankshaft. These are mounted on the crank
web.The reason for installing counterweights in the crankshaft is, they can eliminate the
reaction caused by rotation. And it is very helpful for achieving the higher RPM and makes
the engine run easily.
5. Thrust Washers----At some points, two or more thrust washers are provided to stop the
crankshaft from moving lengthways. These thrust washers assemble among the machined
surfaces in the web and the crankshaft saddle.With the help of thrust washers, it can be
easily maintained the gap and helps to reduce the lateral movement of the crankshaft. In
many engines, these are made as part of the main bearings, usually, older types, use
separate washers.
6. Oil Passage and Oil Seal---Crankshaft oil passage passes oil from main bearing journals
to the big end journals. Normally the hole is drilled on the crank web. When the crankpin is
in an upward position and combustion forces push the connecting rod to a downward
position, it allows oil to enter between journal and bearing.
7. Flywheel Mounting Flange----In most cases, the crankshaft attaches to the flywheel
through the flanges. The diameter of the crankshaft wheel end is larger than the other end.
This gives a flange face to mount the flywheel.
How Crankshaft helps in dynamic balancing The crankshaft plays an important role
in dynamic balancing of the tractor engine. The crankshaft is the main component of the
engine that converts the linear motion of the pistons into rotary motion, which is used to
power the wheels of the tractor.==Dynamic balancing is the process of balancing the
engine's rotating components such as the crankshaft, connecting rods, and flywheel. This
is important because unbalanced rotating components can cause vibrations and stress on
the engine's bearings, which can lead to premature wear and failure.===During the
dynamic balancing process, the weight and position of the crankshaft, connecting rods,
and flywheel are measured and adjusted as needed to ensure that they are balanced. This
is typically done by adding or removing small amounts of weight from specific locations on
the crankshaft, connecting rods, and flywheel.===The crankshaft also helps in dynamic
balancing by having counterweights on it, which are designed to offset the weight of the
pistons and connecting rods. These counterweights help to reduce vibrations and improve
the balance of the engine, which can improve its performance and longevity.==Dynamic
balancing is an important step in the assembly of the tractor engine, which helps in
reducing vibration, improve power output and increase the lifespan of the engine.
Explain the various types of valve mechanisms used in tractors with
sketches
1. Mechanisms with side camshaft
(a) Double row side valve mechanism (T-head). This is the oldest
type of valve actuating mechanism. In this the inlet and the exhaust
valves are operated by separate cam shafts, which make the
mechanism complicated. Moreover, the shape of the combustion
chamber provides poor combustion and low engine performance,
due to which this type of mechanism is obsolete

(b) Single row side valve mechanism (L-head). In this, the inlet and
the exhaust valves are all arranged in a single row and operated from
the same camshaft. This method was once quite popular on account of
the following advantages:(i) Low engine height. (ii) Low production
cost. (iii) Quiet operation. (iv) Ease of lubrication.
(c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism (F-head). This is
a combination of the two systems described above. Overhead valve
mechanism is used for the inlet valve operation and the side valve
mechanism for the exhaust valve. It is used in F-head engines. This
mechanism is simpler than the overhead crankshaft operated types
and allows the use of larger inlet valves, but larger valves being heavier, there is also a
limitation on the maximum speed of the engine that could be a lowed. Fhead engines were
found to be less efficient and were also more expensive. Hence
these have also become obsolete.
(d) Single row overhead valve mechanism (I-Head): This type is
very extensively used now. The cam operates the valve lifter which
in turn actuates the push rod. The push rod further operates the
rocker arm, which actuates the valve. This type of mechanism is
having the following advantages. (a) Higher volumetric efficiency
than the side valve design. (b) Higher compression ratios can be
used. (c) Leaner air-fuel mixtures can be burnt. (d) The rocker arm
leverage makes it possible to use smaller cam lobes compared to
the side valve mechanism.
2. Mechanisms with overhead camshaft
Camshaft with pushrods===The overhead valve system
(OHV) system, operated by pushrods, has the crankshaft
adjacent and parallel to the crankshaft in the cylinder block. As
the crankshaft rotates, each valve is opened by means of a
tappet, pushrod and rocker arm. The valve is closed by spring
pressure.The camshaft drive-chain sprocket has twice as many
teeth as the crankshaft sprocket, so that the camshaft rotates at
half engine speed.Engine with overhead camshaft====An
overhead-cam (OHC) engine needs fewer parts to operate the
valves. The cams act directly on bucket tappets or on short
levers - known as fingers - which in turn act directly on the valve
stems. The system dispenses with the extra weight and
mechanical complexity of pushrods and rocker arms. A long chain is frequently used to
drive the camshaft from a sprocket on the crankshaft, but such a long chain tends to 'whip'.
The problem is overcome in some designs by fitting intermediate sprockets and two
shorter drive chains, kept under tension.