MODULATION

A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a reliable

communication, it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should not affect the

original characteristics of the message signal.

The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.

Hence it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a

longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high

frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal. Such a

process is simply called as Modulation.

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with

the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel

longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier

wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation

The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced. The

range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without getting

distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication

systems.

 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.

 Communication range increases.

 Multiplexing of signals occur.

 Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.

 Reception quality improves.

Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

(i) Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a

baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is

also called as the modulating signal.

(ii) Carrier Signal

The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude but contains no

information, is called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used to carry the signal to

the receiver after modulation.

(iii) Modulated Signal

The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as the modulated signal. This

signal is a combination of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.

Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they

are classified as shown in the following figure.

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse

modulation.

CONTINUOUS-WAVE MODULATION
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This

is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.

 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the

instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called

as Amplitude Modulation.

 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of

the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation.

The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.

o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called

as Frequency Modulation.

o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called

as Phase Modulation.

PULSE MODULATION

In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave. This is

further divided into analog and digital modulation.

In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a

technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width

Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation

(PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a

coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM),

which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence, PCM is a technique where the analog

signals are converted into a digital form.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Among the types of modulation techniques, the main classification is Continuous-wave

Modulation and Pulse Modulation. The continuous wave modulation techniques are further

divided into Amplitude Modulation and Angle Modulation.

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message

signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance

with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the

carrier signal which contains no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal, at each

instant, which contains information. This can be well explained by the following figures.
The modulating wave which is shown first is the message signal. The next one is the carrier

wave, which is just a high frequency signal and contains no information. While the last one is

the resultant modulated wave.

It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected

with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This

imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as the message signal.

MODULATION INDEX

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt

is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a

carrier wave undergoes.

The maximum and minimum values of the envelope of the modulated wave are represented

by Amax and Amin respectively.
Hence, the equation for Modulation Index is obtained. µ denotes the modulation index or

modulation depth. This is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage Modulation. It is

the extent of modulation denoted in percentage, and is denoted by m.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which means the

modulation depth should be 100%.

For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated

output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is

called as an under-modulated wave.

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be

an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

As the value of modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180° phase reversal, which

causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such overmodulated wave

causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation

The bandwidth is the difference between lowest and highest frequencies of the signal.

For amplitude modulated wave. We got to know that the bandwidth required for the amplitude

modulated wave is twice the frequency of the modulating signal.

Sideband Modulation

In the process of Amplitude Modulation or Phase Modulation, the modulated wave consists of

the carrier wave and two sidebands. The modulated signal has the information in the whole

band except at the carrier frequency.

A Sideband is a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher

frequencies of the carrier frequency. Both the sidebands contain the same information. The
representation of amplitude modulated wave in the frequency domain is as shown in the

following figure.

Both the sidebands in the image contain the same information. The transmission of such a signal

which contains a carrier along with two sidebands, can be termed as Double Sideband Full

Carrier system, or simply DSB-FC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the

carrier, which carries no information.

If this carrier is suppressed and the power saved is distributed to the two sidebands, such a

process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply DSBSC. It is

plotted as shown in the following figure.

Now, we get an idea that, as the two sidebands carry the same information twice, why can’t we

suppress one sideband. Yes, this is possible.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands, along with the carrier and transmitting a single

sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply SSB-SC or SSB.

It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

This SSB-SC or SSB system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power

allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single

Sideband (SSB).

Hence, the modulation done using this SSB technique is called as SSB Modulation.

Advantages of Sideband Modulation

The advantages of SSB modulation are −

 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSB signals.

 Transmission of a greater number of signals is allowed.

 Power is saved.

 High power signal can be transmitted.

  Less amount of noise is present.

 Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages of Sideband Modulation

The disadvantages of SSB modulation are −

 The generation and detection of SSB signal is a complex process.

 Quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an

excellent frequency stability.

Applications of Sideband Modulation

The applications of SSB modulation are −

 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

 In point-to-point communications.

 In radio communications.

 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation

In case of SSB modulation, when a sideband is passed through the filters, the band pass filter

may not work perfectly in practice. As a result of which, some of the information may get lost.
Hence to avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSB-

SC and SSB, called as Vestigial Sideband (VSB) technique. The word vestige which means “a

part” from which the name is derived.

Vestigial Sideband

Both of the sidebands are not required for the transmission, as it is a waste. But a single band if

transmitted, leads to loss of information. Hence, this technique has evolved.

Vestigial Sideband Modulation or VSB Modulation is the process where a part of the signal

called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband. A VSB signal can be plotted as shown

in the following figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this

technique. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the

interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Advantages of VSB Modulation

Following are the advantages of VSB −

 Highly efficient.

 Reduction in bandwidth.

 Filter design is easy as high accuracy is not needed.

 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without difficulty.

 Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages of VSB Modulation

Following are the disadvantages of VSB −

 Bandwidth when compared to SSB is greater.

 Demodulation is complex.

Application of VSB Modulation

The most prominent and standard application of VSB is for the transmission of television

signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is

considered.
ANGLE MODULATION

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is the Angle Modulation. Angle

Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier varies according to

the message signal. This is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.

 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal

linearly with the message signal.

 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with

the message signal.

FREQUENCY MODULATION

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier varies. But in Frequency Modulation

(FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude

of the modulating signal.

The amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant whereas the frequency of the

carrier changes. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave remains constant as the carrier wave frequency when the

message signal is at zero. The frequency increases when the message signal reaches its

maximum amplitude.

Which means, with the increase in amplitude of the modulating or message signal, the carrier

frequency increases. Likewise, with the decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal, the

frequency also decreases.

Mathematical Representation

Let the carrier frequency be fc

The frequency at maximum amplitude of the message signal = fc + Δf

The frequency at minimum amplitude of the message signal = fc − Δf

The difference between FM modulated frequency and normal frequency is termed

as Frequency Deviation and is denoted by Δf.

The deviation of the frequency of the carrier signal from high to low or low to high can be

termed as the Carrier Swing.

Carrier Swing = 2 × frequency deviation

= 2 × Δf
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM.

Narrowband FM

The features of Narrowband FM are as follows −

 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth.

 The modulation index is small.

 Its spectrum consists of carrier, USB, and LSB.

 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs,

etc.

Wideband FM

The features of Wideband FM are as follows −

 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

 The modulation index is large, i.e., higher than 1.

 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located

around it.

 This is used in entertainment broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.

Phase Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. But in Phase Modulation (PM),

the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the

modulating signal.

The amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant whereas the phase of the

carrier changes. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points where the phase shift in a wave can

take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, changes the phase of the

carrier. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude

is negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Relation between PM and FM

The change in phase, changes the frequency of the modulated wave. The frequency of the wave

also changes the phase of the wave. Though they are related, their relationship is not linear.

Phase modulation is an indirect method of producing FM. The amount of frequency shift,

produced by a phase modulator increases with the modulating frequency. An audio equalizer is

employed to compensate this.

Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is

used mainly for FM broadcasting.

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared

medium.
  The process is called as analog multiplexing if these signals are analog in nature.

 If digital signals are multiplexed, it is called as digital multiplexing.

Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send

through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into

several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data

stream to be transferred. The device that does multiplexing, can be called as a MUX.

The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the

receiver is called as demultiplexing. The device which does demultiplexing is called

as DEMUX.

The following figures illustrates the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is in the

field of communications.

Types of Multiplexers

There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided

into FDM, WDM, and TDM. The following figure gives a detailed idea about this

classification.
There are many types of multiplexing techniques. Of them all, we have the main types with

general classification, mentioned in the above figure. Let us take a look at them individually.

Analog Multiplexing

The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in nature. The analog

signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for sending them on a

communication medium, as a single signal.

Example − A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through a

single cable uses FDM.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog technique, in which many data streams

of different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the

frequency of the signal decreases. A prism which can turn different wavelengths into a single

line, can be used at the output of MUX and input of DEMUX.

Example − Optical fiber Communications use the WDM technique, to merge different

wavelengths into a single light for the communication.

Digital Multiplexing

The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available data is in the

form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a signal over a

single communication channel, by allotting one slot for each message.

Of all the types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.

Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections,

then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line.
In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all signals and hence the same clock input is

given. The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and a common

clock is not required. If the allotted device, for a time slot transmits nothing and sits idle, then

that slot is allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.

This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

Demultiplexer

Demultiplexers are used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. This process is the

reverse of multiplexing. As mentioned previously, it is used mostly at the receivers. DEMUX

has many applications. It is used in receivers in the communication systems. It is used in

arithmetic and logical unit in computers to supply power and to pass on communication, etc.

Demultiplexers are used as serial to parallel converters. The serial data is given as input to

DEMUX at regular interval and a counter is attached to it to control the output of the

demultiplexer.

Both the multiplexers and demultiplexers play an important role in communication systems,

both at the transmitter and receiver sections.

PULSE MODULATION

So far, we have discussed about continuous-wave modulation. Now it’s time for discrete signals.

The Pulse modulation techniques, deals with discrete signals. Let us see how to convert a

continuous signal into a discrete one. The process called Sampling helps us with this.

Sampling

The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent discrete time signals, can be

termed as Sampling. A certain instant of data is continually sampled in the sampling process.

The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x(t) and a sampled signal xs(t).

When x(t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs(t) is obtained.

A sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses, having unit amplitude, sampled at equal

intervals of time Ts, which is called as the Sampling time. This data is transmitted at the time

instants Ts and the carrier signal is transmitted at the remaining time.

Sampling Rate

To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be termed

as the sampling period Ts.

Analog Pulse Modulation

After the continuous wave modulation, the next division is Pulse modulation. Pulse modulation

is further divided into analog and digital modulation. The analog modulation techniques are

mainly classified into Pulse Amplitude Modulation, Pulse Duration Modulation/Pulse Width

Modulation, and Pulse Position Modulation.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude

of the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

The pulse amplitude modulated signal, will follow the amplitude of the original signal, as the

signal traces out the path of the whole wave. In natural PAM, a signal sampled at the Nyquist

rate is reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Frequency (LPF) with exact

cutoff frequency

The following figures explain the Pulse Amplitude Modulation.

Though the PAM signal is passed through an LPF, it cannot recover the signal without

distortion. Hence to avoid this noise, flat-top sampling is done as shown in the following figure.

Flat-top sampling is the process in which sampled signal can be represented in pulses for

which the amplitude of the signal cannot be changed with respect to the analog signal, to be

sampled. The tops of amplitude remain flat. This process simplifies the circuit design.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time

Modulation (PTM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the duration or width or time of

the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

The width of the pulse varies in this method, but the amplitude of the signal remains constant.

Amplitude limiters are used to make the amplitude of the signal constant. These circuits clip off

the amplitude, to a desired level and hence the noise is limited.

The following figures explain the types of Pulse Width Modulations.

There are three variations of PWM. They are −

 The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according to the

message signal.

 The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according to the

message signal.

 The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge varies

according to the message signal.

These three types are shown in the above given figure, with timing slots.
PULSE POSITION MODULATION

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude and

width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to the

position of a reference pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value of the message

signal.

The transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses (or simply sync pulses) to keep the transmitter

and receiver in synchronism. These sync pulses help maintain the position of the pulses. The

following figures explain the Pulse Position Modulation.

Pulse position modulation is done in accordance with the pulse width modulated signal. Each

trailing of the pulse width modulated signal becomes the starting point for pulses in PPM signal.

Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.

Advantage

As the amplitude and width are constant, the power handled is also constant.

Disadvantage

The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is a must.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PAM, PWM, AND PPM

The comparison between the above modulation processes is presented in a single table.

PAM PWM PPM

Amplitude is varied Width is varied Position is varied

Bandwidth depends on the Bandwidth depends on the rise Bandwidth depends on the rise

width of the pulse time of the pulse time of the pulse

Instantaneous transmitter Instantaneous transmitter power Instantaneous transmitter power

power varies with the varies with the amplitude and remains constant with the width

amplitude of the pulses width of the pulses of the pulses

System complexity is high System complexity is low System complexity is low

Noise interference is high Noise interference is low Noise interference is low

It is similar to amplitude It is similar to frequency It is similar to phase

modulation modulation modulation

DIGITAL MODULATION

So far, we have gone through different modulation techniques. The one remaining is digital

modulation, which falls under the classification of pulse modulation. Digital modulation has

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) as the main classification. It further gets processed to delta

modulation and ADM.

PULSE CODE MODULATION

A signal is Pulse Code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence, i.e.,

1s and 0s. The output of a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) will resemble a binary sequence.

The following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a

given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process is

called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate

amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.

In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses.

This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and

amplitude.

Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,

Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section.

The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.

The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,

decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. The following figure is the block

diagram of PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver

sections.
Low Pass Filter (LPF)

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal which is

greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message

signal.

Sampler

This is the circuit which uses the technique that helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous

values of the message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be

greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance

with the sampling theorem.

Quantizer

Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The sampled

output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.

Encoder

The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level by a

binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three sections will

act as an analog to the digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.

Regenerative Repeater

The output of the channel has one regenerative repeater circuit to compensate the signal loss

and reconstruct the signal. It also increases the strength of the signal.

Decoder

The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal. This

circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter

After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a low

pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.

Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the analog signal given, codes it, and samples

it. It then transmits in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a reverse pattern to

obtain the original signal.

Modulation Techniques

There are few modulation techniques which are followed to construct a PCM signal. These

techniques like sampling, quantization, and companding help to create an effective PCM

signal, which can exactly reproduce the original signal.

Quantization

The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are

approximately equal to the analog values. The method of sampling chooses few points on the

analog signal and then these points are joined to round off the value to a near stabilized value.

Such a process is called as Quantization.

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of

quantization levels. Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite

set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time

signal.

The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line represents

analog signal while the red one represents the quantized signal.
Both sampling and quantization results in the loss of information. The quality of a Quantizer

output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the

quantized output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing

between two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or step-size.

Companding in PCM

The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which means that it

does both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses the data at the

transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver. The effects of noise and crosstalk are

reduced by using this technique.

There are two types of Companding techniques.

(i) A-law Companding Technique

  Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is linear and

there is no compression.

 A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.

 A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.

 A-law is used in many parts of the world.

(ii) µ-law Companding Technique

 Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve is linear and

there is no compression.

 µ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.

 µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.

 µ-law is used in North America and Japan.

Differential PCM

The samples that are highly correlated, when encoded by PCM technique, leave redundant

information behind. To process this redundant information and to have a better output, it is a

wise decision to take predicted sampled values, assumed from its previous outputs and

summarize them with the quantized values.

Such a process is named as Differential PCM technique.

Delta Modulation

The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve better sampling.

If this sampling interval in a Differential PCM (DPCM) is reduced considerably, the sample-to-

sample amplitude difference is very small, as if the difference is 1-bit quantization, then the

step-size is very small i.e., Δ (delta).

What is Delta Modulation?

The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and in which the stepsize after

quantization is of smaller value Δ, such a modulation is termed as delta modulation.

Features of Delta Modulation

 An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of a signal correlation.

 The quantization design is simple.

 The input sequence is much higher than Nyquist rate.

 The quality is moderate.

 The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.

 The stair-case approximation of output waveform.

 The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ (delta).

 The bit rate can be decided by the user.

 It requires simpler implementation.

Delta Modulation is a simplified form of DPCM technique, also viewed as 1-bit DPCM scheme.

As the sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.

Delta Modulator

The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with two summer

circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator.

A stair-case approximated waveform will be the output of the delta modulator with the step-size

as delta (Δ). The output quality of the waveform is moderate.

Delta Demodulator

The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay circuit. The

predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the demodulator.

Following is the block diagram for delta demodulator.

Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the prominent one is noise elimination for out-of-

band signals. The step-size error that may occur at the transmitter is called granular noise,

which is eliminated here. If there is no noise present, then the modulator output equals the

demodulator input.

Advantages of DM over DPCM

 1-bit quantizer

 Very easy design of modulator & demodulator

However, there exists some noise in DM and following are the types of noise.
  Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)

 Granular noise (when Δ is large)

Adaptive Delta Modulation

In digital modulation, we come across certain problems in determining the step-size, which

influences the quality of the output wave.

The larger step-size is needed in the steep slope of modulating signal and a smaller stepsize is

needed where the message has a small slope. As a result, the minute details get missed. Hence,

it would be better if we can control the adjustment of step-size, according to our requirement in

order to obtain the sampling in a desired fashion. This is the concept of Adaptive Delta

Modulation (ADM).